John D Vergados - Group and Representation Theory-World Scientific Publishing Company (2017)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Vergados, J. D.
Title: Group and representation theory / by J.D. Vergados (University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece).
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016040287 | ISBN 9789813202443 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Symmetry (Mathematics) | Group theory. |
Transformations (Mathematics) | Lie algebras.
Classification: LCC QA174.7.S96 V47 2017 | DDC 512/.2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016040287
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Printed in Singapore
To the Students of all Greek Universities who greatly
appreciated the Greek version of this book and thus
encouraged the present edition.
To the Graduate Students of Fall 2012 and Spring 2016 of

Nanjing University who greatly helped in preparing the initial
Lecture Notes.
Preface
This book was initiated in a set of lectures I have given at Nanjing Uni-
versity, since 2012. Most of the first chapter of the current volume is taken
from a set of lectures on The Standard Model and Beyond delivered to the
first-year graduate students of Department of Physics of Nanjing University
during the Fall of 2012 and later appeared as “Lecture Notes in Particle
Physics: The Standard Model and Beyond, Nanjing University Press, Nan-
jing, China, 2013”.
The other chapters of this volume resulted from a set of lectures on
Elementary Group Theory and Applications which have been delivered in
the Spring Semester of 2016 to advanced undergraduate and graduate stu-
dents of Nanjing University. I am indebted to the students who attended
the class for comments, suggestions and criticism. I am particularly in-
debted to Ruo Fei Xie, who acted voluntarily as my Teaching Assistant
(TA), read the notes carefully, made useful suggestions and transformed
most of the tables of the appendix in LaTeX form. In addition, I am happy
to acknowledge his excellent drawing of the Dynkin and the weight chain
diagrams.
I acknowledge support for my visit to Nanjing University by the Physics
Department and Professor Yeukkwan Edna Cheung. I am thankful to her
and Dr Konstantin G. Savvidy for their hospitality.
A major part of this volume, mainly chapters 4–8, was initiated during
a visit of the author at the University of South Carolina during the spring of
2015 and was almost completed while on a visit to ARC Centre of Excellence
in Particle Physics (CoEPP), University of Adelaide, Australia during the
Fall–Winter of the same year.
vii
viii Group and Representation Theory
The final touch was put at the Center for Axion and Precision Physics
(CAPP), IBS, KAIST, S. Korea, during a visit in the Fall of 2016.
The author is indebted to distinguished S.C. Professor Frank
Avignone and the Director of the Adelaide node of CoEPP, Professor
Anthony Thomas and the director of CAPP, Professor Y. Semertzidis, for
their support and hospitality.
A guide for teachers and students
There exist many similar titles in the market. This book differs from other
existing books in the sense that it tries to bridge more efficiently the gap be-
tween the mathematical structure, Lie groups and Lie algebra, with actual
applications. It has tried not to fall short of adequately describing realistic
applications or to introduce more or less ad hoc the basic conclusions of
the relevant mathematics into the applications.
Furthermore, this book is organized so that it can be used by an ad-
vanced undergraduate or beginner graduate student without going through
the full mathematical machinery. This can be achieved by going through
the rather elementary chapters 1, 2 and 10. Only familiarity with quan-
tum mechanics and an introduction to mathematical methods of physics
is a prerequisite. By studying only this part the reader will be rewarded
by obtaining the solution of the Kepler’s problem without solving a dif-
ferential equation via the Rünge-Lenz vector as well as by doing the same
thing for all differential equations encountered in quantum mechanics. An
instructor may also select to study these chapters in the first term and con-
tinue with the more elaborate mathematical structure in the second term.
Alternatively, he may skip chapters 1, 2 and 10 altogether and start with
chapter 3.
There exist many useful tables in the appendix, which can be used by
an experienced reader. They were constructed, however, mainly for the
reader who has understood the main text.
J.D. Vergados
KAIST, Daejeon, S. Korea, October 2016
Contents
Preface vii
1. Elements of Group Theory 1

1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Matrix groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 The exponential of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Determination of the independent parameters . . 9
1.3 The structure constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 The metric tensor and Casimir operators . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 The metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 The Casimir operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1 The fundamental representation . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.2 The adjoined representation . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6 More representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7 Irreducible representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.8 Some further examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.9 The proper orthogonal groups O(3) and O(4) . . . . . . . 33
1.10 Realization of SO(4) = SO(3) × SO(3) and some applications 36
1.10.1 Application to classical mechanics . . . . . . . . . 37
1.10.2 Application to quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . 39
1.11 The proper Lorentz transformations — The group SO(3, 1) 41
1.12 Symmetries and conservation laws — Noether’s theorem . 42
1.12.1 Global transformations in classical physics . . . . 42
1.12.2 Global transformations in quantum mechanics (in
the Heisenberg picture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
ix
x Group and Representation Theory
1.12.3 Field theories — Scalar fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

1.12.4 Field theory — Fermion fields . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.13 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2. Study of the SU(2) and SO(3) Representations and Applications 63

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2 Applications of the SU(2) and SO(3) commutator algebra 63
2.2.1 Construction of the angular momentum states via
the step up and step down operators . . . . . . . . 65
2.3 The connection between the representations of SU(2) and
SO(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3.1 The weight diagrams for SO(3) . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4 Explicit construction of the irreducible representations . . 69
2.4.1 The irreducible representations of SU(2) . . . . . . 70
2.4.2 The irreducible representations of SO(3) . . . . . 73
2.4.3 The rotation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
j
2.5 Another form of the rotation matrix: Rm,m 0 (ω, Θ, Φ) . . . 77
2.6 Reduction of D(j1 ) ⊗ D(j2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6.1 The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.6.2 Methods of evaluating the Clebsch-Gordan
coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.6.3 The Wigner 3 − j symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3. Elements of Lie Groups 85

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2 Some topological considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3 Infinitesimal generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4. Lie Algebras 93
4.1 Introduction to Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2 Homomorphism-isomorphism of Lie algebras . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 Classification of Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4 Roots and root diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.5 The Cartan-Weyl theory — The root diagrams . . . . . . 98
4.6 Graphical representation of roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.7 Examples with ` ≤ 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.8 Construction of the algebras from the root system . . . . 106
Contents xi
5. The Classical Algebras L` , A` , B` , C` 109

5.1 The algebra Lie associated with GL(n, c) . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2 The algebra A` ↔ SU(` + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 The algebras B` and D` associated with SO(2` + 1) and
SO(2`) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.3.1 The algebra D` ⇔ SO(2`) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3.2 The algebra B` ⇔ SO(2` + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.4 The algebra C` associated with Sp(2`) . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6. The Dynkin Diagrams — Another Classification of

Classical Lie Algebras 125
6.1 Definition and properties of root vectors . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2 The Dynkin root diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3 The Cartan matrix for the classical Lie algebras . . . . . . 131
6.3.1 The Cartan matrix of A` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.3.2 The Cartan matrix of B` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.3.3 The Cartan matrix of C` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.3.4 The Cartan matrix of D` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3.5 The Cartan matrix of the special algebras . . . . . 135
6.4 The roots in the Dynkin representation . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7. Weights of Irreducible Representations — Maximal Subalgebras 139

7.1 Weight vector, maximum weight, some basic theorems . . 139
7.2 Weights and equivalent weights of the algebras L` , A` , B` ,
C` and D` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.3 The Dynkin representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.3.1 The weights in the Dynkin representation . . . . . 150
7.3.2 The metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.3.3 Equivalent weights in the Dynkin representation . 153
7.4 The Weyl reflection group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.5 Dimensions of the irreducible representations of the
classical algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.6 Dimensions of the irreducible representations in the Dynkin
representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.7 Construction of the states of an irreducible representation 167
7.8 Weight levels — Multiple weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.9 Conjugate representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
xii Group and Representation Theory
7.10 Maximal subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

7.11 Projection of weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.12 Classification of the maximal subagebras . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.13 Projection operators for a chain of subalgebras . . . . . . 181
8. Construction of Irreducible Representations — Young Tableaux 183

8.1 The fundamental representation revisited . . . . . . . . . 183
8.1.1 The algebra U(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.1.2 The algebra A` or SU(` + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.1.3 The algebra B` or SO(2` + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.1.4 The algebra C` or Sp(2`) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.1.5 The algebra D` or SO(2`) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.2 Kronecker products and the emergence of tensors . . . . . 186
8.3 Construction of tensors of a given symmetry . . . . . . . . 187
8.4 Kroneker products [f ] ⊗ [f 0 ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.5 The algebra Ln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.6 Young tableaux for A` . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.6.1 Some examples of reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.6.2 Equivalent representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.7 Contraction of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.7.1 The case of orthogonal transformations O(n) . . . 201
8.7.2 The case of symplectic transformations Sp(2n) . . 203
8.8 The integral representations of O(n) and Sp(2n) . . . . . 203
8.8.1 The integral representations of On . . . . . . . . . 204
8.8.2 The case of the transformations Sp(2`) . . . . . . 206
8.9 Reduction of irreducible representations of U(n) under
SO(n) and Sp(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.9.1 The reduction U(n) ⊃ SO(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.9.2 The reduction U(2n) ⊃ Sp(2n) . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.10 Connection of Young tableaux and the Dynkin weights . . 211
8.11 The reduction U(n) ⊃ SO(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.12 Kronecker products for integral representations . . . . . . 217
8.13 Application of tensor products in obtaining maximal
subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.14 The elementary weights — The spinorial representations of
SO(n) and the special algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.14.1 The spinorial representations of SO(n) . . . . . . 221
8.14.2 The special algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Contents xiii
8.15 Dimensions of the non-integral representations and of

special algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.15.1 Expressing weights in terms of the elementary
weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.15.2 Expressing the Weyl formula in terms of the
elementary weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.16 The quadratic Casimir operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.17 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9. Construction of Irreducible Representations, Kronecker

Products, Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients 235
9.1 Specification of the irreducible representations . . . . . . . 235
9.2 Weights in the Kronecker product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.3 The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients in the Dynkin
representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.3.1 Examples of C-G coefficients in A2 . . . . . . . . . 240
9.3.2 Example of C-G coefficients in the case of the
algebra D5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.4 Weights versus quantum numbers associated with a
complete chain of subgroups — The A2 ⊃ A1 example . . 245
10. Some Non-Compact Algebras and Applications 251

10.1 The algebra of the SO(2, 1) symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.2 Solving differential equations using the SO(2, 1) algebra . 254
10.3 Application to the solution of linear second order
differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.3.1 The quantum harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . 256
10.3.2 The hydrogenic wave functions in three dimensions 257
10.3.3 The hydrogenic wave functions in two dimensions 258
10.3.4 The Klein-Gordon equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.3.5 The Dirac equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
10.3.6 Wave functions with the Morse potential . . . . . 259
10.4 The group SL(2, c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.5 Representations of SL(2, c) and SO(3, 1) (Lorentz group) . 260
11. Some Symmetries Involved in Particle Physics 265

11.1 The essential ingredients of the Standard Model —
Symmetry and particle content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
xiv Group and Representation Theory
11.2 SU(5) — An example of grand unification (GUT) . . . . . 267

11.2.1 The structure of the GUT SU(5) . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.2.2 The particle content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.2.3 The fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.2.4 The gauge bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.2.5 The Higgs content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Appendix A Summary of Useful Expressions 275
Appendix B Some Useful Tables 287
Bibliography 327
Index 329
Chapter 1
Elements of Group Theory
1.1 Definitions
A group is a set of elements

G : X ≡ {X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn }
with properties:
(1) X1 ∈ G, X2 ∈ G ⇒ X1 X2 = X3 , X3 ∈ G.
(2) X1 (X2 X3 ) = (X1 X2 )X3 .
(3) ∃ I ∈ G such that Xi I = IXi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
(4) For every Xi ∈ G, there is one element Yi ∈ G, such that
Xi Yi = I.
Then the element Yi is called the inverse of Xi , and we write
Yi = Xi−1 .
Note that the multiplication is in general not commutative, i.e. often
Xi Xj 6= Xj Xi .
Let G be a subset of G, G ⊂ G. G0 is a subgroup of G if:
0 0
• Xi ∈ G0 , Yj ∈ G0 → Xi Yj ∈ G0 ,
• the elements of G0 satisfy all the above group properties.
Furthermore, if for any two elements of G0 we have:
Xi Yi = Yi Xi
then G0 is called Abelian.
A group is simple, if it does not contain any invariant subgroups, i.e.
non-trivial subgroup. A group is semisimple, if it does not contain any
continuous invariant Abelian subgroups.
1
2 Group and Representation Theory
Table 1.1: The multiplication table of the discrete group G = {1, −1, i, −i}
i −i 1 −1
−i 1 −1 −i i
i −1 1 i −i
1 i −i 1 −1
−1 −i i −1 1
Example 1: The set {i, −i, 1, −1} forms a group with a multiplication table
given in Table 1.1. This is an Abelian group.
The set {−1, 1} forms a subgroup of the above group. The subset {i, −i}
does not form a subgroup.
1.2 Matrix groups
The matrices are well-known entities. We will briefly summarize here some
aspects relevant to groups.
α11 α12 · · · α1n

 
 α21 α22 · · · α2n 
(α) ⇔ (αij ) = 
................,
 (1.1)
αn1 αn2 · · · αnn
X
(α)(β) = γ ↔ (αβ)ij = γij , (αβ)ij = αik βkj .
k
If the determinant ∆ of (α) is not zero ∃ (α−1 ): (αα−1 ) = I, with (α−1 )

given1 by:
∆11 ∆12 · · · ∆1n

1 ∆21 ∆22 · · · ∆2n
α−1 =
∆ .................
∆n1 ∆n2 · · · ∆nn
(1.2)
with
∆ij = (−1)i+l Cji

1 Often when there seems to be no ambiguity we will omit the parentheses in the notation
for the matrix.

Elements of Group Theory 3
where Cij is the co-factor determinant of the matrix obtained after stripping
the row i and the column j. Furthermore,
(α)I = α
where I is the identity matrix, i.e. the matrix with 1 along the diagonal
and zeros everywhere else. Furthermore, since det(γ) = det(α)det(β),
if det(α) 6= 0 and det(β) 6= 0 ⇒ det(γ) 6= 0.
Thus the set of n × n non-singular matrices form a group.
For any given matrix (α) one defines the following matrices obtained
from it:
(α) → (αT ), (αT )ij = (α)ji transpose of (α)
∗
(α) → (α+ ), (α+ )ij = ((α)ji ) Hermitian conjugate of (α).
In other words the Hermitian conjugate is the complex conjugate of the
transpose matrix.
A matrix is symmetric if (αT ) = (α) and Hermitian if (α+ ) = (α).
Possible subgroups:
(1) The set of unitary matrices. A matrix is said to be unitary if:
(U + ) = U −1 ⇔ (U )(U + ) = (U + )(U ) = I ⇒
X X
(U + )(U ) = I ⇒ (U + )ik (U )kj = δij ⇒ (U ∗ )ki (U )kj = δij
k k
X X
+
(U )(U ) = I ⇒ (U )ik (U + )kj = δij ⇒ (U )ki (U ∗ )jk = δij .
k k
This shows the orthogonality of the rows and the orthogonality of
the columns (see below). In particular:
X X
∗
Uik Uik = 1, |Uik |2 = 1.
k k
The number of possible parameters 2n2 . The number of con-
straints:
X
i) |Uik |2 = 1, i = 1, 2, · · · , n → n constraints,
k
X
∗ 1
ii) Uik Ujk = 0 i 6= j → 2 · n(n − 1) constraints.
2
k
Thus the number of independent parameters is:
1
2n2 − n − 2 · (n − 1)n = 2n2 − n − n2 + n = n2 .
2
Recall now some facts about the scalar product in complex spaces:
• For any two vectors |α = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) and |β =

(β1 , β2 , · · · , βn ) the scalar product is defined as:
n
X
≺ β|α = βi∗ αi ,
i
i.e. ≺ β| is a row vector, the Hermitian conjugate of |β

which is a column vector, if viewed as matrices. The thus
defined scalar product has the property:
≺ β|α =≺ α|β ∗ .
• From a given vector |α we can obtain another vector after
acting on it with a unitary transformation (matrix):
|α → |U α ⇔ |U α i = Uij αj .
Assuming that operators act on the right we write U |α =
|U α , i.e.
≺ β|U α =≺ β|U |α .
• ≺ βU |α =≺ β|U + |α . Indeed:
∗
≺ βU |α (≺ α|U β )
X
= (αk∗ Uki βi )∗
i,k
X X
∗ ∗
= αk Uki βi = βi∗ (U + )ik αk =≺ β|U + |α .
i,k i,k
Consequently:
hU α|U |βi = hα|U + U |βi = hα|βi. (1.3)
That is the unitary matrices have the nice property of preserv-
ing the scalar product of two vectors defined in a complex space.
Furthermore, if U1 unitary and U2 unitary
(U1 U2 )+ = U2+ U1+ ,
(U1 U2 )−1 = U2−1 U1−1 = U2+ U1+ ⇒ (U1 U2 )+ = (U1 U2 )−1

⇒ the product U1 U2 is unitary.
det(U1 U2 ) = det(U1 )det(U2 ) 6= 0
⇒ the product U1 U2 is non-singular.
Thus the unitary matrices form a group.
(2) The special unitary group SU(n) is a subset of U(n) such that
det(U ) = 1.
Thus now the number of independent parameters is: n2 − 1.
(3) The set of orthogonal matrices.

For a given matrix (α), its transpose (α)T is obtained by inter-
changing rows and columns: (α)Tij = (α)ji . A matrix is said to be
orthogonal if:
X X
OT O = I that is ⇔ Oik Ojk = δij ⇔ Oki Okj = δji . (1.4)
k k
The number of independent parameters of such a matrix in real
space is:
n 1
d = n2 − n − (n − 1) = n(n − 1). (1.5)
2 2
Note that, since det(OT ) = det(O), it follows:
det(OT ) det(O) = 1 → (det(O))2 = 1. (1.6)
(
1 proper
det(O) = (1.7)
−1 improper.
The elements with det(O) = 1 form a subgroup, the special
orthogonal group indicated by SO(n), while the elements with
det(O) = −1 do not. The two sets cannot be connected by a
continuous transformation.
Note for a scalar product defined in real space:
hOX|OY i = hX|OT O|Y i = hX|Y i, (1.8)
that is the orthogonal matrices in real space preserve the scalar product.
This is not true in complex space. The number of independent parameters
in complex space is
d(O(n)) = n(n − 1). (1.9)
1.2.1 The exponential of a matrix

One can generalize the usual exponential function over the domain of ma-
trices:
∞
(α)
X (α)k
e ≡ , α0 = I. (1.10)
k!
k=0
Theorem 1: The series converge if |αij | < ∞ (bounded).

Theorem 2: If [α, β] = (α)(β) − (β)(α) = 0, i.e. they commute ⇒
e(α) e(β) = e(α+β) . (1.11)
This relation need not hold if [(α), (β)] 6= 0.

Theorem 3: For a regular matrix β
−1
β −1 eα β = e(β) α(β)
. (1.12)
Theorem 4: For any n × n matrix

n−1
X
(α)
e = γk (α)k , αn = c0 + c1 α + · · · + cn−1 αn−1 . (1.13)
k=0
In other words the infinite series collapses to a finite sum.

Theorem 5: Let λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn be the eigenvalues of the matrix (α), then
eλ1 , eλ2 , · · · , eλn are the eigenvalues of e(α) .
Theorem 6: The following hold:
∗
eα = (eα )∗ , (1.14)
(α+ ) (α) +
e = (e ) , (1.15)
(α) −1 −(α)
(e ) =e , (1.16)
α tr(α)
det(e ) = e , (1.17)
X
tr(α) = αii .
i
Theorem 7: The following also hold:
(1)
(α)+ = (α) (Hermitian) ⇒ eiα is Unitary.
Furthermore:
(α)+ = (α), (β)+ = (β) ⇒ (αβ)+ = (β)+ (α)+ = βα ⇒ αβ is Hermitian.
(2)
(α)+ = −α (anti-Hermitian matrix) ⇒ eα is unitary.
(3)
αT = −α (anti-symmetric in real apace) ⇒ eα is orthogonal.

Theorem 8: The Campbell-Hausdorff formula holds:

1 1
e−α βeα = β + [β, α] + [[β, α], α]] + [[[β, α], α], α] + · · · , (1.18)
2! 3!
e−α βeα = β if [β, α] = 0 . (1.19)
Example 2: Consider the special case of 2 × 2 Hermitian matrix:

a b − ic
(α) = (1.20)
b + ic d
a, b, c, d real. In the space of these matrices one can choose the basis:

10 01 0 −i 1 0
I=e= , σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = .
01 10 i 0 0 −1
(1.21)
The last three are the Pauli matrices. One can easily verify that:
[σ1 , σ2 ] = 2iσ3 , [σ2 , σ3 ] = 2iσ1 , [σ3 , σ1 ] = 2iσ2 ⇔ [σj , σk ] = 2jk` σ` .
(1.22)
Since they constitute a basis we have:
(α) = ζ0 (e) + ζ1 σ1 + ζ2 σ2 + ζ3 σ3

ζ0 0 0 ζ1 0 −iζ2 ζ3 0
= + + +
0 ζ0 ζ1 0 iζ2 0 0 −ζ3

ζ0 + ζ3 ζ1 − iζ2
= . (1.23)
ζ1 + iζ2 ζ0 − ζ3
Thus
a+d a−d
a=ζ0 + ζ3 , b=ζ1 , c=ζ2 , d=ζ0 − ζ3 ⇒ ζ0 = , ζ3 = , ζ1 = b, ζ2 = c.
2 2
If (α) is traceless, ζ0 = 0 and
a = ζ3 , d = −ζ3 , b = ζ1 , c = ζ2 , (d = −a). (1.24)
Thus we encounter only three parameters a, b, c or ζ1 , ζ2 , ζ3 .
Note that
σ12 = σ22 = σ32 = I. (1.25)
Thus we have three subgroups:
{σ1 , I}, {σ2 , I}, {σ3 , I}.
The corresponding elements of SU(2) are
Ui = eiθl σl /2 (1.26)
(no summation over i).
One sometimes writes: Tl = 12 σi with algebra:
[Tk , Tl ] = iklm Tm . (1.27)
Summation over repeated indices is understood.

Example 3: Consider the special case of n = 3 Hermitian matrix α, associ-
ated with U(3). Then
α = Hermitian ⇒ U = eiα = unitary.
If the matrix α is traceless, it depends on n2 − 1 = 8 parameters and is

associated with the unimodular SU(3).
α = traceless → det U = eitr(α) = e0 = 1.
Proceeding as above we select basis set of traceless 3×3 Hermitian matrices:

       
010 0 −i 0 1 0 0 001
λ1 =  1 0 0  , λ2 =  i 0 0  , λ3 =  0 −1 0  , λ4 =  0 0 0  ,
000 0 0 0 0 0 0 100
       
0 0 −i 000 00 0 10 0
1
λ5 =  0 0 0  , λ6 =  0 0 1  , λ7 =  0 0 −i  , λ8 = √  0 1 0  .
3
i0 0 010 0i 0 0 0 −2
(1.28)
With this selection:
tr(λi λj ) = 2δij ,
[λα , λβ ] = 2ifαβγ λγ .
Summation over repeated indices is understood. Sometimes we will use

Tk = 12 λk . Then
1
Tk = λk ⇒ [Tα , Tβ ] = ifαβγ Tγ .
2
It is adequate to consider α ≤ β. Then the nonzero values of the parameters
fαβγ are given in Table 1.2: Note that in the special case of α = 4, β = 5
two terms appear in the commutator with the indicated structure constants.
Similarly for α = 7, β = 8.
λk
To each generator λk , there corresponds a group element, Uk = eiθk 2 .
Table 1.2: The SU(3) structure functions
µ ν ρ fµνρ µ ν ρ fµνρ
1 2 3 1 1
3 7 6 2
1 3 2 −1 1
4 5 3 2
1 √
1 4 7 2 8 3
2
1 5 6 − 21 4 6 2 1
2
1
1 6 5 2 4 7 1 1
2 √
1 7 4 − 21 3
4 8 5 − 2
2 3 1 1 ; 1
5 6 1 −2
1
2 4 6 2 1
5 7 2 2
1 √
2 5 7 2 3
5 8 4
2 6 4 − 21 2
1 6 7 3 − 12
2 7 5 2
√
3
1 8
3 4 5 2
2√
3 5 4 − 21 6 8 7 − 23
√
3
3 6 7 − 21 7 8 6 2
1.2.2 Determination of the independent parameters
We have seen that a unitary n×n matrix is characterized by n2 parameters.

These can be given in terms of 21 n(n − 1) angles, like in the orthogonal
matrices, and 12 n(n + 1) phases eδi . In the special case that we deal with
fermions it is possible for the left (ket) and the right (bra) spaces to be
different. In this case we can make appropriate separate rotations in each
of the spaces so that (2n − 1) phases can be eliminated. Then we are left
with:
1
n(n − 1) angles,
2
1 n2 + n − 4n + 2 (n2 − 3n + 2)
n(n + 1) − (2n − 1) = = phases eiδj .
2 2 2
Thus
n = 2 ⇔ one angle
n = 3 ⇔ (1/2) · 3 · 2 = 3 angles and (n2 − 3n + 2)/2 = 1 phase eiδ

in the case of SU(n) we have n2 − 1 parameters. Thus

1
n(n − 1) angles.
 21

 iδj
2 (n + 2)(n − 1) phases e .

 We may remove (2n − 1) − 1 = 2(n − 1) phases.
1
Thus we are left with 2 (n − 1)(n − 2) phases eiδj .

Let us illustrate this in the case of n = 2 and n = 3.
(1) The SU(2) case.

ab
α= , det(α) = 1, ad − bc = 1 .
cd
a∗ c∗ |a|2 + |c|2 a∗ b + c∗ d

ab 10
I = = =
b∗ d∗ cd b∗ a + d∗ c |b|2 + |d|2 01
⇒ |a|2 + |c|2 = 1, |b|2 + |d|2 = 1, a∗ b + c ∗ d = 0
⇒ d = a∗ , c = −b∗ , |a|2 + |b|2 = 1 .
Thus

a b
(α) = |a|2 +|b|2 = 1, a = cos θeiα , b = sin θeiβ , α, β real,
−b∗ a
cos θeiα sin θeiβ

(α) = .
− sin θe−iβ cos θe−iα
Not all phases are physical, however, if the left vector (bra) and
the right vector (ket) happen to be different. To see this, consider
the expression:

xR
L = (xL , yL ) (1.29)
− sin θe−iβ cos θe−iα yR
and suppose:
xR → xR , yR → ei(α−β) yR , xL → xL , yL → ei(α+β) yR ,

1 0 1 0 xR
L=(xL , yL )
0 ei(α+β) − sin θe−iβ cos θe−iα 0 ei(α−β) yR
cos θeiα sin θeiα

xR
=(xL , yL )
− sin θeiα cos θeiα yR

cos θ sin θ xR
=(xL , yL ) . (1.30)
− sin θ cos θ yR
The last step follows by a simple phase change of one of the vectors.
Thus we removed all phases.
(2) The SU(3) case. We have:

1 1
n(n − 1) = 3 · 2 = 3 angles and
2 2
1 1 1
n2 − 1 − n(n − 1) = n(n + 1) − 1 = · 2 · 5 = 5 phases eiδj .
2 2 2
We can remove 2(n − 1) = 2 · 2 = 4 phases and, thus, we are left
with 1 phase eiδ .
To see this we proceed as above and consider:
 
y1
 y2 
L = (x1 , · · · , xn )(U )  .  . (1.31)
 
 .. 
yn
We then perform n − 1 left rotations RL (1)RL (2) · · · RL (n − 1) and
n − 1 right rotations RR (1)RR (2) · · · RR (n − 1) and find
 
y1
 y2 
L → (x1 , · · · , xn )LU R  .  (1.32)
 
 .. 
yn
with
LU R = RL (1)RL (2) · · · RL (n − 1)(U )RR (1)RR (2) · · · RR (n − 1).
These rotations can be judiciously chosen to eliminate the redun-
dant phase. After that for n = 3 we find the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-
Maskawa (CKM) matrix:
 
c1 −c3 s1 −s1 s3
UCKM =  c2 s1 c1 c2 c3 − s2 s3 eiδ c1 c2 s3 + c3 s2 eiδ  (1.33)
s1 s2 c1 c3 s2 + c2 s3 eiδ c1 s2 s3 − eiδ c2 c3
with ci = cos θi , si = sin θi .
This form is traditionally employed in the hadronic sector. The
best fit to experiment is given in Table 1.3.
Another possibility, usually employed in the leptonic sector, is
the Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata matrix:
0 s13 ei δ13
   
1 0 0 c13 c12 s12 0
UP M N S =  0 c23 s23   0 1 0   −s12 c12 0 
iδ13
0 −s23 c23 −s13 e 0 c13 0 0 1
s13 e−iδ13
 
c12 c13 s12 c13
=  −c23 s12 − s23 s13 c12 eiδ13 c12 c23 − s12 s23 s13 eiδ13 s23 c13 
−c12 c23 s13 eiδ13 + s23 s12 −c12 s23 − s12 s13 c23 eiδ13 c23 c13
(1.34)
with cij = cos(θij ), sij = sin(θij ). (1.35)
Table 1.3: The best fit to the KCM matrix

u c t
d 0.97419 ± 0.00022 0.2257 ± 0.0010 0.00359 ± 0.00016
s 0.2256 ± 0.0010 0.97334 ± 0.00023 0.0415+0.0010
−0.0011
+.00026 +0.000044
b 0.00874−0.00037 0.0407 ± 0.0010 0.999133−0.000043
1.3 The structure constants
We begin by considering a set of operators Tk . Then we generalize the

concept of the exponential encountered in the case of matrices. Thus
A = eik Tk ' 1 + ik Tk ,
A−1 = e−ik Tk ' 1 − ik Tk ,
X` = A−1 T` A ' (1 − ik Tk )T` (1 + ik Tk )

' T` + ik (T` Tk − Tk T` ) + O(2 ),
X` − T` ' ik (T` Tk − Tk T` )

that is
T` Tk − Tk T` = linear combination of the operators Tm .
Thus by defining:
[Tk , T` ] ≡ Tk T` − T` Tk , (1.36)
we get
m
[Tk , T` ] = Ck` Tm (1.37)
m
with summation over m understood. The quantities are called structure
Ckl
constants and completely determine the local structure of the group. They
have the following properties:
m m
(1) Ck` = −C`k .
(2) They satisfy the Jacobi identity. Indeed from the operator identity:
[[Tk , T` ], Tm ] + [[T` , Tm ], Tk ] + [[Tm , Tk ], T` ] = 0 , (1.38)
it follows that
X ρ ρ
n ρ n n
(Ck` Cnm + C`n Cnk + Cmk Cn` ) = 0. (1.39)
n
(3) The above operation defines the product of two elements of the set:
A × B ≡ [AB − BA] ≡ [A, B].
In this sense the above operators constitute an algebra.
Problem: A set of n × n matrices Eij are given such that its elements are
given by (Eij )α,β = δiα δjβ .
• Show that this set constitutes a basis in the space of n×n matrices.
• Show that it constitutes a Lie algebra and obtain its structure
constants:
[Eij , Ek` ] = δjk Ei` − δi` Ekj .
• Is the algebra semisimple? If not find an Abelian subalgebra.
• What is the number of the elements of the algebra? The maximum
number of the Abelian elements?
• If it is not semisimple, write it as a sum of two such algebras.
1.4 The metric tensor and Casimir operators
Once the structure constants we can obtain two useful concepts for the
group, namely the metric tensor and the Casimir operator. The latter is
an operator, which commutes with all the members of the algebra charac-
terizing the group.
1.4.1 The metric tensor

The metric tensor is defined as follows:
α β
gλµ = Cλβ Cµα . (1.40)
From this, if it is non-singular, we can obtain the tensor g λµ , which is the
inverse of the previous g. Both are symmetric.
Example: Find the metric tensor associated with the algebra
[Tµ , Tν ] = iµνρ .
Then
1 µν
gµν = i2 µρβ νβρ = µβρ νβρ = 2δµν , g µν = δ , (1.41)
2
i.e. gµν is diagonal, in fact twice the identity matrix.
With the use of the metric tensor, among other things, we can see
whether an algebra is semisimple, whether or not it has an Abelian subal-
gebra. If it is not semisimple2 one can find at least one element Xρ , which
commutes with all the other elements of the algebra, i.e.
σ
[Xλ , Xρ ] = 0, all λ → Cλ,ρ = 0 for all ρ, σ.
This means that an entire row (column) of the matrix has elements, which
are zeros, i.e. the metric tensor is singular.
1.4.2 The Casimir operator

A Casimir operator K (n) is one that commutes with all the elements of the
algebra, i.e.
[K (n) , Xρ ] = 0, for all ρ.
It is a polynomial in the generators of degree n defined as:
K (n) =Cαβ12 β1 Cαβ23 β2 Cαβ34 β3 · · · Cαβn1 βn+1 X α1 X α2 · · · X αn , where X α = g αβ Xβ .
(1.42)
Not all such operators are independent. For SU(2) and SO(3) we only have
one quadratic Casimir operator.
K (2) = Cλρ
σ ρ
Cµσ X λ X µ = gλ,µ X λ X µ . (1.43)
Example: The quadratic operator for SO(3). In this case we find:
1X 2
K (2) = (Xρ ) .
2 ρ
The operators Xρ are related to the angular momentum operators of quan-

tum mechanics
1 1 1
Xρ = Lρ → K (2) = 2 L2x + L2y + L2z = 2 L2 .

~ 2~ 2~
For reasons of convenience one uses in this case the quadratic operator L2
instead of K (2) .
2 The algebra associated with the group G = SU(3) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ U(1), encountered in
s
the standard model and its extensions, is not semisimple, since it contains the Abelian
group U(1).
In the usual quantum mechanical case, if the Hamiltonian is only ro-

tationally invariant, one has only one Casimir operator and a member of
the Lie algebra, namely L2 , Lz , are two commuting elements. Then one
diagonalizes these operators:
H|`, m = g` |`, m , L2 |`, m = `(`+1)~2 |`, m , Lz |`, m = m~|`, m .
If the symmetry of H is higher than SO(3), then one considers in addition
the Hamiltonian operator H. The eigenvalues of these operators specify
the state |n, `, m such that:
H|n, `, m = gn,` |n, `, m , L2 |n, `, m = `(` + 1)~2 |n, `, m ,
Lz |n, `, m = m~|n, `, m ,
where gn,` depends on the system. In the hydrogenic atom the higher
symmetry is SO(4) (see section 1.10 below) and in the case of harmonic
oscillator it is SU(3). In both cases the degeneracy is independent of `, i.e.
gn ∝ 1/n2 and gn ∝ (n + 3/2) respectively.
The significance of the Casimir operators is that they commute among
themselves and all the elements of the algebra. Suppose that the commuting
elements of the algebra are h1 , h2 , · · · , h` and the independent Casimir op-
erators are K (2) , K (3) , · · · , K (n) . Suppose, further, that the Hamiltonian
H describing a system is invariant under the symmetry, i.e. it commutes
with all the elements of the algebra, then the system of operators:
H, K (2) , K (3) , · · · , K (n) , h1 , h2 , · · · , h`
can be simultaneously diagonalized. Thus one obtains the needed quantum
numbers and the associated eigenfunctions describing the system.
Strategy: Find (hopefully) the maximum symmetry characterizing a given
system. This must contain some sub-symmetries. All these symmetries
furnish a set of commuting operators. If this set of operators is complete,
it supplies sufficient quantum numbers to fully describe the system.
In the standard model one uses the invariance of the Lagrangian and
the symmetries of interest are internal, i.e. in addition to the usual ones
involving ordinary space. In this case the internal symmetry is SU(3) ⊗
SU(2) ⊗ U(1).
1.5 Representations
Consider a group G and any element X ∈ G. Consider a mapping of this

element to a matrix T (X) such that:
XY = Z ⇒ T (X)T (Y ) = T (Z), X, Y, Z ∈ G.
Then we call T (X) a representation of the group3 .

From the properties of the matrices we easily see that given a representation
T (X), one can obtain additional representations as follows:
• The complex conjugate representation T ∗ (X).

∗
Indeed T ∗ (XY ) = (T (X)T (Y )) = T ∗ (X)T ∗ (Y ). This represen-
tation in general is different from the previous one, if they contain
complex numbers. Even if they contain complex numbers, how-
ever, they may be equivalent in the sense that there exists a non-
singular matrix S such that T ∗ (X) = S −1 T (X)S. Then a basis
can be found such that the representation becomes real.
• The contragredient representation T c .
This is defined by: T c (X) = (T + (X))−1 , i.e. it is the inverse of
the Hermitian conjugate of T (X). Then:
−1 −1
+ +
T c (XY ) = (T (XY )) = (T (X)(Y ))
−1 −1 −1

= T + (Y )(T + (X)) = T + (X) T + (Y ) = T c (X)T c (Y ).
For unitary representations, which are the most common we en-

counter in physics4 , we have T c (X) = T (X).
• The representation T̄ (X), defined by
−1
T
T̄ (X) = (T (X)) , (T (X))T is the transpose of T (X).
The proof proceeds as in the previous case. Again if the represen-

tation is orthogonal over a real space, T̄ (X) = T (X).
The problem is then of finding one representation, which will be addressed

below.
In every Lie group there corresponds a set of infinitesimal operators. By
choosing a basis in the Hilbert space on which these operators act, we get
a matrix representation γk for each operator Jk . Then the corresponding
representation for the group element Ak , associated with Jk , is the matrix
T (Ak ) = eiαk γk , where αk is a number. We stress that no summation over
k is implied in the exponent!
3 We are mostly interested in faithful representations, i.e. those mappings are 1-1.
4 The elements of the group are bounded and the space of the group parameters is
simply connected.
1.5.1 The fundamental representation

This representation is fundamental in the sense that its dimension equals
the dimension of the space the group operators act on. Before proceeding
further let us then make a detour:
Consider a transformation A, which has an inverse, acting on the coordi-
nates, i.e. r0 = Ar. What transformation TA this induces on the space of
functions ψ which depend on the coordinates? We demand that:
r → r0 , ψ → ψ 0 such that ψ 0 (r0 ) = ψ(r), (1.44)
i.e.
T (A)ψ(r0 ) = ψ(r) ⇒ T (A)ψ(Ar) = ψ(r) (1.45)
or
T (A)ψ(r) = ψ(A−1 r), (1.46)
which defines the operator. We will apply this in some special cases.
Example 1: Consider the transformation of coordinates:
L: x → x − a, a = constant. (1.47)
Find the transformation Ta it induces on the space of differential functions
f (x).
The desired relation is
Ta f (x) = f (L−1 x) = f (x + a).
a df (x) a2 d2 f (x) a2 d2

a d
f (x+a)=f (x)+ + +· · · = 1+ + ··· f (x),
1! dx 2! dx2 1! dx 2! dx2
d d
f (x + a) = ea dx f (x) ⇒ Ta = ea dx .
We verify
∞
d
a dx
X dn
Ta f = e f= an f = f (x + a).
n
dxn
d ~ d
Usually instead of dx we use the momentum operator px = i dx , which is
a Hermitian operator. Therefore
px
Ta = eia ~ . (1.48)
We can generalize Eq. (1.47) in three dimensions:
L: r → r − a, a = constant. (1.49)
Then proceeding as above for each component we find the analog of

Eq. (1.48):
~
Ta = eia.p/~ , p = ∇. (1.50)
i
Example 2: Consider the transformation R(−θ) of coordinates in two di-
mensions, e.g. in the (x, y) plane5 :
0
x cos θ − sin θ x
= . (1.51)
y0 sin θ cos θ y
Find the transformation it induces on the space of functions f (x, y), namely

x̃ x cos θ sin θ
Tθ f (x, y) = f (x̃, ỹ), =
ỹ y − sin θ cos θ
(note the change in sign of θ) or
Tθ = f (x cos θ + y sin θ, x(−) sin θ + y cos θ) .
The infinitesimal transformation is:

∂f dx̃ ∂f dỹ ∂f ∂f
T f (x, y)=f (x, y)+ + = f (x, y)+ y + (−x)
∂ x̃ dθ ∂ ỹ dθ θ=0 ∂x ∂y
or

1
T f (x, y) = (1 − X) f (x, y) = 1 − i Lxy f (x, y),
~
where

∂ ∂ ~ ∂ ∂
X=x − y , Lx,y = x −y .
∂y ∂x i ∂y ∂x
The finite transformation becomes:
Tθ = e−iθLxy /~ .
The quantities Lxy are the familiar angular momentum operators in coor-
dinate space for rotations in the plane x, y. This can be generalized in three
dimensions. The angular momentum operators become:

~ ∂ ∂
Ljk = xj − xk . (1.52)
i ∂xk ∂xj
5 We intentionally write rotations in the plane rather than around an axis. In three
dimensions, of course, it makes no difference, since we have three planes and three axes.
So it is immaterial whether we talk about a rotation in the plane (x, y) or around the
z-axis, which is defined to be perpendicular to it. This is not true in higher dimensions.
In four dimensions, e.g., we have 4 axes, but six planes. So the number of possible
rotations is 6.
The corresponding group rotation operators in the corresponding plane are

Rjk = Tθjk = e−iθjk Ljk /~ (no summation). (1.53)
Since the angular momentum operators do not commute, one has to be
careful. We have to specify what is the specific rotation (which axes and
what rotation angles and in which order they are performed). It is common
to specify the rotation in terms of the Euler angles α, β and γ.
After this detour we will consider some interesting cases.
1.5.1.1 The orthogonal groups

Consider the operator given by Eq. (1.52) acting on the three dimensional
space (x1 , x2 , x3 ). Choose a basis |ii in this space: |ii ⇔ xi . Then
L12 |1i = L12 x1 = ix2 = i|2i, L12 |2i = L12 x2 = −ix1 = −i|1i,
L12 |3i = L12 x3 = 0 .
Thus the corresponding matrix is:
 
0 −i 0
γ12 =  i 0 0.
0 0 0
In an analogous fashion we get:
   
0 0 −i 00 0
γ13 =  0 0 0  , γ23 =  0 0 −i  .
i0 0 0i 0
The corresponding elements of the rotation group are:
R(γjk ) = eiθjk γjk , θjk a set of numbers.
Now we notice that
     
100 100 000
2
γjk = Ijk , I12 =  0 1 0  , I13 =  0 0 0  , I23 =  0 1 0 
000 001 001
2` 2`+1
⇒ γjk = Ijk , γjk = γjk , ` = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Thus
X i2` i2`+1 2`+1 2`+1

iθjk γjk 2` 2`
R(γjk ) = e =I+ θ γ + θ γjk
(2`)! jk jk (2` + 1)! jk
`=1
2`+1
!
X θ2`
` jk `
θjk
= I + Ijk (−1) + iγjk + (−1)
(2`)! (2` + 1)!
`=1
= I + Ijk (cos θjk − 1) + iγjk sin θjk .

We thus find:
 
cos θ12 sin θ12 0
Rz ↔ R12 =  − sin θ12 cos θ12 0  rotation in the (1, 2) plane, (1.54)
0 0 1
 
cos θ13 0 sin θ13
Ry ⇐⇒ R13 = 0 1 0  rotation in the (1, 3) plane, (1.55)
− sin θ13 0 cos θ13
 
1 0 0
Rx ⇐⇒ R23 =  0 cos θ23 sin θ23  rotation in the (2, 3) plane. (1.56)
0 − sin θ23 cos θ23
This is the fundamental (basic) representation of the group SO(3) ≡ R(3),
with R(3) the group of rotations in 3-dimensional space. It is fundamental
in the sense that its dimension is the same with the dimension of the space,
i.e. the non-trivial representation with the lowest dimension. This can
trivially be extended to SO(n).
The above matrices can be found directly in the case of SO(3) without
going through the algebra. For more complicated groups one has no choice
but to start from the algebra and proceed as above. The opposite, i.e. to
get the generators of the algebra from those of the group, is, however, sim-
pler as is exhibited in the next example.
Example 3: From the above group generators of SO(3), we obtain the cor-
responding generators of the corresponding algebra.
We can do this by proceeding in the opposite direction by considering the
expansion:
dR
Rij = Rij (0) + iθij Jij , Jij = −i . (1.57)
dθij θij =0
Then
 
0 −i 0
dR
T3 ⇐⇒ J12 = −i =  i 0 0, (1.58a)
dθ12 θ12 =0 0 0 0
 
0 0 −i
dR
T2 ⇐⇒ J13 = −i = 0 0 0 , (1.58b)
dθ13 θ13 =0 i0 0
 
00 0
dR
T1 ⇐⇒ J23 = −i =  0 0 −i  . (1.58c)
dθ23 θ23 =0 0i 0
These are the same with the matrices γij above. We can verify that:
[Tk , T` ] = ik`m Tm . (1.59)
We can also define the operators:
dR
Kij = . (1.60)
dθij θij =0
Then
 
0 0 0
dR
K1 ≡ K23 = = 0 0 1,
dθ23 θ23 =0 0 −1 0
 
0 01
dR
K2 ≡ K13 = = 0 0 0,
dθ13 θ13 =0 −1 00
 
0 10
dR
K3 ≡ K12 = =  −1 0 0,
dθ12 θ12 =0 0 00
which are antisymmetric. We can verify that
[Kk , K` ] = k`m Km . (1.61)
1.5.1.2 The unimodular groups SU(n)

We have already considered cases n = 2 and n = 3. Thus:
Example 4 SU(2): This has already been accomplished by the Pauli
matrices:

01 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = . (1.62)
10 i 0 0 −1
One can define the matrices
1 1 1
T1 = s1 = σ1 , T2 = s2 = σ2 , T3 = s3 = σ3 . (1.63)
2 2 2
The Pauli matrices σi represent the fundamental representation of SU(2).
Example 5: The SU(3) group.
The fundamental representation is furnished by the matrices λi , i =
1, 2, · · · , 8 (see Eq. (1.28) and Table 1.2).
This can be generalized to U(n) drawing from our experience with the
quantized harmonic oscillator. Recall that we start with states |i and
creation and destruction operators a+ i and ai respectively such that
a+
i |0 = |i , ai |0 = 0
where |0 is the vacuum state. Furthermore, they obey the commutation

rules
[ai , a+ + +
j ] = δi,j , [ai , aj ] = 0, [ai , aj ] = 0.
Then the generators of U(n) are defined as
Ak` = a+
k a` (1.64)
with the commutation rules:
[Ajk , Amn ] = Ajn δkm − Amk δjn . (1.65)
Indeed
[Ajk , Amn ] = [a+ + + + + +

j ak , am an ] = [aj , am an ]ak + aj [ak , am an ]
+ +
= a+ +
m [aj , an ]ak + aj [ak , am ]an
+
= −δjn a+
m ak + δkm aj an = Ajn δkm − Amk δjn .
The elements Aii , i = 1, 2, · · · , n form an Abelian subalgebra. Furthermore,

the fundamental representation is obtained by acting with the generators
on the basis |i = a+i |0 , i.e.
Ajk |m = δkm |j (1.66)
with the corresponding representation being
(ejk )α,β = δjα δkβ , (1.67)
that is the matrix (ejk ) has 1 in row j and column k and zero elsewhere.
For SU(n) a slight complication arises, since the matrices have to be
traceless. The mathematicians choose the elements:
hk = ek,k − ek+1,k+1 , k = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1. (1.68)
As we have seen the physicists prefer a different basis. In the case of SU(3)
λ1 = e12 + e21 , λ2 = −i(e12 − e21 ), λ4 = e13 + e31 , λ5 = −i(e13 − e31 ),
1
λ6 =e23 +e32 , λ7 = −i(e23 −e32 ), λ3 = e11 −e22 , λ8 = √ (e11 + e22 − 2e33 ) .
3
1.5.2 The adjoined representation

The abstract algebra of n elements, in a given basis λk , is defined by the
structure constants:
[λk , λ` ] = cm
k` λm . (1.69)
Then an n × n basis {Adj(λk )} for the algebra can be defined by:
Adj(λk )|ì = cm
k` |mi. (1.70)
The set of matrices cm

k` ⇔ (Adj(λk ))m` defines the adjoined or adjoint or
regular representation. In fact it is the most important representation of
the algebra.
Suppose, e.g., some abstract algebra is given by
[λ1 , λ2 ] = iλ3 , [λ2 , λ3 ] = iλ1 , [λ3 , λ1 ] = iλ2 , (1.71)
then the independent structure constants are:

3 1 2
C12 = i, C23 = i, C31 = i. (1.72)
Writing for simplicity Tk = Adj(λk ) we find:
T1 |1i = 0, (1.73)
3
T1 |2i = C12 |3i = i|3i, (1.74)
2
T1 |3i = C13 |2i = −i|2i. (1.75)
Thus the obtained matrix (column vectors) is:

 
00 0
T1 =  0 0 −i  , (1.76)
0i 0
3
T2 |1i = C21 |3i = −i|3i, (1.77)
T2 |2i = 0, (1.78)
1
T2 |3i = C23 |1i = i|1i, (1.79)
 
0 0i
T2 =  0 0 0  . (1.80)
−i 0 0
Note the sign of T2 . Furthermore,

2
T3 |1i = C31 |2i = i|2i, (1.81)
1
T3 |2i = C32 |1i = −i|1i, (1.82)
T3 |3i = 0, (1.83)
 
0 −i 0
T3 =  i 0 0  . (1.84)
0 0 0
One can verify that this set obeys the same set of commutators as those of
Eq. (1.71), namely
[T1 , T2 ] = iT3 , [T2 , T3 ] = iT1 , [T3 , T1 ] = iT2 . (1.85)
This is the adjoined representation corresponding to the algebra of the
operators λi with the above structure constants. We have two possibilities:
• λi = (1/2)σi . Then talk about the adjoined representation of
SU(2), which is 3-dimensional.
• If, on the other hand, the λi are identified with the fundamental
representation γij of SO(3) found above, we talk about the adjoined
representation of SO(3). Both are 3-dimensional.
In other words, in the case of SO(3) the fundamental and the adjoined are
equivalent, since the commutation relations are the same.
Note now that since Tk2 = Ik , with Ik the identity matrix without the
kth column and row, we have
Rk = eiθk Tk = I + γ0 Ik + γ1 Tk . (1.86)
Since the nonzero eigenvalues of Tk are (1, −1), Eq. (1.86) yields:
eiθk = 1 + γ0 + γ1 , e−iθk = 1 + γ0 − γ1 .
From these we get γ0 = cos θk − 1, γ1 = i sin θk . Thus Eq. (1.86) becomes:
eiθk Tk = I + (cos θk − 1)Ik + i sin θi Tk ,
that is  
1 0 0
R1 = eiθ1 T1 =  0 cos θ1 sin θ1  , (1.87)
 
cos θ2 0 sin θ2
R2 = eiθ2 T2 =  0 1 0 , (1.88)
 
cos θ3 sin θ3 0
R3 = eiθ3 T3 =  − sin θ3 cos θ3 0  . (1.89)
0 0 1
These are a set proper orthogonal transformations (rotations) on the planes

around the Cartesian axes. The plane notation is preferred and the above
equations can be rewritten by the substitution:
1 → 23, 2 → 31, 3 → 12, e.g. T1 → T23 , θ1 → θ23 , etc.
The plane notation can be generalized to more than 3 dimensions.
Exercise 1: Consider the following basis for the Pauli matrices:

01 00 1 0
τ+ = , τ− = , τ0 = . (1.90)
00 10 0 −1
Show that:
[τ+ , τ− ] = τ0 , [τ0 , τ+ ] = 2τ+ , [τ0 , τ− ] = −2τ− . (1.91)
From these, by making the correspondence + ⇔ 1, − ⇔ 2 and 0 ⇔ 3, we
construct the matrices corresponding to the adjoined representation:
     
0 0 −2 0 00 2 0 0
I+ =  0 0 0  , I− =  0 0 2  , I0 =  0 −2 0  .
01 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0
Verify that these 3 × 3 matrices obey the same commutation relations as
the original Pauli matrices.
1.6 More representations
From the fundamental and the adjoined representations discussed above we

can construct larger representations.
Theorem: Suppose that we know two representations of an algebra: A
and B. Let us now suppose A ∈ A and B ∈ B. Then we obtain a new
representation A ⊗ B, known as Kronecker product, as follows: Extend the
matrix A by substituting Aij → Aij B. Thus if A is an m × m matrix and
B is an n × n matrix, the new representation is nm × nm matrix.
Consider, e.g., A = σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , see Eq. (1.62), and B the identity 2 × 2
matrix. Then we obtain the representation:
 
0010

(0) I 0 0 0 1
Σ1 = =1 0 0 0,

I (0)
0100
0 0 −i 0
 

(0) −iI  0 0 0 −i 
Σ2 = = i 0 0 0 ,

iI (0)
0i 0 0
 
10 0 0

(I) (0) 0 1 0 0 
Σ3 = = .
(0) −I 0 0 −1 0 
00 0 −1
One can verify that:
[Σj , Σk ] = 2ijkm Σm ,
i.e. it is the same as that involving the Pauli matrices σi (see Eq. (1.62)).
Sometimes the group elements are given and one proceeds to construct
the algebra. Then, from the structure constants of the algebra, a new
representation can be obtained.
1.7 Irreducible representations
Not all representations of the algebra are necessary. It is sufficient to know

and study the irreducible representations. This is one of the main goals
of group theory and it will be discussed in the later chapters. There exist
many excellent books on this subject. See, e.g. [Wybourne (1974)]. We
will proceed in this introductory chapter using rather primitive techniques,
which are adequate for our purposes in this introductory chapter.
An n × n representation Γ = (Γi , i = 1, 2, · · · , r) is reducible if a non-
singular matrix can be found such that:
 (1) 
(γi ) 0 0 0 0
 0 (γ (2) ) 0 0 0 
 i 
S −1 Γi S = block diagonal form =  0 (3)
0  (1.92)
 
0 (γi ) 0
 
 0 0 0 ··· 0 
(`)
0 0 0 (γi )
0
(i) P`
S is the same for all Γi , γk is an nk × nk matrix such that k=1 nk = n.
If such a transformation does not exist the representation is irreducible.
The adjoined representation associated with a simple group is irre-
ducible, if the associated algebra corresponds to a simple group. This can
be seen from the fact that one cannot find a subset of the generators that
form a basis. This set is minimal.
As a simple example let us consider the group of rotations around the
z-axis. This is represented by the matrix
 
cos θ sin θ 0
Rz =  − sin θ cos θ 0  .
0 01
This matrix can be diagonalized by a unitary matrix. Its eigenvalues are

i sin θ, −i sin θ and, of course, 1. A choice for the matrix of eigenvectors is
 1 1 
√ √ 0
 iθ 
e 0 0
 √i2 √ 2
U =  2 −i2 0  ⇒ U + Rz U =  0 e−iθ 0  .

0 01 0 0 1
So this representation is reducible to three 1-dimensional representations.
One simple way to find whether or not a representation is irreducible
is by calculating the corresponding Casimir operators associated with this
representation. If they are diagonal, the representation is perhaps irre-
ducible. If it is reducible the diagonal elements of the Abelian sub-algebra
will give a hint about the transformation required to reduce it. We will
illustrate this by some examples.
Example 1a: Let us consider the matrices Γ1 , Γ2 , Γ3 as follows:
√ √
3 i 3
   
0 2 0 0 0 − 2 0 0
 √3  i√3
 2 0 1 √0  0 −i 0√ 
 
 2
Γ1 =  , Γ 2 = ,
 0 1 0 23  0 − i 23 
 
 0 i
√ √
0 0 23 0 0 0 i 23 0
3 
0 0
2 0
0 1 0 0 
Γ3 =  2 .
 0 0 −1 0 
2
0 0 0 − 23
One can verify that
[Γk , Γm ] = ikmn Γn
that is they form a representation of SU(2). This representation is irre-
ducible since:

3 5 15
Γ21 +Γ22 +Γ23 = × I= I and Γ3 is the diagonal representation of
2 2 4
s = 3/2.
Example 1b: Let us again consider the 4 × 4 matrices Γ1 , Γ2 , Γ3 as follows:
 1 1 
0 − 2i − 2i 0
   
0 2 2 0 100 0
1 0 0 1 i 0 − 2i 
2 , Γ =  2 0
0 0 0 0 
Γ1 =  2
2  i 0 0 − i  , Γ3 =  0 0 0 0  . (1.93)
  
1 0 0 1
2 2 2 2
0 12 21 0 0 2i 2i 0 0 0 0 −1
One sees immediately that this is reducible, since the Casimir operator
constructed from it is not a multiple of the identity. The form of the value
of the Casimir operator as well as the diagonal values of Γ3 suggest that it
contains a representation associated with spin one, containing m = 1, 0, −1
and a trivial representation with spin zero. So we identify
1 1
|s = 1, m = 1 ⇔ |1 , |s = 1, m = 0 ⇔ √ |2 + √ |3 ,
2 2
1 1
|s = 1, m = −1 ⇔ |4 , |s = 0, m = 0 ⇔ √ |2 − √ |3 .
2 2
The desired unitary transformation is:
 
1 0 0 0
 0 √1 0 √1 
S =  12 2 

 0 √2 0 − √12 

0 0 1 0
(2) (2) (2)
and thus we find γ1 = γ2 = γ3 = (0), the last row and column of the
reduced matrix contain only 0 and the upper left block is:
0 √12 0 0 − √i2 0
     
10 0
(1)  (1)   (1)
γ1 =  √12 0 √12  , γ2 =  √i2 0 − √i2  , γ3 =  0 0 0 

0 √12 0 0 √i2 0 0 0 −1
(1.94)
which is the familiar adjoined representation of SU(2). The remaining one
is just the scalar representation associated with s = 0.
Example 2: Let us now consider the 6 × 6 matrices Γ1 , Γ2 , Γ3 as follows:
0 21 √12 0 0 0 0 − 2i − √i2 0
   
0 0
 1 0 0 √1 0 0   i 0 0 − √i2 0 0 
 2 2   2 
 1
 √ 0 0 21 √1 0   √i 0 i
0 −2 − 2 0  i
  
√
Γ1 =  2 2 2
1  , Γ2 = 
   
1 1 i i
 0 √2 2 0 0 √2   0 √2 2 0 0 − √i2 
 0 0 √12 0 0 21   0 0 √i2 0 0 − 2i 
   
0 0 0 √12 12 0 0 0 0 √i
2
i
2 0
(1.95)
together with the diagonal matrix Γ3 with elements (3/2, 1/2, 1/2, −1/2,
−1/2, −3/2) along the diagonal. One can verify that:
[Γk , Γ` ] = ik`m Γm . (1.96)
In other words it is a 6-dimensional representation of SU(2).
One can immediately see that this representation is reducible, since the
operator Γ21 + Γ22 + Γ32 is not a multiple of the identity. Another basis,
however, can be found via a unitary transformation S. To get a hint about
how to proceed we look at the diagonal elements of Γ3 . One sees that
there exist two sets of degenerate m values, associated with m = 1/2 and
m = −1/2. The presence of m = ±3/2 suggests that it must contain a
representation S = 3/2 involving the m = 3/2, 1/2, −1/2, −3/2. Then the
remaining m = ±1/2 are absorbed by the s = 1/2 representation. So we
can take any linear combination of the degenerate m values. In hindsight I
choose:
p p
|3/2, 3/2 ⇔ |1 , |3/2, 1/2 ⇔ 1/3| |2 + 2/3| |3 ,
r r
3 1 2 1 11 2 1
| , − ⇔ | |4 + √ |5 , | ⇔ − |2 + √ | |3 ,
2 2 3 3 22 3 3
r
1 1 1 2 33
| − ⇔ − √ |4 + | |5 , | ⇔ |6 .
2 2 3 3 22
This leads to the unitary matrix:
 
1 0 0 0 q0 0
 0 √13 0 0 − 23 0 
 
 q 
2 √1
0 0 0 0
 
 3 q 3


2 1 
0 0 0 0 − 3

√
 3 q 
√1 2 

0 0 3
0 0 3

0 0 0 1 0 0
so that the above representation can be cast in the form of Eq. (1.92) with:
√ √
0 23 0 0 0 − i 23 0
   
√ √
0
 3
0 1 √0  (1)  i 2 3 0 −i 0√ 
  
(1)
γ1 =  2 , γ = ,

 0 1 0 23  2 0 − i 23 
 
 0 i
√ √
3 i 3
0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0
3 
2 0 0 0
0 1
(1) 2 0 0 
γ3 = 
0 0 − 12 0 
0 0 0 − 32
and
1
0 − 2i
1
(2) 0 2 (2) (2) 2 0
γ1 = 1 , γ2 = i , γ3 = .
2 0 2 0 0 − 12
These matrices satisfy commutation relations analogous to those of

Eq. (1.96), namely
(k) (k)
[γm , γn(k) ] = imn` γ` , k = 1, 2.
(i)
Thus the Γi are reducible, while the γk are irreducible. As we have already
seen that those with k = 1 are associated with spin 3/2, while those with
k = 2 with spin 1/2.
Conclusion: The Kronecker product of two representations of the same
algebra is, in general, reducible. The most familiar example is the reduction
of two angular momenta, known from quantum mechanics. We know that:
jX
1 +j2
|j1 , m1 ⊗|j1 , m1 = C J |J, m1 + m2 . (1.97)

J=|j1 −j2 |
In the above example this reducible representation arises out of the Kro-
necker product |1/2, m1 ⊗|1, m2 . Clearly
11 33 1 1 3 3
| |1, 1 = | | − |1, −1 = | − .
22 22 2 2 2 2
For the cases m1 + m2 = ±1/2 using the coefficients used in the above
example we get the results given in Table 1.4.
This will be discussed in some detail in chapter 2, sections 2.6.1 and
2.6.2.
For other groups this very important topic will be discussed in chapter 9,
sections 9.2 and 9.3.
Table 1.4: The coefficients for the reduction of the product |1/2, m1
⊗|1, m2 of SO(3) for m1 + m2 = ± 12
1 3
j1 m1 j2 m2 J= 2
J= 2
√
1 1 √1 √2
2 2
1 0
3 3
√
1
2
− 21 1 1 − √2 √1
3 3
√
1
2
− 21 1 0 − √1 √2
3 3
√
1 1 √2 √1
2 2
1 −1
3 3
1.8 Some further examples
Example 1 : We will find the adjoined (3×3) representation associated with

the Pauli matrices: Recall the adjoined representation Adj(Ji ) for a set of
operators Ji , i = 1, · · · , n with algebra
k
[Ji , Jj ] = Ci,j Jk
k
with structure constants Ci,j defined by:
k
Adj(Ji )|j = Ci,j |k ,
where |α is a basis in the n-dimensional space.
We choose the following basis for the Pauli matrices:

01 00 1 0
τ+ = , τ− = , τ0 = .
00 10 0 −1
Then

01 00 00 01 10 00
[τ+ , τ− ] = − = − = τ3 ,
00 10 10 00 00 01

1 0 01 01 1 0
[τ0 , τ+ ] = − = 2τ+ ,
0 −1 00 00 0 −1

1 0 00 00 1 0
[τ0 , τ− ] = − = −2τ− .
0 −1 10 10 0 −1
The structure constants are given by the matrix:
 
τ+ τ− τ0
 τ+ 0
 2 −1  .
 τ− −2 0 1 
τ0 1 −1 0
For simplicity of notation we write Adj(τα ) = Iα . Then from the table of
the structure constants we find:
k k
I+ |1 = 0, I+ = C+,− |k = 2|3 , I+ |3 = C+,0 |k = −|1 ,
k k
I− |1 = C−,+ |0 = −2|3 , I− |2 = 0, I− |3 = C−,0 |k = |1 ,
k k
I0 |1 = C0,+ |k = |1 , I0 |2 = C0,− |k = −|2 , I0 |3 = 0.
From these we construct (column-wise) the matrices:
     
0 0 −2 0 00 2 0 0
I+ =  0 0 0  , I− =  0 0 2  , I0 =  0 −2 0  .
01 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0
One can now verify that these 3 × 3 matrices obey the same commutation
relations as the original Pauli matrices as given in the above table. It is
a 1-1 mapping. This is the adjoined representation. We see that what
really enters in its construction is the structure constants. In other words,
this representation can always be constructed once an acceptable set of
structure constants is given.
Another Cartesian basis is:
     
0 −1 0 0 i 0 10 0
J1 =  −1 0 1  , J2 =  −i 0 −i  , J3 =  0 0 0 
0 1 0 0 i 0 0 0 −1
or normalized differently:
0 − √12 0 0 √i2 0
     
10 0
λ1 =  − √12 0 √12  , λ2 =  − √i2 0 − √i2  , λ3 =  0 0 0  ,
   
0 √1 0 0 √i2 0 0 0 −1
2
tr(λi λj ) = 2δij ,
[λi , λj ] = iijk λk
or another different normalization
   
0 −1 0 0 i 0
1 1 1
I1 = −1 0 1  , I2 =  −i 0 −i  , I3 = √ λ3 ,
2 2 2
0 1 0 0 i 0
tr (Ii Ij ) = δij ,
[2Ii , 2Ij ] = iijk 2Ik ⇒ [Ii , Ij ] = 2i ijk Ik .
Example 2: Consider the isotriplet of scalar fields φ+ , φ0 , φ− , i.e. scalars

transforming like I = 1 under the SU(2)
√
T+ |1, mi = 2 |1, m + 1i ,
√
T− |1, mi = 2 |1, m − 1i ,
T0 |1, mi = m |1, mi ,
T+ |1, 1i = 0,
√
T+ |1, 0i = 2 |1, 1i ,
√
T− |1, 1i = 2 |1, 0i
 √     
0 2 √0 √0 0 0 10 0
T+ =  0 0 2, T− =  2 √0 0  , T0 =  0 0 0  ,
0 0 0 0 20 0 0 −1
T+ = T1 + iT2 ,
T− = T1 − iT2 ,
 √   
0 2 √0 √0 0 0
2T1 =  0 0 2  +  2 √0 0  ,
0 0 0 0 20
 √   
0√ 1/ 2 0√ 01 0
1
λ1 = T1 =  1/ 2 0√ 1/ 2  = √  1 0 1,
2
0 1/ 2 0 01 0
i
λ2 = T2 = − (T+ − T− )
2 √
     
0 2 √0 √0 0 0  0 −i 0
i  1 
=− 0 0 2  −  2 √0 0  = √ i 0 −i 
2  2
0 0 0 0 20 0 i 0
 
10 0
1 
T3 = √ 0 0 0 .
2
0 0 −1
In summary:
• The I = 1/2 representation of the SU(2) is described by the Pauli
matrices

01 0 −i 1 0
τ1 = , τ2 = , τ3 = .
10 i 0 0 −1
• the I = 1 representation of the SU(2) group is described by the
     
010 0 −i 0 10 0
1  1
λ1 = √ 1 0 1  , λ2 = √  i 0 −i  , λ3 =  0 0 0  .
2 2
010 0 i 0 0 0 −1
[λk , λl ] = iklm λm ,
tr(λk λl ) = 2δkl .
1.9 The proper orthogonal groups O(3) and O(4)
Before generalizing the results we have obtained in three dimensions, we

note that in three dimensions n = 3 the number of planes (1/2)n(n − 1)
coincides with the number of axes n. This of course is not true in higher
dimensions. We have seen that the number of parameters in the case of a
real orthogonal group is (1/2)n(n − 1), i.e. it coincides with the number of
planes. Thus we can talk about a rotation in a given plane. A rotation in
the (1, 2) plane also leaves unchanged the axis perpendicular to it. Thus
going from n = 3 to n = 4 we have:
 
  cos θ1,2 sin θ1,2 0 0
cos θ3 sin θ3 0  − sin θ1,2 cos θ1,2 0 0 
R3 =  − sin θ3 cos θ3 0  → R1,2 =  , (1.98)
 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 01
 
  cos θ13 0 sin θ1,3 0
cos θ2 0 sin θ2  0 1 0 0
R2 =  0 1 0  → R1,3 =
 − sin θ1,3
, (1.99)
0 cos θ1,3 0
0 0 0 1
 
  1 0 0 0
1 0 0  0 cos θ2,3 sin θ2,3 0
R1 =  0 cos θ1 sin θ1  → R2,3 =
 0 − sin θ2,3 cos θ2,3
. (1.100)
0
0 0 0 1
One has, of course, three additional rotations involving the fourth compo-
nent:
   
cos θ1,4 0 0 sin θ1,4 1 0 0 0
 0 10 0   , R2,4 =  0 cos θ2,4 0 sin θ2,4  ,
 
R1,4 = 
 0 01 0   0 0 1 0 
− sin θ1,4 0 0 cos θ1,4 0 − sin θ2,4 0 cos θ2,4
(1.101)
 
10 0 0
0 1 0 0 
R3,4 = 
 0 0 cos θ3,4 sin θ3,4  .

0 0 − sin θ3,4 cos θ3,4

(1.102)
Using Eq. (1.57) we obtain the generators:
0 −i 0 0 0 0 −i 0 −i
     
000
 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
J1,2 = 
 0 0 0 0  , J1,3 =  i 0 0 0  , J1,4 =  0 0 0
    ,
0 
0 0 00 00 0 0 i00 0
     
00 0 0 000 0 00 0 0
 0 0 −i 0   0 0 0 −i  0 0 0 0 
J2,3 =
 0 i 0 0  , J2,4 =  0 0 0 0  , J3,4 =  0 0
    .
0 −i 
00 0 0 0i0 0 00 i 0
These generators obey the commutators
[Jij , Jk` ] = i (δik Jj` + δj` Jik − δi` Jjk − δjk Ji` ) . (1.103)
Sometimes in the literature one finds the notation:
M1 = J2,3 , M2 = J3,1 , M3 = J1,2 , N1 = J1,4 , N2 = J2,4 , N3 = J3,4 .
Then one can show:
[Mj , M` ] = ij`k Mk , [Nj , N` ] = ij`k Mk , [Mj , N` ] = ij`k Nk . (1.104)
The group O(4) is semisimple, since it does not have continuous Abelian
invariant subgroups. It is not simple, however, since it has non Abelian
invariant subgroups. Indeed define:
M i + Ni M i − Ni
Ai = , Bi = .
2 2
Then
[Aj , A` ] = ij`k Ak , [Bj , B` ] = ij`k Bk , [Aj , B` ] = 0. (1.105)
The two sets of generators are disjoint. Thus we write:
O(4) = O(3) ⊗ O(3).
Its properties are essentially those of O(3).
Show that for O(4) the following matrices constitute a basis:
0 0 21 0 0 0 − 2i 0
    1 
2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 −i   0 1 0 0
A1 =  2 , A = 2 , A =  2
2 3  0 0 −1 0 ,
 
 1 0 0 0  i 0 0 0
2 2 2
0 21 0 0 0 2i 0 0 0 0 0 − 12
(1.106)
 1 i 1
0 −2 0 0
   
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0
 1 0 0 0 i 1
 , B2 =  2 0 0 0  , B3 =  0 − 2 0 0  .
  
B1 =  2
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 −i   0 0 1 0
2 2 2
1 i
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 − 12
(1.107)
Then verify that
[Ak , Al ] = iklm Am , [Bk , Bl ] = iklm Bm , [Ak , Bl ] = 0. (1.108)
Hint: consider the Kronecker product A ⊗ B when
i) A = (1/2)(σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ), B = I,
ii) A = I, B = (1/2)(σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ).
The O(4) symmetry appears both in classical and quantum physics, when
the system is described by a potential ∝ 1/r. It is due to this symmetry
that in the Kepler’s problem the line connecting the two focuses of the
ellipse is not moving (the orbit is plane due to the conservation of angular
momentum, valid for any central potential. The shape of the orbit is a
consequence of both angular momentum and energy). A small perturbation
destroys this symmetry (the perihelion moves!). Similarly in hydrogen like
atoms we have a high degree of degeneracy, the energy depends on n, but it
does not depend on the orbital angular momentum quantum number `, as
is the case for any other central potential. A small perturbation destroys
this symmetry, the extra degeneracy is removed.
1.10 Realization of SO(4) = SO(3) × SO(3) and some

applications
We consider a particle of mass m moving in the gravitational field of another

particle M with the standard angular momentum operator L = r × p. The
Rünge-Lenz vector is defined by
1 k
R= (p × L − L × p) − kr̂, F = − 2 r̂, (1.109)
2µ r
where µ is the reduced mass of the particle
1 1 1
= + .
µ m M
The system is specified by the Hamiltonian
p2 k
H= − . (1.110)
2µ r
Then it is easy to verify that
[L, H] = 0, [R, H] = 0 (1.111)
and
[Lj , Lk ] = i~jk` Ljk` . (1.112)
One can also show that
~
[Lj , Rk ] = i~jk` Rjk` , [Rj , Rk ] = −2i jk` HRjk` . (1.113)
µ
Define now
p µ
 − 2H E < 0
R̃j = Rj (1.114)
 p µ
2H E > 0.
Then

i~jk` R̃` E < 0
[R̃j , R̃k ] = (1.115)
−i~jk` R̃` E > 0.
Defining now
Li R̃i
Mi = , Ni = , (1.116)
~ ~
we recover Eq. (1.104) for E < 0 and proceed as above. For E > 0 we get
[Nj , Nk ] = −ijk` N` , but we will not concern ourselves with this case.
1.10.1 Application to classical mechanics

The vector R, sometimes indicated by A, is perpendicular to L,
R.L = 0. (1.117)
The energy is given by
1 2 k
E= p − .
2µ r
The magnitude of R is given by
s
L2
R=k 1+ E
2µk 2
and the angular momentum is L = r × p. The proof of conservation of R
is quite simple.

dR dp 1 dr r dr
= × L − µk − 2
dt dt r dt r dt
but
dp r
= −k 3
dt r
dR k r × L − (r.p)r p
⇒ =− + .
dt µ r3 r
But
r × L = r × (r × p) = (r.p)r − r2 p.
Fig. 1.1: The role of the Rünge-Lenz vector, here indicated by A in Keple-
rian motion.
Thus
dR
= 0. (1.118)
dt
Its relevance to the Kepler problem is given in Fig. 1.1. Since the vectors L
and R are conserved and perpendicular, we can define a natural coordinate
system:
L R
ê3 = , ê1 = , ê2 = ê3 × e1 . (1.119)
L R
The orbit is perpendicular to L. So
r = r(ê1 cos θ + ê2 sin θ) (1.120)

dr dr dθ dr dθ
p=µ = µ ê1 (cos θ − r sin θ ) + ê2 (sin θ + r cos θ )
dt dt dt dt dt
but
dθ dθ mur2
L = µr2 ê3 ⇒ = .
dt dt L
Thus
2 2
dr L dr L
R = ê1 L sin θ + − k cos θ −ê2 L cos θ − − k sin θ .
dt µr dt µr
But by definition R = rê1 , which implies
2
1 L2

dr L dr
L cos θ = − k sin θ ⇒ = − k tan θ,
dt µr dt L µr

L
R = ê1 r − k sin θ.
µ
Thus
s
L2

L 1
R=k 1+ E= −k
2µk 2 µr cos θ
or
`
r= (equation of the orbit) (1.121)
1 + e cos θ
with
s
L2 2L2 E
`= ,e= 1+ .
µk µ k2
With the eccentricity e thus defined the parameters a and b of the elliptical
orbit are given by:
L2 1 k p
a= 2
=− , b = a 1 − e2 .
µk 1 − e 2E
1.10.2 Application to quantum mechanics

Since the operators A and B commute we can simultaneously diagonalize
them and get a wave function:
ψ = |a, ma ; b, mb (1.122)
in the notation of two angular momenta, such that
A0 ψ = ma ψ, A2 ψ = a(a + 1)ψ, B0 ψ = mb ψ, B 2 ψ = b(b + 1)ψ. (1.123)
Then in the special case of a hydrogenic atom we find:
r
(2) µ
C = L.R = 0. (1.124)
−2H
This implies the condition that a(a + 1) − b(b + 1) = 0, which leads to a = b
(the solution a = −(b + 1) is not acceptable since both a and b should be
positive). Thus
C (1) ψ = 2a(a + 1)ψ. (1.125)
But
1 2 mu 2
C (1) = L − R
2~2 2E
while after some effort one can show that:

2H
R2 = L2 + ~2 + k 2

µ
that is
k3 µ

(1) 1 2
C =− 2 ~ +
2~ 2E
k3 µ

1 2
− 2 ~ + ψ = 2a(a + 1)ψ.
2~ 2E
Finally
µk 2 1
− = (2a + 1)2 ,
4~2 E 2
1 1 M
En = − mc2 (Ze2 )2 2 , (n = (2a + 1)), a = 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, · · · .
2 n m+M
(1.126)
The above wave functions |a, ma , b, mb do not have a good angular mo-
mentum. However,
L = ~(A + B),
and thus we know that the allowed ` values are constrained to be
|a − b| ≤ ` ≤ a + b.
Thus the wave functions of good angular momentum are going to be of the
form:
X
|n`m = ≺ ma , mb |`, m δma +mb −m |a, ma , b, mb . (1.127)
ma ,mb
It is adequate to construct the maximum weight state. The radial part is

very hard to construct. We have to construct suitable ladder operators in
terms of the higher symmetry of the hydrogenic atoms, which is SO(4, 2).
For such topics the reader is referred to the literature [Wybourne (1974)],
[Baru and Bronzin (1971)].
1.11 The proper Lorentz transformations — The group

SO(3, 1)
At this point we should briefly discuss the algebra generated by the group
of the proper Lorenz transformations L(1, 3). It is customary to change
the index 4 → 0. Then the elements Ri,j and Ji,j , i, j = 1, 2, 3 remain the
same, describing rotations in ordinary space. Those that contain the time
component are modified:
Ri,4 (rotations) → Λ0,i (boosts),
   
cosh ξ1 sinh ξ1 0 0 cosh ξ2 0 sinh ξ2 0
 sinh ξ1 cosh ξ1 0 0   0 1 0 0
Λ0,1 =
 0
 , Λ0,2 =  ,
0 1 0  sinh ξ2 0 cosh ξ2 0
0 0 01 0 0 0 1
(1.128)
 
cosh ξ3 0 0 sinh ξ3
 0 10 0 
Λ0,3 =
 0
, (1.129)
01 0 
sinh ξ3 0 0 cosh ξ3
where tanh ξi = −υi /c, υ the relative velocity of the two frames.
The infinitesimal generators are
     
00 0 0 000 0 000 0
 0 0 −i 0   0 0 0 −i  0 0 0 0 
L1,2 =  0 i 0 0  , L1,3 =  0 0 0 0  , L2,3 =  0 0 0 −i  ,
    
00 0 0 0i0 0 00i 0
−i 0 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 −i
    
0
 −i 0 0 0  , L0,2 =  0 0 0 0  , L0,3 =  0 0 0 0  .
   
L0,1 =
 0 0 00   −i 0 0 0   0 00 0 
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0
Then we find the commutators:
[L0,j , L0,k ] = −iLj,k , [L0,j , Lk,n ] = i (δjn L0,k − δjk L0,n ) , (1.130)
[Lk,j , Lm,n ] = i (δkm Lj,n + δnj Lk,m − δkn Lj,m − δjm Lk,n ) . (1.131)
Note that if we define: J0,k = −iL0,k , Jm,n = Lm,n we obtain the same
commutators as in the case of O(4), namely:
[Jij , Jk` ] = i (δik Jj` + δj` Jik − δi` Jjk − δjk Ji` ) . (1.132)
We say that the two groups are locally isomorphic. They are not, of course,
isomorphic in the large. The elements corresponding to boosts are not
bounded.
At this point we should mention that it is common in physics to define
the generators in terms of infinitesimal operators containing derivatives.
Thus
• for SO(n):

~ ∂ ∂
Jj,k = xj − xk , j, k = 1, 2, · · · , n. (1.133)
i ∂xk ∂xj
They obey the rule:
[Jij , Jk` ] = i~ (δik Jj` + δj` Jik − δi` Jjk − δjk Ji` ) . (1.134)
• For the Lorentz group L(1, 3):

construct Lµ,ν , µ, ν = 0, 1, 2, 3, as follows:

~ ∂ ∂ ~ ∂ ∂
Lj,k = xj − xk , L0,j = x0 + xj
i ∂xk ∂xj i ∂xj ∂x0
(1.135)
with x0 = ct, j, k = 1, 2, 3.
These obey the commutator rules
[L0,j , L0,k ] = −i~Lj,k , [L0,j , Lk,n ] = i~ (δjn L0,k − δjk L0,n ) ,

[Lk,j , Lm,n ] = i~ (δkm Lj,n + δnj Lk,m − δkn Lj,m − δjm Lk,n ) .
(1.136)
1.12 Symmetries and conservation laws — Noether’s

theorem
A symmetry implies a conservation law and conversely if a conservation law

is found experimentally, we are not fully satisfied till we find the symmetry
behind it.
We will examine here the following cases:
1.12.1 Global transformations in classical physics

We have seen in section 1.5.1 the connection between space translations and
momentum as well as between rotations in space and angular momentum.
One can derive a similar formal relation between energy and translations in
time. Hence the connection between invariance under such transformations

and conservation laws:
dE
dt =0
t→t+α
⇒
r→r+b dp
dt = 0,
X dL
r0 = Rr ⇔ ri0 = Rij rj ⇔ = 0,
dt
L = r × p.
1.12.2 Global transformations in quantum mechanics (in

the Heisenberg picture)
dO
= i [H, O] any operator O,
dt
dO
= 0 ⇔ [H, O] = 0,
dt
dJ
= i [H, J] (e.g. angular momentum),
dt
dJ
= 0 ⇔ [H, J] = 0.
dt
We have seen that:
[Jk , Jl ] = iklm Jm k, l = 1, 2, 3.
Conservation of angular momentum implies energy degeneracy:
φjm ⇔ j independent of m ⇔ 2j + 1 degenerate states
1.12.3 Field theories — Scalar fields

In the case of field theories invariance under a symmetry transformation
leads to a current conservation of the form:
δL = 0 ⇔ ∂ µ Jµa = 0. (1.137)
Consider first only scalar fields. This system is described by a Lagrangian

density of the form:
L (φi , ∂ µ φi ) , i = 1, 2, · · · , n,
with Lagrangian:
Z
L= L (φi , ∂ µ φi ) d3 x.
The action is defined by

Z
S= Ldt.
The variation of the action leads to:

Z Z
4 ∂L ∂L 4 ∂ ∂L
δS = d x ∂µ − δφi + d x δφi . (1.138)
∂ (∂µ φi ) ∂φi ∂xα ∂φi
By setting the variation equal to zero and ignoring for the moment the
surface term, which can vanish as we shall see below under some symmetry
of the Lagrangian density, we get the equations of motion (Euler equations)
∂L ∂L
∂µ − = 0. (1.139)
∂ (∂µ φi ) ∂φi
Let us now consider a case such that the Lagrangian density L is invariant
under a set of transformations. This leads to a conservation law. Indeed
let:
φi (x) → φ0i (x) = φi (x) + δφi (x)
δφi = φ0i − φi = (Oφi − φi ) = iα tα
ij φj (x) ,

ta , tb = iCcab tc
,→ structure constants,
∂L ∂L
δL = δφi + δ (∂µ φi ) .
∂φi ∂ (∂µ φi )
Note that δ (∂µ φi ) = ∂µ φ0i − ∂µ φi = ∂µ δφi ⇒

∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
∂µ − = 0 ⇒ δL = ∂µ δφi + ∂µ (δφi )
∂ (∂µ φi ) ∂φi ∂ (∂µ φi ) ∂ (∂µ φi )

∂L ∂L
= ∂µ δφi = α ∂µ i tα φ j .
∂ (∂µ φi ) ∂ (∂µ φi ) ij
Define
∂L
Jµα = −i t α φj . (1.140)
∂ (∂µ φi ) ij
Then one gets
δL = 0 ⇔ ∂ µ Jµa = 0. (1.141)
We call this a conserved current. Thus the observed charge operator
Z
Q = d3 xJ0a (x)
(a)
(1.142)
is a generator of the group.

Example 1: Consider the Lagrangian density describing two real fields
1h 2 2
i µ λ 2 2
L= (∂µ φ1 ) + (∂µ φ2 ) − φ21 + φ22 + φ1 + φ22 . (1.143)
2 2 4
This is invariant under a rotation:
φ01 = φ1 cos α − φ2 sin α, φ02 = φ1 sin α + φ2 cos α (1.144)
or
φ01

cos α − sin α φ1
= . (1.145)
φ02 sin α cos α φ2
This is an Abelian transformation with a generator:

d cos α − sin α 0 i
t = −i = ⇒ t12 = i, t21 = −i.
dα sin α cos α α=0
−i 0
Thus
Jµ = −i∂µ φ1 (iφ2 ) − i∂µ φ2 (−iφ1 ) = (∂µ φ1 ) φ2 − (∂µ φ2 ) φ1
and
use eq. of motion
z }| {
∂µ J = (∂µ φ1 ) ∂ φ2 − (∂µ φ2 ) ∂ φ1 + (∂ µ ∂µ φ1 ) φ2 − (∂ µ ∂µ φ2 ) φ1
µ µ µ
| {z }| {z }
−m2 φ1 φ2 +m2 φ1 φ2
2 2
= −m φ1 φ2 + m φ1 φ2 = 0.
It is helpful to rewrite it in the φ, φ∗ basis. Then
1 1 1 2
φ = √ (φ1 + iφ2 ) , φ∗ = √ (φ1 − iφ2 ) , φφ∗ = φ1 + φ22

2 2 2
µ ∗ 1
⇒ (∂µ φ∂ φ ) = (∂µ φ1 + i∂µ φ2 ) (∂ φ1 − i∂ µ φ2 )
µ
2
1
= (∂µ φ1 ∂ µ φ1 + i∂ µ φ1 ∂µ φ2 − i∂µ φ1 ∂ µ φ2 + ∂µ φ2 ∂ µ φ2 )
2
1
= (∂µ φ1 ∂ µ φ1 + ∂µ φ2 ∂ µ φ2 )
2
2
⇒ L = (∂µ φ∗ ∂ µ φ) − µ2 φφ∗ + λ |φφ∗ | .
Now
1 1
φ → φ0 = √ (φ01 + iφ02 ) = √ [cos αφ1 − sin αφ2 + i (sin αφ1 + cos αφ2 )]
2 2
1
= √ [(cos α + i sin α) φ1 + i (cos α + i sin α) φ2 ]
2
1 iα (φ1 + iφ2 )
= √ e φ1 + ieiα φ2 = eiα = eiα φ.

√
2 2
Thus
φ0 = eiα φ, φ∗0 = e−iα φ∗ . (1.146)
This is an Abelian U(1) symmetry with the generator tij = iδij . Thus
Jµ = −i∂µ φ∗ φ + i∂µ φφ∗ .
Furthermore
∂µ J µ = −i (∂µ ∂ µ φ∗ ) φ − i∂µ φ∗ ∂ µ φ + i∂µ φ∗ ∂ µ φ + i (∂µ ∂ µ φ) φ∗

= im2 φ∗ φ − im2 φφ∗ = 0.
Example 2: SU(2) Symmetry

φ1
φ= φ† = (φ∗1 , φ∗2 ) ,
φ2
a
1 µ2 † λ † 2 τij
∂µ φ† (∂ µ φ) − φ φ φi → φ0i = ia φj

L= φ φ+
2 2 4 2

01 0 −i 1 0
τ1 = τ2 = τ3 = .
10 i 0 0 −1
Now
i
Jµa = − ∂µ φ†i τij
a
φj − φ†i τij
a
∂µ φj ,
2
i
a
J0 = − ∂0 φ†i τij
a
φj − φ†i τij
a
∂0 φj
2
i a
=− ni τij φj − φ†i τij
a †
nj ,
2
with πi = ∂0 φ†i .
Then [ni (x, t) , φj (x0 , t)] = δ 3 (x − x0 ) (−e) δij and

Z
Q = d3 xJ0a (x) ,
a
[Qa , Qb ] = iabc Qc .
Furthermore,

i a i b h i
− τkl ni φj − φ†i n†j , nk φl − φ†k n†l
a b
J0 , J0 = − τij
2 2
2
i n h i h i
= − a b
τij τkl [ni φj , nk φl ] − ni φj , φ†k n†l − φ†i n†j , nk φl
2
h io
+ φ†i n†j , φ†k n†l
2
i n h i
= − a b
τij τkl [ni , nk φl ] φj + ni [φj , nk φl ] + φ†i , φ†k n†l n†j
2
h io
+ φ†i n†j , φ†k n†l
2
i
= − a b
τij τkl δil nk φj − δjk ni φl − δil φ†k n†j + δjk φ†i n†l
2
2
i a b a b a b † † a b † †

= − τij τki nk φj − τij τjl ni φl − τij τki φk nj + τij τjl φi nl
2
2 h
i
τ b τ a kj nk φj − τ a τ b il ni φl − τ b τ a kj φ†k n†j

= −
2
i
+ τ a τ b il φ†i n†l

2 h
i i
τ b τ a − τ a τ b il ni φl − τ b τ a − τ a τ b il φ†i n†l

= −
2
2 h
i i
= − 2 ibac τilc ni φl − ibac τilc φ†i n†l
2
i h i
= abc τilc ni φl − φ†i n†l .
2
That is
a b
J0 , J0 = iabc J0c , [Qa , Qb ] = iabc Qc
and Z Z
3 0 3
d x d x J0a (x) , J0b (x0 ) = iabc d3 xJ0c (x) = iabc Qc .

[Qa , Qb ] =
1.12.4 Field theory — Fermion fields

The fermion fields obey the Dirac equation:
iγ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ = 0.
The relevant current is given by:
Jµ = ψ̄γµ ψ
such that:
∂µ J µ = ∂µ ψ̄ γ µ ψ + ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ = imψ̄ψ + ψ̄ (−imψ) = 0,

Z
d3 x ψ̄γ0 ψ ,

Q=
J0 = ρc, J = ρv,
Z Z
J0 (x) 3
Q = ρ (x) d3 x = d x,
c
Z
cQ = d3 xJ0 (x) .
Furthermore,
LEM EM µ
int = eJµ A (x) ,
Jµ (x) = ēγµ e + µ̄γµ µ + τ̄ γµ τ in SU(2).
For quarks in flavor SU(3)
2 1¯ 1
Jµ = (ūγµ u) − dγµ d − s̄γµ s,
3 3 3
a λa
Jµ = q̄ (x) γµ q (x) ,
2
a λa
Jµ,s = q̄γµ γ5 q (x) ,
2
   
1 1
1 1 1 1
Jµ = Jµ3 + √ Jµ8 ' q̄γµ  −1  q + q̄  1  γµ q
3 2 23
0 −2
 1  1  2 
 2 6  3
= q̄γµ  − 12 + 1
6
 q = q̄γµ  − 1
3
 q.
1 1
−3 −3
 
0
1.13 Problems
(1) In the case of SU(2) one normally uses the Pauli matrices

01 0 −i 10
τ1 = , τ2 = , τ3 = , (1.147)
10 i 0 0 −1
(“Cartesian” basis). Other options are, however, possible. Thus
• By taking appropriate linear combinations of the above ma-

trices, construct a new basis of 2 × 2 matrices satisfying the
commutator rules:
[τ0 , τ+ ] = τ+ , [τ0 , τ− ] = −τ− , [τ+ , τ− ] = τ0 , (1.148)
(“spherical” basis). Then express the gauge bosons in the new
basis.
Note: It is customary to define the new bosons so that they
remain normalized.
• Using the commutators of Eq. (1.148), construct both a
“spherical” and a “Cartesian” matrix 3 × 3 basis. Select the
normalization in the Cartesian basis i) to be 2 and ii) to be 1
and supply the commutator relations in each case. Comment
in comparison to those of Eq. (1.62).
(2) Imagine that, instead of the isospin 1/2 representation of SU(2)
one had used the isovector one, I = 1.
• Construct the corresponding set of “Cartesian” generators I1 ,
I2 and I3 and make a suitable decomposition of the gauge
fields.
• Do the same for the “spherical” set I+ , I− and I0 .
• Does your representation agree with the 3 × 3 one of the pre-
vious problem? Explain.
Note: you are allowed to use the standard angular momentum
experience.
(3) Consider the group of orthogonal transformations in four dimen-
sions.
In three dimensions one has three axes and three planes. So ro-
tation around an axis is equivalent with rotations in a plane per-
pendicular to it. In a space with more dimensions the number of
axes is less than the number of planes. Thus it makes no sense to
talk about rotation around an axis. In n > 3 dimensions we have
n axes but (1/2)n(n − 1) planes. And we talk about rotations in a
given plane.
i Show that there exist six elementary rotations, each of them
corresponding to a rotation on a plane.
ii Find the corresponding generators a) represented by real
antisymmetric matrices and b) represented by Hermitian
matrices.
iii Obtain all commutation rules and construct a table giving the
non-vanishing commutators.
iv Using these generators construct the rotation matrix repre-
senting the product of any two different elementary rotations
of your choice. Does your answer agree with that obtained by
using i) above?
v Show that a basis can be found: So that
[Ak , Al ] = iklm Am , [Bk , Bl ] = iklm Bm ,

[Ak , Bl ] = 0.
(1.149)
What does this signify? Is the group O[4] simple?
Hint: If you cannot find such a basis consider:
0 − 2i 0 2i
   
0 0 0 0
0 0 −i 0  0 0 − 2i 
 , A2 =  0

A1 =  2 ,
0 i 0 0   i
−2 0 0 0 
2
i i
2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
− 2i i
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
i 0 0 0   0 0 − 2i 0
A3 =  2  , B1 =  ,
0 0 0 − 2i   0 i
2 0 0
i
0 0 2 0 − 2i 0 0 0
i
− 2i
   
0 0 2 0 0 0 0
 0 i i
0 0 2

 , B3 =  2 0 0 0
B2 = 
−i i .

2 0 0 0  0 0 0 2
0 − 2i 0 0 0 0 − 2i 0
(4) Repeat step iii of the previous problem in the case of the eight
standard generators λi , i = 1, ..., 8 of the group SU(3).
(5) In the case of the previous problem find the matrix corresponding
to the product of any two different elementary “rotations” of the
type Uk = eiωk λk , which are non-diagonal.
Hint: You may find it useful to proceed by finding the eigenvalues
of the corresponding matrices.
(6) If you can afford the time and you have the energy:
Try to understand from the literature the role of SO(4) in the case
of potentials proportional to 1/r, e.g. the Rünge-Lenz vector in the
Keplerian motion and in understanding the degeneracy and obtain-
ing of the spectrum of the hydrogen atom in quantum mechanics.
(7) Try to generalize the results of the first problem in the case of the
Lorentz group.
Hint: Now the rotations in the three planes (i, 4), i = 1, 2, 3 are
actually boosts, ± sin θ → sinh(ξ), with ξ real. Now the generators
associated with boosts are different and the commutators involving
them have different signs than in the case of O(4). The matrices
Ai , however, can be chosen to be:
0 − 12 i
   
0 0 0 0 2 0
 0 0 − 2i 0  , A2 =  0
 0 0 − 12 
A1 = 
 0 i − i
,
2 0 0  02 0 0 
− 12 0 0 0 0 − 21 0 0
− 2i 1
  
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
i 0 0 0    0 0 − 2i 0
A3 =  2 , B1 =  ,
0 0 0 − 21  0 i
2 0 0
0 0 − 12 0 1
2 0 0 0
i
0 − 2i
   
0 0 2 0 0 0
 0 1 i
0 0 2 , B =  2 0 0 0
B2 = 
−i 3 1 .

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
1 1
0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
(8) Show that if a representation A(Ji ) = eiθi Ji of a group is given, its
∗
complex conjugate A∗ (Ji ) = e−iθi Ji is also a representation. This
is, of course, significant only if some of the Ji contain complex
numbers.
Regardless of whether you proved the above or not, show that in
the case of SU(2), Ji = σi , the complex representation is obtained
by:
σ1 → σ10 = −σ1 , σ2 → σ20 = σ2 , σ3 → σ30 = −σ3 .
Find the structure constants in the case of the σi0 ’s. Furthermore
show that, unlike the SU(3) the complex conjugate is equivalent to
the original one. Construct the transformation matrix that achieves
this.
(9) Show that the set of operators:

~ ∂ ∂
Lm,n = xm − xn , m 6= n, m, n = 1, 2, · · · , N
i ∂xn ∂xm
constitute a Lie algebra and obtain its structure constants. Spe-
cialize this in the case of N = 3 and give such operators a physical
meaning in the context of quantum mechanics.
(10) Consider the set of n × n matrices.

• A set of n × n matrices Eij are given such that its elements
are given by (Eij )α,β = δiα δjβ .
• Show that this set constitutes a basis in the space of n × n
matrices.
• Show that it constitutes a Lie algebra and obtain its structure
constants.
Hint: show that:
[Eij , Ek` ] = δjk Ei` − δi` Ekj .
• Is the algebra semisimple? If not, find an Abelian subalgebra.
• What is the number of the elements of the algebra? The
maximum number of the Abelian elements?
• Discuss in particular the case of a traceless set.
(11) Consider the set of n × n matrices Eij discussed in the previous
problem.
Regardless of whether you proved the relation
[Eij , Ek` ] = δjk Ei` − δi` Ekj ,
you can use these matrices as a basis to study the groups U(2),
SU(2) and SU(3) we have discussed earlier. In particular i) find
the cummutators (structure constants) for the group U(2). ii) Do
the same for the group SU(2) and write down the Pauli matrices
in this basis. iii) Go as far as you can in doing the same for the
group SU(3) using the basis h1 = E11 − E22 , h2 = E22 − E33 and
Eij , i 6= j. Comment on the form of these structure constants
compared to those obtained with the λi .
(12) Consider the metric gα,β used in defining the scalar product in a
vector space, that is hx|yi = xα∗ gαβ y β . Consider now a group
of transformations |x0 i = R(a)|xi that leave this scalar product
invariant, i.e.
hx|yi = hx0 |y 0 i ⇔ xα∗ gαδ xδ = xβ∗ gβ,γ y γ
∗
⇒ xα∗ gαδ xδ = Rβα (a)xα∗ gβγ Rγδ (a)xδ
or
∗
gαδ = Rβα (a)gβγ Rγδ (a) ⇔ g = R+ gR(a)
gαδ = Rβα (a)gβγ Rγδ (a) ⇔ g = RT gR(a).

• Consider now the metric gαβ = δαβ .

i) In a complex space suppose the corresponding local trans-
formation is A(a), i.e. R(a) = eiA(a) . Then the above relation
to first order in A becomes A+ (a) = A(a), i.e. the matrix A
is Hermitian. This is the case of unitary transformations.
ii) In a real space, R(a) = eA(a) . Then the above relation
to first order in A becomes AT (a) = −A(a) the matrix is
antisymmetric. This corresponds to orhogonal groups.
• Consider now a real space equipped with the metric

0 In αβ
g= ⇔A=
−In 0 γ δ

αβ 0 In 0 In αβ α β
⇒ =− ⇒A= .
γ δ −In 0 −In 0 γ δ β −α
In the above expressions In is the n × n identity matrix and α
and β are symmetric n×n real matrices. This is the symplectic
transformation Sp(2n, r).
(13) Generalize the previous results in the case of the non-compact
groups SU(n, m) and SO(n, m) show that
!
A11 (n × n) A12 (n × m)
A= + for SU(n, m)
− A12 (m × n) A22 (m × m)
!
A11 (n × n) A12 (n × m)
A= T for SO(n, m).
A12 (m × n) A22 (m × m)
Also show that for complex symplectic group Sp(2n, C)

α β
A=i
β + −α∗
where α is Hermitian and β is symmetric.
(14) Consider the algebra of SU(2) or SO(3) (they are isomorphic).
Then
• obtain the basis |jm by considering two suitable commuting
operators. The essential ingredients should be i) the commu-
tation relations of the algebra, in particular in the basis J+ , j−
and J0 , the unitarity of the representation and the fact that
≺ ψ|ψ ≥ 0, |ψ = J+ |jm .
• Show in particular that j is integral or half integral and m has

values, between j and −j. There exist two representations Dj
and D−(j+1) , which, however are equivalent.
(15) Consider the quantum harmonic oscillator and the operators
p √ 1 ∂
ξ = (mω)/2~r, p = 2m~ωη, η = .
i ∂ξ
• Show that the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian takes the form
1
H = ~ω(ξ 2 + η 2 )
2
+
• define the operators ak = ξ k − iη k , ak = ξ k + η k , k = 1, 2, 3
and show that:
[ak , am ] = 0, [a+ + +
k , am ] = 0, [am , ak ] = δkm
3
3 X
H = ~ω N + ,N= a+
k ak = the number operator.
2
i=k
• The operators Ak` = a+

k a`
constitute a basis for SU(3) and
its subgroup SU(2).
• In the chain SU(3) ⊃ SU(2) a set of commuting operators can
be found:
K (2) , K (3) , Q0 , Λ2 , Λ0
where K (2) , K (3) the Casimir operators of SU(3) and
1
Q0 = A11 + A22 − 2A33 , Λ0 = (A11 − A22 ),
2
Λ2 = A21 A12 + Λ0 (Λ0 + 1).
• In the chain SU(3) ⊃ SO(3) one considers instead the opera-
tors:
L1 = L23 = −i(A23 − A32 ), L2 = L31 = −i(A31 − A13 ),
L3 = L12 = −i(A12 − A21 ).

Find the structure constants of these operators and show that
they can be identified with the angular momentum operators.
Show further that in this case a commuting set of operators,
in addition to the Casimir operators of SU(3), contains L12
and L2 . There is a missing operator, which cannot be easily
constructed.
• In both chains the operator N can be simultaneously diago-

nalized (and hence the Hamiltonian itself).
(16) Consider the operators defined in the previous problem.
• In the case of many particles i = 1, 2, · · · , A one defines the
operators:
A A
X
+
X
+ 3
Aµν = aµ (i)aν (i), h = ~ω aµ (i)aν (i) + .
i i
2
These operators shift quanta of the type ν to the type µ. They
satisfy the commutation rules:
[Aµρ , Aνσ ] = δµσ Aρν − δνρ Aµσ , [h, Aµν| ] = 0. (1.150)
The first of these is the basic algebra of SU(3), while the last
equation guarantees the invariance of the harmonic oscillator
hamiltonian under the SU(3) transformations.
• One can now construct various representations, e.g. the ad-
joined representation which depends only on the structure
constants as we discussed earlier. Another one is the fun-
damental representation, based on the basis:
|1 = x (one quantum in the x -direction), |2 = y, |3 = z.
(1.151)
Thus
 
010
Axy ⇒ (α)xy =  0 0 0  . (1.152)
000
Proceed similarly for the other elements of the algebra and
their adjoined. Verify that, by combining these, you obtain
the λi matrices we discussed earlier.
• another 3-dimensional basis can be constructed from the an-
tisymmetric vectors:
1 1 1
|1̄ = √ (yz − zy) , |2̄ = √ (zx − xz) , |3̄ = √ (xy − yx) ,
2 2 2
(1.153)
where in this writing x, y and z do not commute. Repeat the
above procedure in this case to obtain the matrices (ᾱ)ij and
(λ̄)i . e.g.:
 
0 −1 0
Axy ⇒ (ᾱ)xy =  0 0 0  . (1.154)
0 0 0
This is sometimes called conjugate (not complex conjugate)

of the previous. These new matrices are not the same with
the previous. Can they be obtained from the previous by a
unitary transformation? If so they are equivalent and we say
that the symmetry does not admit conjugate representations6 .
If not, are the two algebras isomorphic? For SU(n), n > 2 no!
• From the two bases construct a new basis |j |j̄ , in some
convenient order, and obtain the corresponding 9-dimensional
representation of SU(3), e.g.7 :
 
0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 
 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 
 
Λ1 =  0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0  ,
 
 
 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 −i 0 −i 0 0 0 0 0
 i 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 
 
 i 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 
 
Λ2 =  0 i 0 i 0 0 0 0 0  ,
 
 
0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −i 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
000 0 0 0 0 00
0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 −2 0 0 0 0 0 
 
Λ3 =  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  (1.155)
 
 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
000 0 0 0 0 00
etc.
6 Thereexist symmetries that they do not, but the symmetry SU(n) does.
7 It
may take a long time to devise a code to put the zeros in the right places. So one
must be familiar with modern technology to do this efficiently.
• Show that the representation you obtained is reducible, in

fact:
3 ⊗ 3̄ = 9 = 8 + 1
where 8 is the regular (adjoined) representation. In fact the

resulting representations had to be self adjoined. Can you see
why?
This is a general result, which can be obtained by much more
powerful methods, holding for SU(n) and other groups. It
also holds if you take successive products of the fundamental
representations. In fact one can obtain the conjugate of the
fundamental this way. This is why the fundamental represen-
tation has the name that it does!
• Find a suitable unitary matrix that reduces the representation
you have obtained and show that the scalar 1 is obtained by
a change of basis:
1
1 = √ (|1 |1̄ +|2 |2̄ +|3 |3̄ )
3
(Democracy at work!)
(17) Consider the generators of the algebra SO(2, 1):
• The relevant generators are:

1 ∂ ∂
J1 ≡ J01 = x0 + x1 ,
i ∂x1 ∂x0

1 ∂ ∂
J2 ≡ J02 = x0 + x2 ,
i ∂x2 ∂x0

1 ∂ ∂
J3 ≡ J12 = x1 − x2 . (1.156)
i ∂x2 ∂x1
The operator J12 is the same with that of SO(2) ⊂ SO(3).

• Show that these operators satisfy the commutation rules:
[J1 , J2 ] = −iJ3 , [J2 , J3 ] = iJ1 , [J3 , J1 ] = −iJ2 . (1.157)
They resemble the commutations of SO(3), except for one

sign.
• The corresponding group elements are:

 
  cosh η 0 sinh η
cosh ξ sinh ξ 0  0 1 0 
Λ01 =  sinh ξ cosh ξ 0  , Λ02 = 
 sinh η
,
0 cosh η 
0 0 1
0 0 1
 
1 0 0
Λ12 =  0 cos θ sin θ  . (1.158)
0 − sin θ cos θ
Only the last is a bona fide rotation, the other two are “pseu-
dorotations”. Furthermore, the first two are not bounded.
• The above operators leave invariant the expression:
x20 − x21 − x22 = invariant. (1.159)
• One can show that the Casimir operator, which commutes
with all three is:
J 2 ≡ J12 + J22 − J32 .
One can also define:
J+ = iJ1 − J2 , J− = iJ1 + J2 , J0 = J3
with commutation rules:
[J0 , J+ ] = J+ , [J0 , J− ] = −J− , [J+ , J− ] = 2J0 .
• Then show that:
1
J 2 = (J+ J− + J− J+ ) − J02 = −J− J+ − J0 (J0 + 1).
2
• Since J 2 and J0 commute they can be simultaneously diago-
nalized.
• Go as far as you can following the procedure adopted in prob-
lem i) for SU(2) and SO(3). Show that the unitary represen-
tations are infinitely dimensional. Why the analogy breaks
down?
(18) Study the extra symmetry of the potential energy U(r) = − kr by
observing that the Rünge-Lenz vector is conserved.
The Rünge-Lenz vector is defined by
k
R = p × L − µkr̂, in a central field given by F = − r̂. (1.160)
r2
This vector is sometimes indicated by A, R is perpendicular to L,

R.L = 0. (1.161)
The energy is given by
1 2 k
E= p − .
2µ r
The magnitude of R is given by
s
L2
R=k 1+ E
2µk 2
and the angular momentum is L = r × p. The proof of conservation
of R is quite simple.

dR dp 1 dr r dr
= × L − µk − 2
dt dt r dt r dt
but
dp r
= −k 3
dt r
dR k r × L − (r.p)r p
⇒ =− + .
dt µ r3 r
But
r × L = r × (r × p) = (r.p)r − r2 p.
Thus
dR
= 0. (1.162)
dt
Its relevance to the Kepler problem is given in Fig. 1.1. Since the
vectors L and R are conserved and perpendicular, we can define a
natural coordinate system:
L R
ê3 = , ê1 = , ê2 = ê3 × e1 . (1.163)
L R
The orbit is perpendicular to L. So
r = r(ê1 cos θ + ê2 sin θ) (1.164)

dr dr dθ dr dθ
p=µ = µ ê1 cos θ − r sin θ + ê2 sin θ + r cos θ
dt dt dt dt dt
but
dθ dθ mur2
L = µr2 ê3 ⇒ = .
dt dt L
Thus
2
dr L
R = ê1 L sin θ + − k cos θ
dt µr
2
dr L
− ê2 L cos θ − − k sin θ .
dt µr
But by definition R = rê1 , which implies
2
1 L2

dr L dr
L cos θ = − k sin θ ⇒ = − k tan θ,
dt µr dt L µr

L
R = ê1 r − k sin θ.
µ
Thus
s
L2

L 1
R=k 1+ 2
E= −k
2µk µr cos θ
or
`
r= (the equation of the orbit) (1.165)
1 + e cos θ
with
s
L2 2L2 E
`= , e= 1+ .
µk µ k2
The eccentricity is defined by
2L2
e2 = 1 + E,
µk 2
L2 1 k p
a= 2
=− b = a 1 − e2 .
µk 1 − e 2E
Furthermore
R2 = µ2 k 2 + 2mEL2 . (1.166)
The eccentricity can be written as
L2
a(1 ± e2 ) = `, ` = , + for ellipse, − for hyperbola.
µk
Since the vector R is conserved and it is always along the symme-
try axis, pointing from the center of the force to the perihelium,
its conservation implies that the perihelium does not move. The
Rünge vector gives one additional constant of motion on top of the
four resulting conservation of energy and angular momentum, since
we have the two constraints given by Eqs. (1.161) and (1.166).
(19) Quantum mechanical description of the Rünge-Lenz vector.

One has to be careful in the definition of R, since the momentum
and angular momentum operators do not commute.
1
Rs = −µkr̂s + sjk (pj Lk + Lj pk ). (1.167)
2
Then one can consider the operators
1
R0 = R3 , R±1 = √ (R1 ∓ R2 ). (1.168)
2
These connect different eigenstates of angular momentum. The
Casimir invariant is written as
µk 2 −1
K1 = −I − H (1.169)
2h2
where H is the Hamiltonian operator and I the identity operator.
The operator K1 is quantized to n2 − 1 yielding the well-known
eigenvalues of the energy
µk 2 1
En = − (1.170)
2~2 n2
and they are independent of the angular momentum quantum num-
ber.
Chapter 2
Study of the SU(2) and SO(3)

Representations and Applications
2.1 Introduction
The groups SU(2) and SO(3) are the simplest continuous groups. Their
associated algebras also simple and well-studied. They are useful tools in all
branches of physics. They have also played a crucial rule in the development
of quantum mechanics. The essential starting ingredients have been studied
in the introductory chapter. Some more formal aspects will be examined
in this chapter.
2.2 Applications of the SU(2) and SO(3) commutator

algebra
Consider the algebra of SO(3) with the generators: Jx , Jy and Jz satisfying

the commutation relations
[Jx , Jy ] = iJz , [Jy , Jz ] = iJx , [Jz , Jx ] = iJy .
It will be more convenient to consider the operators:
J+ = Jx +iJy , J− = Jx −iJy, J0 = Jz , J 2 = Jx2 +Jy2 +Jz2 = J− J+ +J0 (J0 +1).
(2.1)
We know that the operator J 2 commutes with all the generators of the
algebra, it is the quadratic Casimir operator. In particular
J+ , J 2 = J− , J 2 = J0 , J 2 = 0.

(2.2)
One can easily see that
[J0 , J+ ] = J+ , [J0 , J− ] = −J− , [J+ , J− ] = 2J0 . (2.3)
2
Since J0 and J commute, they can be simultaneously diagonalized. Thus
we can find states |α, mi such that:
J 2 |α, mi = f (α)|α, mi (eigenvalue independent of) m, J0 |α, mi = m|α, mi.
(2.4)
63
Since these operators are Hermitian f (α) and m must be real and the eigen-
vectors corresponding to different eigenvalues can be chosen to be orthog-
onal. Furthermore since the operator J 2 is positive definite, f (α) cannot
become negative. Furthermore using Eq. (2.1) the first of the eigenvalue
equations gives:
J− J+ |α, mi = (f (α) − m(m + 1)) |α, mi. (2.5)
Since, however, (J− )+ = J+ setting ψ = J+ |α, mi we get:
0 ≤ hψ|ψi = hα, m|J− J+ |α, mi = f (α) − m(m + 1) ⇒ f (α) − m(m + 1) ≥ 0.
(2.6)
Similarly choosing ψ = J− |α, mi we obtain:
f (α) − m(m − 1) ≥ 0. (2.7)
This means that Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7) can be simultaneously satisfied if:
p p
1 − 1 + 4f (α) −1 + 1 + 4f (α)
m1 ≤ m ≤ m2 where m1 = , m2 = .
2 2
(2.8)
Furthermore using Eq. (2.2) we obtain:
hα, m0 |J0 , J+ |α, mi = hα, m0 |J+ |α, mi
⇒ (m0 − m)hα, m0 |J+ |α, mi = hα, m0 |J+ |α, mi.
Thus for m0 6= m we get
m0 − m − 1 = 0. (2.9)
But Eq. (2.9) implies that m1 − m2 must be an integer, i.e.
p p
m2 − m1 ≥ 0 ⇒ −1 + 1 + 4f (α) = n ⇒ 1 + 4f (α) = n + 1, (2.10)
n = integer n ≥ 0 or
p p
m1 −m2 < 0 ⇒ 1− 1 + 4f (α) = n ⇒ 1 + 4f (α) = 1−n, n < 0. (2.11)
We will begin with the condition of Eq. (2.10). This implies:
nn+1
1 + 4f (α) = (n + 1)2 ⇒ f (α) = , f (α) = j(j + 1), (2.12)
2 2
with j = integer or half integer. This means that m1 = −j, m2 = j, i.e.
− j ≤ m ≤ j. (2.13)
From Eq. (2.11) proceeding similarly we obtain f (α) = j(j − 1), j = nega-
tive, integer or half integer. Thus:
j ≤ m ≤ −j, j = negative integer or half integer. (2.14)
Study of the SU(2) and SO(3) Representations and Applications 65
We will show below that the latter case leads to a representation, which is
not different from that with positive j and we will not discuss it here any
further.
We will thus label the eigenstates as |j, mi, j > 0. We now notice that:
J0 J+ |j, mi = [J0 , J+ ] |j, mi + J+ J0 |j, mi = (m + 1)|j, mi. (2.15)
In other words, J+ is an m raising operator, in the sense that if |j, mi
is an eigenvector of J0 wth eigenvalue m, J+ |j, mi is an eigenvector with
eigenvalue m + 1. Since however the space is finite we expect the process
to stop at the maximum possible m, i.e.
J+ |j, mi = N (+) (j, m)|j, m + 1i, |J+ |j, ji = 0.
The normalization constant is obtained via Eq. (2.6), i.e.
2
N (+) (j, m) = j(j + 1) − m(m + 1) = (j − m)(j + m + 1).
We can choose to be real and non-negative. Thus

p
J+ |j, mi = (j − m)(j + m + 1)|j, m + 1i, −(j + 1) < m ≤ j. (2.16)
In a similar fashion one finds the J− is an m lowering operator
J− |j, mi = N (−) (j, m)|j, m − 1i, |J− |j, −ji = 0
p
J− |j, mi = (j + m)(j − m + 1))|j, m − 1i, −j ≤ m < j + 1. (2.17)
Combining Eqs. (2.16) and (2.17) we get
p
J+ |j, mi = (j − m)(j + m + 1)|j, m + 1i,
p
J− |j, mi = (j + m)(j − m + 1))|j, m − 1i, −j ≤ m ≤ j. (2.18)
Furthermore
J 2 |j, mi = j(j + 1)|j, mi. (2.19)
This representation will be denoted as D(j) .
2.2.1 Construction of the angular momentum states via the

step up and step down operators
In constructing the basis all one needs to do is start from one state, e.g. “the
highest weight” state |j, ji, and step down with the operator J− . For j =
1/2 we have done it many times considering the fundamental representation
of SU(2) and obtained D(1/2) , see next section of an explicit expression. For
SO(3) involving rotations in ordinary space, the operators are the usual
angular momentum operators in units of ~, Ji → ì = Li /~ with

~ ∂ ∂ ~ ∂ ∂
Lz ⇔ Lxy = x −y , Lx ⇔ Lyz = y −z ,
i ∂y ∂x i ∂z ∂y

~ ∂ ∂
Ly ⇔ Lzx = z −x .
i ∂x ∂z
Thus one finds in spherical coordinates:

1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
`z = , `+ = eiφ + i cot θ , `− = e−iφ − + i cot θ .
i ∂φ ∂θ ∂φ ∂θ ∂φ
The normalized eigenfunctions Φ(φ) of `z with the boundary condition1

Φ(0) = Φ(2π) are
1
Φ(φ) = √ eimφ . (2.20)
2π
Writing down the solution as Y = Θ(θ)Φ(φ) we obtain:

∂Θ
`+ Y = Φm+1 − ` cot θΘ .
∂θ
For this to be the highest weight state it is adequate to solve:
∂Θ
− ` cot θΘ = 0.
∂θ
The solution, which is non-singular in the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, can be
obtained by elementary methods and is:
Θ(θ) = C` sin θ` .
The normalization
Z π r
2` + 1 1
Θ(θ) sin θdθ = 1 ⇒ C` =
0 2 2` `!
and, thus, the highest weight state is:
r
2` + 1 1
`
|`, ì ≡ Y` ((θ, φ) = sin` (θ)ei`φ . (2.21)
4π 2` `!
This is a special case of the well-known angular spherical harmonics,
Ym` ((θ, φ), which we do not have to construct explicitly thanks to the lad-
der procedure employed here. From this we obtain all states by stepping
1 These conditions are necessary to make ` truly self adjoined in the interval 0 ≤ φ ≤
Z
2π. In other words it is not enough for a differential operator to be formally self-adjoined.
To be truly Hermitian proper boundary conditions need be imposed.
down with the operator `− . The obtained results are discussed in elemen-
tary quantum mechanics and we are not going to elaborate further. We
simply mention that this way we obtain the representation D` invoking
the symmetries of the operators without having to solve the Schrödinger
equation.
The half integral representations
D(j) = D(`) ⊗ D(1/2) (2.22)
can be obtained as it will be discussed below.
2.3 The connection between the representations of SU(2)

and SO(3)
The group O(3) has been considered in the previous chapter, it is the set
of orthogonal transformations in three dimensions with det(O) = ±1. We
have also divided these transformations into two sets: the proper trans-
formations with det(O) = 1 and improper with det(O) = −1. The proper
transformations form a subgroup of O(3) called SO(3). The improper result
from the proper with multiplication with −I3 , where I3 is the identity 3 × 3
matrix. They do not form a subgroup, since the product of any two of them
is not an improper transformation. The proper orthogonal transformations
SO(3) or R(3) are generated by proper rotations R(α, β, γ) with three pa-
rameters (α, β, γ), which are three rotation angles that will be discussed
below. The improper orthogonal transformations cannot be generated from
R(α, β, γ) by a continuous change of the parameters.
The group of transformations of the group SU(2) is generated by the
the matrices:

a b
U (a, b) = , |a|2 + |b|2 = 1. (2.23)
−b∗ a∗
Since SU(2) and SO(3) are described in terms of three parameters, one
wonders whether there exists any relation between them.
To see this consider the matrix

z x − iy
(M ) =
x + iy −z
0
and the unitary transformation M → M = U (a, b)M U + (a, b) or
z0 x0 − iy 0
∗
a b z x − iy a −b
= . (2.24)
x0 + iy 0 z0 −b∗ a∗ x + iy z b∗ a
Now we note that detM = −(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), detM 0 = −((x0 )2 + (y 0 )2 +

(z 0 )2 ) and the unitary transformation preserves the determinant. We thus
conclude that the transformation (x, y, z) → (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) is orthogonal. In
fact from Eq. (2.24) we find
 0  
x x
 y 0  = O(a, b)  y 
z0 z
where
O(a, b) =
 
∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
2 a − b + (a ) − (b ) − 2 i a + b − (a ) − (b ) ab + a∗ b∗
 
1 i a2 − b2 − (a∗ )2 + (b∗ )2 1 a2 + b2 + (a∗ )2 + (b∗ )2 −i (ab − a∗ b∗ ) .
2 2 
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
−ba − ab i (ba − ab ) aa − bb
(2.25)
This establishes a correspondence between SU(2) and SO(3).
Consider now three successive operations
U (α, β, γ) = U (eiα/2 , 0)U (cos β, sin β)U (eiγ/2 , 0)
and correspondingly
R(α, β, γ) = O(eiα/2 , 0)O(cos β/2, sin β/2)O(eiγ/2 , 0).
Then we find
ei(α+γ)/2 cos β/2 ei(α−γ)/2 sin β/2

U (α, β, γ) = −i(α−γ)/2 (2.26)
−e sin β/2 e−i(α+γ)/2 cos β/2
and
R(α, β, γ) =
cos α cos β cos γ − sin α sin γ cos γ sin α + cos α cos β sin γ cos α sin β
!
− cos β cos γ sin α − cos α sin γ cos α cos γ − cos β sin α sin γ − sin α sin β .
− cos γ sin β − sin β sin γ cos β
(2.27)
This is a form of rotation matrix expressed in terms of the three Euler
angles. Note, however, that R(0, 2π, 0) = R(0, 0, 0), while U (0, 2π, 0) =
−U (0, 0, 0). In the same way
R(α, β + 2π, γ) = R(α, β, γ), U (α, β + 2π, γ) = −U (α, β, γ). (2.28)
In other words, a given matrix R(α, β, γ) corresponds to two matrices
U (α, β, γ). So the groups SU(2) and SO(3) are not isomorphic. The group
SU(2) is the covering group of SO(3). Then we say that SO(3) is iso-
morphic to SU(2)/Z2 , Z2 = {−1, 1}. The construction of the irreducible
representations will be done in section 2.4.
2.3.1 The weight diagrams for SO(3)
We must emphasize that the above result is a consequence of two things:

The hermiticity property of the operators involved, J 2 , J0 , (J+ )+ =
J− , (J− )+ = J+ , the fact that J 2 is positive definite and the fact that
hψ|ψi ≥ 0. These are a consequence that the algebra SO(3) is compact,
simply connected and semisimple. This does not hold, e.g., in the case of
SO(2, 1) (see section 10.2).
The representation D(j) is of dimension 2j + 1 and it is irreducible.
Imagine that this is not so. Then if the space spanned by the above states
|jmi is S2j+1 , it is possible to find a space S, S ⊂ S2j+1 . Suppose now
that there exists a state |j 0 i with the maximum eigenvalue of J0 . Then
J+ |j 0 i = 0. Since it belongs to S it can be expressed as a linear combination
of |jmi. Thus
j
X
|j 0 i = Cm |jmi ⇒ J + |j 0 i
m=−j
j
X p
= Cm (j − m)(j + m + 1)|jm + 1i = 0 (2.29)
m=−j
since the states |jmi are linearly independent. We find
Cm = 0, −j ≤ m ≤ j ⇒ j 0 = |jji.
We have seen, however, that all states of S2j+1 can be derived from this
state. So S = S2j+1 and the proposition is proved.
One can repeat the whole process starting with Eq. (2.11). Then one
obtains a new representation D−(j+1) . Now j takes negative values and
j ≤ m ≤ −j. It is, however, easy to show that in the case of SO(3)
the representations D(+j) and D−(j+1) are equivalent, related by a unitary
transformation. In fact the equation J0 |jmi = m|jmi as well as Eqs. (2.18)
and (2.19) remain unchanged if m → m, j → −(j + 1) (see also Fig. 2.1).
This is not true in the case of SO(2, 1), see section 10.2.
2.4 Explicit construction of the irreducible representations
SU(2) and SO(3) are useful in many areas of physics. We will examine
some of their common applications.
j
4
3
D(j)
2
1
m
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
D–(j+1)
Fig. 2.1: The values of m are represented on the x-axis and the values of
k on the y-axis for D(j) (upper part) and D−(j+1) (lower part). Both half
integral (large balls) and integral (small balls) are shown. The values of m
in a horizontal line characterize the representation. One can see that these
patterns are identical. So the two representations are equivalent. The figure
is extended to infinity both to the left and to the right. One can see that
Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19) remain unchanged if m → m, j → −(j + 1).
2.4.1 The irreducible representations of SU(2)
We have already seen that all representations can be obtained with the
fundamental 2-dimensional representation. A basis for it will be represented
by φ = (u, υ). Under SU(2) it transforms as:
u0

a b u
φ0 = U φ or = , |a|2 + |b|2 = 1 (2.30)
υ0 −b∗ a∗ υ
consider now the function

j uj+m υ j−m
fm (φ) = p p , m = −j, −j + 1, · · · , j − 1, j;
(j + m)! (j − m)!
j = ` + 1/2, ` = 0, 1, · · · , `,
which is a homogeneous polynomial of degree to (2j + 1) with respect to
the variables u and υ. The transformation of Eq. (2.30) induces a transfor-
j
mation TU (a, b) on the space of the functions fm (U φ), i.e.
j
TU (a, b)fm (φ) = φjm (U φ). (2.31)
We note, however, that:

a b u au + bυ
U |φi = =
−b∗ a∗ υ −b∗ u + a∗ υ
j (au + bυ)j+m (−b∗ u + b∗ υ)υ j−m

TU (a, b)fm (φ) = p p
(j + m)! (j − m)!
or
j+m
X j−m
p
j
X (j + m)!(j − m)!
TU (a, b)fm (φ) =
`!(j − m − `)!k!(j + m − k)!
k `
aj+m−k bk (−b∗ )j−m−` (a∗ )` u2j−k−` υ k+` .

We now set ` = j − m0 − k with the understanding that −j ≤ m0 ≤ j. Then
we obtain:
j
(j)
X j
j
TU (a, b)fm (φ) = Um0 ,m (a, b)fm 0 (φ) (2.32)
m0 =−j
with
p
(j)
X (j + m)!(j − m)!(j + m0 )!(j − m0 )!
Um0 ,m (a, b) = aj+m−k
(j − m0 − k)!(j + m − k)!(m0 − m + k)!k!
k
0 0
b (−b∗ )m −m+k (a∗ )j−m −k .
k
(2.33)
The summation index k must satisfy the conditions j + m − k ≥ 0, j − m0 −
k ≥ 0, m0 − m + k ≥ 0, k ≥ 0. Thus
max(m − m0 , 0) ≤ k ≤ min(j + m, j − m0 ). (2.34)
j
It is clear that the functions fm (φ)
are linearly independent. Hence the
(j)
matrix Um0 ,m constitutes a (2j + 1) × (2j + 1) representation of SU(2)
associated with the operator TU (a, b). We will show that this representation
is irreducible.
Theorem 1: The representation defined by Eqs. (2.32) and (2.33) are irre-
ducible.
We will utilize the first Schur lemma:
First Schur Lemma: If a matrix (ρ) commutes with all the matrices D(R),
which form an irreducible representation of a group G, i.e. for all elements
R of G, then (ρ) is a multiple of the identity.
In our case:
U j (a, b)(ρ) = (ρ)U j (a, b) ∨ a, b ⇒ ρ = λI, I = the identity matrix, (2.35)
λ a constant.
The proof will be done in two steps:
i) Suppose b = 0, then a =iα/2 with α ∈ R.
In this case only k = 0 contributes to the sum of Eq. (2.33). The
sum is zero unless m = m0 . Then
(j)
Um0 ,m (eiα/2 , 0) = δm0 ,m eiα/2 .
Thus
j
U j (a, b)(ρ) = (ρ)U j (a, b) ⇒ (Um,m
j
(a, b)−Um 0 ,m0 (a, b))(ρ)m0 ,m = 0.
In other words, for m0 6= we should have (ρ)m0 ,m = 0, m 6= m0 , i.e.

the matrix is diagonal
(ρ)m0 ,m = ρm δm0 ,m .
ii) Suppose m0 = j. Then Eq. (2.34) implies k = 0, i.e.
√
j 2j
Uj,m (a, b) = .
(j + m)!(j − m)!
Then Eq. (2.35) implies:
j j j
ρm Ujm = ρj Ujm or (ρm − ρj )Ujm = 0.
j
Thus Ujm 6= 0 ⇒ ρm = ρj and the proof is complete.
It can be seen that this representation is unitary2 . Writing a =
eiα/2 cos θ, b = eiβ/2 sin θ we obtain
p
(j)
X (j + m)!(j − m)!(j + m0 )!(j − m0 )!
Um0 ,m (α, β, θ) =
(j − m0 − k)!(j + m − k)!(m0 − m + k)!k!
k
0
i(m+m0 )α i(m−m0 )β 0
e e (−1)k+m −m cos2(j−k) θ sin2k+m −m θ.
(2.36)
2 Expected anyway since the group is compact and simply connected.
The trace of the last expression (m = m0 ) is independent of β and takes

the form:
X X cos2j−2k θ sin2k θ(−1)k
χj (α, θ) = (j)
Um,m (α, β, θ) =
m
(k!)2
k
X (j + m)!(j − m)!ei2mα
. (2.37)
m
(j − m − k)!(j + m − k)!
The above expression is complicated. It can be shown, however, that it is
independent of θ and takes the simple form:
(2j + 1)α
χj (α, θ) → χj (α) = χj (α, 0) = .
sin α
This can be seen from the following:
Theorem 2: The group elements of SU(2) with parameters a that have the
same real part belong to the same class and hence they have the same trace.
It is suffice to show that such elements have the same eigenvalues, since
elements with the same eigenvalue are related by a similarity transforma-
tion. Suppose that a = k1 + ik2 , k12 + k22 = 1. Then

a−λ b
q
2
det = 0 ⇒ λ − 2k1 λ + 1 = 0 ⇒ λ = k1 ± i 1 − k12
−b∗ a∗ − λ
writing now k1 = cos ξ, 0 ≤ ξ ≤ 2π ⇒ λ = e±ξ . Thus the matrices with
the same eigenvalue are similar to the matrix
iξ
e 0
(δ) = .
0 e−iξ
All these matrices are similar and have the same trace. It is thus adequate
to consider a particular member, namely that with θ = 0. Thus the only
term contributing to Eq. (2.36) comes from k = 0, yielding the desired
result
j
X sin (2j + 1)α
χj (α) = e2mα = .
m=−j
sin α
The unit element forms a class in itself with trace xj (0) = 2j + 1.
2.4.2 The irreducible representations of SO(3)

We have seen in section 2.3 that we can use the above results for SU(2)
to obtain the SO(3) representations, which, following standard notation,
j
will be denoted now by Dm,m 0 (α, β, γ), resulting from the substitution
θ → β/2, α → α+γ, α → α−γ. This amounts to setting a = cos β2 e(α+γ)/2 ,

b = sin β2 e(α−γ)/2 , we obtain
j j β (α+γ)/2 β
Dm,m 0 (α, β, γ) = Um,m0 (cos e , sin e(α−γ)/2 ),
2 2
i.e. p
j
X (j + m)!(j − m)!(j + m0 )!(j − m0 )!
Dm,m 0 (α, β, γ) =
(j − m0 − k)!(j + m − k)!(m0 − m + k)!k!
k
2(j−k)+m−m 0 2k+m0 −m
im0 α imγ k+m−m0 β β
e e (−1) cos sin . (2.38)
2 2
This equation is usually put in the form
j im0 α imγ j
Dm,m 0 (α, β, γ) = e e dm,m0 (β) (2.39)
with p
j
X (j + m)!(j − m)!(j + m0 )!(j − m0 )! 0
dm,m0 (β) = (−1)k+m−m
(j − m0 − k)!(j + m − k)!(m0 − m + k)!k!
k
2(j−k)+m−m0 2k+m0 −m
β β
cos sin . (2.40)
2 2
We can use the above formulas to compute the functions djm,m0 (β), see
Table 2.1 obtained using Mathematica. They can also be obtained in terms
of the Jacobi polynomials
n
1 X Γ(n + ν + 1)(x − 1)n−k Γ(n + µ + 1)((1 + x)k
Pn(ν,µ) (x) = n .
2 Γ(k + 1)Γ(n + ν − k + 1) Γ(n − k + 1)Γ(µ + k + 1)
k=0
One can now write Eq. (2.40) as
s
(j + m0 )!(j − m0 )! m0 −m m0 +m
djm,m0 (β) = (cos β/2) (− sin β/2)
(j + m)!(j − m)!
0 0
m −m,m +m
Pj−m 0 (cos β), m0 − m ≥ 0. (2.41)
0
For m − m < 0 we use the symmetry property dm,m0 (β) = −dm0 ,m (β).
We now notice that
djm,m0 (β + 2π) = (−1)2j djm,m0 (β).
This is not acceptable for representations of SO(3) for j = half integral,
since for SO(3) this transformation in coordinate space corresponds to ro-
tations, which we know they are single valued. So the above representation
is acceptable for SO(3) only if 2j = ` = integer. They are indicated as
(`) 2j
Dm,m0 = Dm,m 0 , ` = 0, 1, · · · .
SO(3) has representations with half integral values, however, if the trans-
formations are not restricted to ordinary space, e.g. if spin is included.
2.4.3 The rotation matrix

In fact in the standard approach of quantum mechanics the D-functions
are obtained by calculating the matrix element of the rotation operator
R(α, β, γ) causing a rotation through the Euler angles α, β, γ. This op-
erator is expressed in terms of elementary rotations α, β, γ via angular
momentum operators Jz , Jy , Jz , in units of ~, applied in this order [Rose
(1957)]. Then
R(α, β, γ) = eiαJz eiβJy eiγJz (2.42)
and
j 0 iαJz iβJy iγJz
Dm 0 ,m (α, β, γ) = hjm |e e e |jmi. (2.43)
Since
Jz |jmi = m|jmi,
we get
j 0
Dm 0 ,m (α, β, γ) = e
iαm
hjm0 |eiβJy |jmieiγm (2.44)
⇒ djm0 ,m (β) = hjm0 |eiβJy |jmi. (2.45)
It can be shown that this expression is the same as that of Eq. (2.40). So
we can use either one to study the SU(2) and SO(3). Thus, e.g.,

1/2
dm,m0 = ei(β/2)σy
m,m0
but
cos β2 sin β2

β β
e i(β/2)σy
= cos + iσy sin ⇒ djm,m0 (β) = .
2 2 − sin β2 cos β2
Some simple d-functions for j = 1/2, 1, 3/2 obtained using Eq. (2.40) are
shown in Table 2.1.
Of particular interest is the function djm,m0 (π) associated with a rotation
around the y-axis through an angle equal to π. Then one finds
 
  00 01
0 0 −1  0 0 −1 0 
01
d1/2 (π) = , d1 (π) =  0 1 0  , d3/2 (π) =   0 1 0 0.

−1 0
−1 0 0
−1 0 0 0
In general
(−1)j+1−` , k + ` = 0

dj (π) k,` =

, k, ` = j, j − 1, · · · , −j + 1, −j
0, otherwise.
(2.46)
76
Table 2.1: The function djm,m0 for j = 1/2, 1, 3/2.
 
 1
 j=1
j=  m/m0
 m/m0
2 0 1 −1 
1/2 −1/2  
Group and Representation Theory

β sin(β) β
sin2 2 

  1 cos2 
√
 
 1/2 cos β2 β  2 2

sin 2 sin(β) sin(β) 

   0 − √ cos(β) √ 
−1/2 − sin β2 cos β2  2 2 
2 β sin(β) 2 β
−1 sin 2 − √2 cos 2
 
j = 3/2
 m/m0
3/2 1/2 −1/2 −3/2 

3 β
√
β
√ β

1 2 1
sin3 β2 
 
 3/2 cos 2 3 csc 2 sin (β) 2 3 sin 2 sin(β)
 4 √ 
 1/2 − 34 csc β2 sin2 (β) 1 β 3β 1 β 3 β
 
4 cos + 3 cos (3 cos(β) + 1) sin sin sin(β) 
 √ 2 2 2 2
√
2 2 
 −1/2 23 sin β2 sin(β) 1 β 3β 1 β 3β 3 β 2

4 sin 2 − 3sin 2

4 cos 2 + 3 cos 2 4 csc 2 sin(β)

 √ √ 
−3/2 − sin3 β2 1 β
2 3 sin 2 sin(β) − 4 3 csc β2 sin2 (β)
1
cos3 β2

One can verify that dj (π) (Jz ) = −(Jz ) dj (π) , where
(Jz ) = diagonal(j, j − 1, · · · , −j + 1, −j).
Also under the time reversal transformation T the angular momentum op-
erator changes sign T −1 JT = −J, which means that T and J anti-commute.
Thus one can show that the operator T dj (π) commutes with (Jz ) and
J2 , so that all three can be diagonalized simultaneously. Indeed:
[T dj (π) , (Jz )] = T dj (π) (Jz ) − (Jz )T dj (π)

= T dj (π) (Jz ) + T (Jz ) dj (π) = T dj (π) (Jz ) − T dj (π) (Jz ) = 0.

Similarly for J2 . One can choose the eigenvectors so that

T dj (π) |j, mi = −|j, mi.

Noting now that, see Eq. (2.46),

dj (π) |j, mi = −(−1)j−m |j, −mi,

(2.47)
we find
T |j, mi = (−1)j+m |j, −mi, (2.48)
a well-known relation.
j
2.5 Another form of the rotation matrix: Rm,m 0 (ω, Θ, Φ)
In many applications it is not convenient to express a given rotation in

terms of the Euler angles α, β, γ. It is more convenient to express it in
terms of a rotation around a given axis n̂ ⇔ (Θ, Φ) by an angle ω, where
Θ is the polar angle and Φ the azimuthal angle. Such a rotation can be
achieved as follows:
• A rotation R1 (α1 = Φ, β1 = Θ, γ1 = −Φ). This turns the z-axis in
the direction specified by the angles Θ, Φ.
• A rotation R2 (α2 = ω, β2 = 0, γ2 = 0).
• A rotation R1 (α3 = Φ, β3 = −Θ, γ3 = −Φ). This essentially re-
verses R1 .
Fortunately such a rotation R1 R2 R3 can be simply expressed very simply
in terms of the Wigner Dj -functions:
j
X 00 j j
Rm,m 0 (ω, Θ, Φ) = e−im ω Dmm 00 (Φ, Θ, −Φ)Dm00 m0 (Φ, −Θ, −Φ). (2.49)
m00
It can also be shown that the sums can be performed to yield:

!m+m0
j (m−m0 )/2 −i(m−m0 )Φ) 1 − i tan ω/2 cos Θ
Rm,m 0 (ω, Θ, Φ) = (−1) e p
1 + tan2 ω/2 cos2 Θ
× djm,m0 (ξ), (2.50)
where
ξ ω
sin
= sin sin Θ.
2 2
Other forms are also possible, see e.g, [Varsalovich et al. (1989)]. We find:
r
λ 2λ + 1 j 4π
j
X
0
Rm,m 0 (ω, Θ, Φ) = (−i) χ (ω)hjm, λµ|jm i Y λ (Θ, Φ),
2J + 1 λ 2λ + 1 µ
λµ
where Yµλ (Θ, Φ)are the usual spherical harmonics, hjm, λµ|jm0 i the C-G
(see section 2.6.1),
s λ
j
p (2j − λ)! ω λ d
χλ (ω) = (2j + 1 sin χj (ω)
(2j + λ + 1)! 2 d cos (ω/2)
with χj (ω) the character of the representation:
sin (2j + 1)ω
χj (ω) = .
sin ω
2.6 Reduction of D (j1 ) ⊗ D (j2 )
We have seen that the representation D(j) is irreducible. The Kronecker

product representation D(j1 ) ⊗D(j2 ) is generally reducible. It can, however,
be expressed as a linear combination representation of irreducible represen-
tations D(j) of SO(3),
X
D(j1 ) (α, β, γ) ⊗ D(j2 ) (α, β, γ) = ⊕D(j) (α, β, γ).
j
Some important facts are the following:

i) For the simple group SO(3) the representation D(j) can only appear
in the above equation once. This is not true for more complex
groups.
ii) The following triangular conditions hold:
|j1 − j2 | ≤ j ≤ j1 + j2
jX
1 +j2
⇒ D(j1 ) (α, β, γ) ⊗ D(j2 ) (α, β, γ) = ⊕D(j) (α, β, γ). (2.51)

|j1 −j2 |
iii) The basis defining D(j) is specified by the quantum numbers j1 , j2 , j

and m.
In the case of the function D(j1 ) the basis is |j1 , m1 i and the angular mo-
mentum operators are J(1) . Similarly for D(j2 ) the basis is |j2 , m2 i and
the operators are J(2) . The Hilbert spaces are different and hence the two
operators commute. In the case of D(j) the basis is |j, mi, but it depends
on j1 and j2 and the relevant operator now J = J(1) + J(2) . We write it as
|(ρ, j1 , j2 )j, mi where ρ may be any additional index to specify the state.
We find that
J0 (|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i) = (J (1) )0 + (J (2) )0 (|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i)
= (J (1) )0 (|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i) + (J (2) )0 (|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i)

= (J (1) )0 |j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i + |j1 m1 i (J (2) )0 |j2 m2 i
= (m1 + m2 )|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i. (2.52)
The coupled state satisfies the equations:
(J (1) )2 |(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi = j1 (j1 + 1)|(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi,
(J (2) )2 |(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi = j2 (j2 + 1)|(j1 , j2 )j, mi,
J 2 |(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi = j(j + 1)|(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi,
J0 |(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi = m|(ρj1 , j2 )j, mi. (2.53)
Recall that
J = J(1) + J(2) , [J(1) , J(2) ] = 0. (2.54)
Equations (2.52) and (2.53) imply:
m1 + m2 = conservation of m. (2.55)
We write:
X
|ρj1 , j2 )j, mi = h(ρj1 j2 )m|j1 m1 , j2 m2 ij1 m1 i|j2 m2 iδm1 +m2 ,m (2.56)
m1 ,m2
X
|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i = hj1 m1 , j2 m2 |(ρj1 j2 )mi|ρ(j1 , j2 )j, miδm1 +m2 ,m . (2.57)
j
Since the transformation is unitary

hj1 m1 , j2 m2 |(ρj1 j2 )mi = h(ρj1 j2 )m|j1 m1 , j2 m2 i∗ .
What are the possible allowed values of j?
Obviously there exists a value of m equal to j1 + j2 . Thus there must

be the value of j = j1 + j2 . This devours one value of m in the range
−j1 − j2 , −j1 − j2 + 1, · · · , j1 + j2 . There were two ways of making m =
j1 + j2 − 1, so one was left to go with a j equal to j1 + j2 − 1. There were
three ways of making m = j1 +j2 −2 allowing one j = j1 +j2 −2. Obviously
this cannot continue forever. Suppose that j1 ≥ j2 . Then the process stops
when j = j1 − j2 . We thus proved that the minimum value of j is |j1 − j2 |.
The number of possible states obtained this way is
jX
1 +j2
(2j + 1) = (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1).

|j1 −j2 |
Since this is equal to the number of available states, the index ρ is not
needed and will be dropped. The state is completely specified by j1 , j2 , j, m,
which means that the representation D(j) occurs only once.
jX
1 +j2
D(j1 ) (α, β, γ) ⊗ D(j2 ) (α, β, γ) = ⊕D(j) (α, β, γ). (2.58)

|j1 −j2 |
2.6.1 The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients

It will be shown that the coefficients h(j1 j2 )m|j1 m1 , j2 m2 i and
hj1 m1 , j2 m2 |(j1 j2 )jmi can be chosen to be real. So the transformation is
orthogonal. These are called Clebsch-Gordan coefficients and they are very
useful in all areas of physics. Fortunately they have been tabulated. Now
they are available in algebraic form by Mathematica. We will, however,
briefly sketch how they can be calculated, since the method can be used to
calculate the Clebsch-Gordan (C-G) coefficients yielding the reduction of
representations of higher symmetry groups.
We can then evaluate by considering the action of J± on the state
X
|j1 , j2 )j, mi = hj1 , m1 , j2 m2 |jmi∗ |j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i (2.59)
m1 ,m2
where we have made the notation for the C-G slightly simpler and with the
needed restrictions on the quantum numbers understood. Acting on the
left-hand side of this equation we get:
p
J± |j1 , j2 )j, mi = (j ∓ m)(j ± m + 1)|j1 , j2 )j, m ± 1i
X p
= (j ∓ m)(j ± m + 1)hj1 m1 , j2 m2 |j ± mi∗ |j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i.
m1 (m2 )
(2.60)
Acting on its right-hand side we get:

X
J± |j1 , j2 )j, mi = hj1 m1 , j2 , j3 |jmi
m1 (m2 )
hp
× (j ∓ m1 )(j ± m1 + 1)|j1 , m1 ± 1i|j2 m2 i
p i
+ (j ∓ m2 )(j ± m2 + 1)|j1 , m1 i|j2 , m2 ± 1i
or, by setting m1 ± 1 → m1 in the first part and m2 ± 1 → m2 in the second
part, we get
X
J± |j1 , j2 )j, mi = |j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i
m1 (m2 )
hp
× (j1 ∓ m1 + 1)(j ± m1 )hj1 m1 ± 1j2 m2 |jmi
p i
+ (j ∓ m2 + 1)(j ± m2 )hj1 m1 j2 m2 ± 1|jmi . (2.61)
Since the states |j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i are linearly independent Eqs. (2.60) and
(2.61) yield:
p
(j ∓ m)(j ± m + 1)hj1 m ± 1 − m2 , j2 m2 |jm ± 1i∗
p
= (j1 ∓ (m − m2 ))(j1 ± (m − m2 ) + 1)hj1 (m − m2 )j2 m2 |jmi
p
+ (j ∓ m2 + 1)(j ± m2 )hj1 m − (m2 ± 1)j2 m2 ± 1|jmi. (2.62)
The last equation with the (−) sign is a recursion relation allowing one
to calculate the C-G coefficients hj1 , m1 j2 , m2 |jm − 1i once the coefficient
hj1 , m1 j2 , m2 |jmi is known. So it is necessary to first evaluate the coefficient
hj1 m1 j2 m2 |jji. This can be calculated from the same equation with the
(−) sign after specializing it for j = m. Then the left-hand side vanishes
and we get:
p
j2 − m2 + 1)(j2 + m2 )hj1 j − m2 + 1j2 m2 − 1|jji
p
+ (j1 − j + m2 )(j1 + j − m2 + 1)hj1 j − m2 j2 m2 |jji = 0 (2.63)
or
s
j2 − m2 + 1)(j2 + m2 )
hj1 j − m2 j2 m2 |jji = −
(j1 − j + m2 )(j1 + j − m2 + 1)
hj1 j − m2 + 1j2 m2 − 1|jji. (2.64)
The last equation allows the determination of all relevant C-G coefficients in
terms of hj1 j1 j2 − j1 |jji. The latter is fixed by the normalization condition.
The standardization is
hj1 j1 j2 − j1 |jji > 0 (Condon-Shortley phase convention). (2.65)
With this choice all C-G are real. Also the coefficient for the unique state
j = j1 + j2 , m = j1 + j2 is always equal to one. Furthermore with this
convention the C-G have the following symmetry relations:
hj2 m2 j1 m1 |jmi = (−1)j1 +j2 −j hj1 m1 j2 m2 |jmi (2.66)
hj1 − m1 j2 − m2 |j − mi = (−1)j1 +j2 −j hj1 m1 j2 m2 |jmi (2.67)

s
2j + 1
hj1 m1 j2 m2 |jmi = (−1)j−j1 −m2 hjm j2 − m2 |j1 m1 i. (2.68)
2j1 + 1
2.6.2 Methods of evaluating the Clebsch-Gordan

coefficients
To illustrate the method we will apply it in the case of j1 > 1/2 and
j2 = 1/2. The possible values of j are j = j1 − 1/2 since j1 J1 1/21/2|j1 +
1/2j1 + 1/2i = 1 Eq. (2.64) yields
1
hj1 j1 − 1 1/21/2|j1 − 1/2j1 − 1/2i = − hj1 j1 1/1/2 − 1/2|j1 − 1/2j1 − 1/2i
2j1
the normalization condition reads

1 11 1 1
1+ hj1 j1 |j1 − j1 − i2 = 1
2j1 22 2 2
s
1 1 1 1 2j1
⇒ hj1 j1 − |j1 − j1 − i = ,
2 2 2 2 2j1 + 1
r
11 1 1 1
hj1 j1 − 1 |j1 − j1 − i = − .
22 2 2 2j1 + 1
Let us now return to Eq. (2.62). Selecting m2 = 1/2 (lower index) we
obtain:
s
3 11 (j + m1 − 1/2)(j1 − m + 3/2) 1 11
hj1 m− , |jm−1i = hj1 m− , |jmi.
2 22 (j + m)(j − m + 1) 2 22
(2.69)
Selecting m2 = −1/2 (upper index) we obtain and replacing m → m + 1
we obtain:
s
1 1 1 (j + 1 − m + 1/2)(j1 + m + 1/2)
hj1 m + , − |jmi =
2 2 2 (j − m)(j + m + 1)
1 1 1
×hj1 m − , − |jm − 1i. (2.70)
2 2 2
Inserting j = j1 + 1/2 in Eq. (2.69) we obtain the recursion relation:

s
1 11 1 j1 + m + 1/2 3 11 1
hj1 m − , |j1 + − mi = hj1 m − , |j1 + m − 1i.
2 22 2 (j1 + m − 1/2 2 22 2
(2.71)
Applying it repeatedly we get:
s
1 11 1 j1 + m + 1/2 11 1 1
hj1 m − , |j1 + mi = hj1 j1 , |j1 + j1 + i
2 22 2 2j1 + 1 22 2 2
s
j1 + m + 1/2
= . (2.72)
2j1 + 1
Inserting j = j1 − 1/2 in Eq. (2.69) we obtain the recursion relation:
s
1 11 1 j1 − m + 3/2 3 11 1
hj1 m− , |j1 − mi = hj1 m− , |j1 − m−1i (2.73)
2 22 2 j1 − m + 1/2 2 22 2
1 11 1 p 11 1 1
⇒ hj1 m − , |j1 − mi = j1 − m + 3/2hj1 j1 , |j1 − j1 − i
2 22 2 s 2 2 2 2
j1 − m + 3/2
=− . (2.74)
2j1 + 1
Inserting j = j1 − 1/2 in Eq. (2.70) we obtain the recursion relation:
s
1 1 1 1 (j1 + m + 1/2) 1 1 1 1
hj1 m+ , − |j1 + mi = hj1 m− , − |j1 − +m−1i.
2 2 2 2 (j1 + m − 1/2) 2 2 2 2
(2.75)
Applying this repeatedly we get
s
1 1 1 1 j + 1/2 + m 1 1 1 1
hj1 m + , − |j1 + mi = hj1 j1 − |j1 − j1 − i
2 2 2 2 2j1 2 2 2 2
s
j1 + m + 1/2
= . (2.76)
2j1 + 1
The coefficient hj1 m + 21 , 12 − 12 |j1 + 21 mi can be obtained analogously. We
prefer, however, to construct it using the orthogonality of the matrix of
C-G coefficients. Thus we get:
s
1 1 1 1 j1 − m + 1/2
hj1 m + , − |j1 + mi = .
2 2 2 2 2j1 + 1
The above results are summarized in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Some simple C-G coefficients

1
m2 → 2
− 12
j↓ q q
1 j1 +1/2+m j1 +1/2−m
j1 + 2 2j1 +1 2j1 +1
q q
1 j1 +1/2−m j1 +1/2+m
j1 − 2
− 2j1 +1 2j1 +1
The recursion relations have been used to give the C-G coefficients in
algebraic form, see, e.g., [Varsalovich et al. (1989)], [Edmonds (1957)]. In
fact it can be expressed in terms of the usual binomial coefficients:
hj1 m1 j2 m2 |jmi = Cjjm
1 m1 j2 m2
,
cγ
Caα bβ =
s
2a 2b J +1 2a 2b 2c
J − 2c J − 2c J − 2c a−α b−β c−γ

X J − 2c J − 2b J − 2a
× (−1)z
z
z a−α−z b+β−z
where J = a+b+c. It can also be expressed in terms of the hypergeometric
functions 3 F 2 , but we will not present such results here.
2.6.3 The Wigner 3 − j symbol

We should mention that often, instead of the C-G, the Wigner 3 − j symbol
is used. It is defined by

j1 j2 j3 1
≡ (−1)j1 −j2 −m3 √ hj1 m1 j2 m2 |j3 − m3 (2.77)
m1 m2 m3 2j3 + 1

p j1 −j2 +m3 j1 j2 j3
hj1 m1 j2 m2 |j3 m3 = 2j3 + 1(−1) . (2.78)
m1 m2 −m3
The Wigner 3 − j symbol has a higher symmetry than the C-G coefficient.
With the above choice of the phase it is invariant under any cyclic permu-
tation of the columns and it is simply multiplied by (−1)j1 +j2 −j3 under the
interchange of any two columns.
Chapter 3
Elements of Lie Groups
3.1 Introduction
We remind again the essential concepts regarding the notion of a group. A

group is a set of elements
G : X ≡ {X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn }
with properties:
(1) X1 ∈ G X2 ∈ G ⇒ X1 X2 = X3 , X3 ∈ G.
(2) X1 (X2 X3 ) = (X1 X2 )X3 .
(3) ∃ I ∈ G such that Xi I = IXi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
(4) For every Xi ∈ G, there is one element Yi ∈ G, such that
Xi Yi = I.
Then the element Yi is called inverse of Xi , and we write Yi = Xi−1 .
Note that the multiplication in general is not commutative, i.e. often;
Xi Xj 6= Xj Xi .
0
A subset of G ⊂ G, such that:
• Xi ∈ G0 , Yj ∈ G0 → Xi Yj ∈ G0 ,
• the elements of G0 satisfy all the above properties,
forms a subgroup. Furthermore, if for any two elements of G0 we have:
Xi Yi = Yi Xi
then G0 is called Abelian.
A group is simple, if it does not contain any invariant subgroups. A
group is semisimple, if it does not contain any continuous invariant Abelian
subgroups.
85
We will consider in this chapter a group G whose elements can be expressed

as functions of some continuous variables α1 , α2 , · · · , αr
A ∈ G ⇒ A = φ(α1 , α2 , · · · , αr ) ≡ φ(α),
where φ is a continuous function chosen in such a way that
E = φ(0, 0, · · · , 0).
The set of parameters is minimal, in the sense there is no other set of r0
parameters βi such that A = χ(β1 , β2 , · · · , βr0 ) for all the elements A ∈ G.
The parameters themselves, however, may be chosen in many different ways.
The number r is called rank of the group G. The number of the elements
of such a group may be infinite and perhaps non-countable. The elements
form a closed set in the sense A ∈ G, B ∈ G ⇒ AB ∈ G. Then
φ(α1 , α2 , · · · , αr )φ(β1 , β2 , · · · , βr ) = φ(γ1 , γ2 , · · · , γr ),
γi = fi (α1 , α2 , · · · , αr ; β1 , β2 , · · · , βr ) or symbolically γ = f (α, β).
The above requirements are satisfied if the functions f are differentiable
with respect to all parameters. If it is applied to the case of the identity
element, we must have:
f (α, 0) = α, f (0, β) = β.
Furthermore
A(BC) = (AB)C ⇔ φ(α)(φ(β)φ(γ)) = (φ(α)φ(β))φ(γ)
⇒ f (α, f (β, γ)) = f (f (α, β), γ).
We call all continuous groups, which meet the above requirements, Lie
groups.
We will illustrate the above with the example of rotations in a plane
(around an axis perpendicular to it). The group elements in two dimensions
are:

cos θ sin θ
R(θ) = , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. (3.1)
− sin θ cos θ
This is a group of rank one described by one parameter α1 = θ with

10
E = R(0) = .
01
Here
f (θ1 )f (θ2 ) ⇔ (f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 )
f1 (θ1 , θ2 )=f4 (θ1 , θ2 )=cos (θ1 + θ2 ), f2 (θ1 , θ2 )=−f3 (θ1 , θ2 ) = sin (θ1 + θ2 ).
It is easy to see that these functions satisfy all the above requirements.
Elements of Lie Groups 87
3.2 Some topological considerations
The above considerations can be illuminated by topological considerations.

The reader who is not interested in such mathematical can skip this material
and move to the end of this section.
The topology is define in the space S of the parameters. For our pur-
poses a metric space must be defined. We will require that this space be
equipped with a scalar product, which automatically provides the metric.
Thus if an element A ∈ G is given, we assign to it a point P (A) in the
parameter space Sr , which we call an image of A. In the above example
the parameter space S1 is 1-dimensional and consists of the line segment
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. In the element R we associate the point P (R) = θ.
Since the space is equipped with a metric, we can promptly define the
neighborhood π (P ) of P with a radius . This is the set of points P 0 such
that ||P 0 − P (A)|| < , > 0.
Consider now the elements X ∈ G such that
X ∈ G ⇒ |P (X) − P (A)| < .
Then we say that the elements are in a neighborhood π (A) of the group
G. This consists of all group elements, which have an image in the neigh-
borhood π(P, ) of the parameter space.
Let us now elaborate on how these ideas can be applied to Lie groups.
Let us consider the composition AB = C. It is continuous with respect to
B if
∀ > 0 ∃ δ() : (AX) ∈ π (C) ⇒ X ∈ πδ B
or in plane words, given > 0 such that
|P (AX) − P (C)| <
one can find δ > 0, which depends on , such that
|P (X) − P (B)| < δ.
The continuity with respect to the element A is defined similarly. Also in
connection with the inverse of an element. Now we proceed further:
Definition: A given group is topological [Pontryagin (1986)] if the law of
multiplication and the law of inverse are continuous for all elements of the
group. We also want it to be simply connected.
We are now going to examine the meaning of connectivity. Suppose that
we have two elements Ai ∈ G and Aj ∈ G. The corresponding points in
the parameter space are P (Ai ) and P (Aj ). If any line connecting the two
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.1: Examples of two not simply connected spaces in the plane (a) and
toroidal surface (b). A plane segment without holes is simply connected.
The surface of a sphere, unlike that of a torus, is also simply connected.
points lies entirely in the parameter space, the space is simply connected
or connected. Otherwise the space is multiply connected or not connected.
A group is simply connected if its parameter space is simply connected.
Example 1: Let us consider the real line R and the unit circle S and the
mapping
ρ : x → P (x) : P (x) = ei 2πx . (3.2)
This sends the group G, defined with respect to addition, the inverse of an
element being its opposite and the identity the zero element, to the group
G0 defined the usual way, via multiplication. Clearly
−1
P (x1 )P (x2 ) = ei 2π(x1 +x2 ) , P −1 (x) = ei 2π(x = ei 2π−(x) ,
i.e. it sends the segment of R in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 to the space S of the

unit circle. The last space of course is not simply connected, even though
the initial one is. This is exhibited in Fig. 3.2. Incidentally we note that
P (x + n) = P (x), n ∈ Z integer. Then we say that the above mapping is
a homomorphism. The two groups are not isomorphic. We say that the
nucleus of ρ is Z and G is the covering group of G0 . We then say that G0
is isomorphic to G/Z.
It is clear that the connectivity should not be confused with continuity.
The mapping maybe continuous, but it may send a segment to numerous
not connected segments.
Example 2: As a more realistic example let us consider the group SO(3), i.e.
the group of rotations R(3) of orthogonal transformations in 3 dimensions
1.0
0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
-0.5
=⇒ -1.0
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.2: The segment 0 ≤ x ≤ 2P i (a) is mapped by the transformation

given by Eq. (3.2) into the unit circle centered at (0, 0) (b).
with determinant +1. The group R(3) is not simply connected. This can be
seen from the simple parametrization of the 3-dimensional space S3 : Every
element of R(3) is described by a rotation involving a rotation axis u and the
angle rotation angle ψ. So it can be represented by a vector ω parallel to u
with length ψ. Then every element of R(3), with the exception of those that
correspond to a rotation angle ψ = π, are into one-to-one correspondence
with the interior of a sphere of radius π, |ω| < π. Then we face the hurdle
to deal with the problem that one cannot distinguish rotations by an angle
ψ = π from those with ψ = −π. The way out is to view the anti-diametric
points of the sphere as being glued together. In other words the two points
opposite to a diameter of a sphere correspond to the same rotation in R(3).
This has important implications regarding the connectivity of R(3).
These identifications illustrate that SO(3) is connected but not simply
connected. As to the latter, in the ball with antipodal surface points iden-
tified, consider the path running from the “north pole” straight through
the interior down to the south pole. This is a closed loop, since the north
pole and the south pole are identified. This loop cannot be shrunk to a
point, since no matter how you deform the loop, the start and end points
have to remain antipodal, or else the loop will “break open”. In terms of
rotations, this loop represents a continuous sequence of rotations about the
z-axis starting and ending at the identity rotation (i.e. a series of rotation
through an angle ψ where ψ runs from 0 to 2π).
Surprisingly, if you run through the path twice, i.e. run from north pole
down to south pole, jump back to the north pole (using the fact that north
and south poles are identified), and then again run from north pole down
to south pole, so that ψ runs from 0 to 4π, you get a closed loop which can
be shrunk to a single point: first move the paths continuously to the ball’s
surface, still connecting north pole to south pole twice. The second half of
the path can then be mirrored over to the antipodal side without changing
the path at all. Now we have an ordinary closed loop on the surface of the
ball, connecting the north pole to itself along a great circle. This circle can
be shrunk to the north pole without problems. The same situation arises
if we consider two points P1 and P2 on the sphere. They can be directly
connected following the shortest path between P1 and P2 . Another path is
to go the opposite way. Then eventually a point P10 , which forces a jump
directly to its anti-diametrical point P20 and eventually along the surface of
the sphere reach the point P2 . The path P1 P10 P20 P2 is not continuous and
it cannot be continuously deformed achieve the goal to lead smoothly from
P1 to P2 . The group R3 is not simply connected. The same is true for
orthogonal groups in higher dimensions.
Definition: A group is compact, if its parameter space is compact, i.e.
closed and bounded. This means that a Cauchy sequence with elements in
parametric space has a limit which lies in the parameter space.
3.3 Infinitesimal generators
For some Lie groups it is possible to obtain every element of the group with
a continuous variation of its parameters. This, e.g., is possible in the case
of SO(n) but not in the case of O(n). In the case of O(n) the parametric
space can be composed of two non-overlapping sheets, depending on the
sign of the corresponding determinant. We can construct all the elements
of one sheet starting with parameter values (0, 0, · · · , 0), which correspond
to the identity. Then the elements corresponding to the other sheet can be
obtained by multiplying the elements of this sheet with an element coming
from the other sheet. Thus the elements of O(2) are obtained by multiply-
ing the elements of SO(2) given by a rotation in a plane, Eq. (3.1), with
the diagonal matrix (1, −1), with determinant −1. The elements of O(3)
are obtained from those connected with the identity, given by Eq. (2.27),
and the additional ones obtained from the previous ones with determinant
−1, e.g., the diagonal matrices (1, 1, −1), (−1, −1, −1) etc. We may thus
say that the group O(n) is described by r = (1/2)n(n − 1) continuous
parameters and the sign of the determinant of its elements. The sheet
containing the identity is of particular interest in what follows.
Consider now an element A ∈ G belonging to the sheet containing the
identity, A = φ(α), E = φ(0), φ(α) differentiable. Then
r r
X ∂φ 1 X ∂φ ∂φ
A=φ(α)=φ(0)+ αk + αk α` +· · · .
∂αk αk =0 2 ∂αk αk =0 ∂α` α`=0
k=1 k=1,`=1
Thus defining
∂φ
Xk = , (infinitesimal generators of the group) (3.3)
∂αk αk =0
we get
r r
X 1 X
A=E+ αk Xk + αk α` Xk X` + O(α2 ),
2
k=1 k=1,`=1
r r
X 1 X
A−1 = E − αk Xk + αk α` Xk X` + O(α2 ).
2
k=1 k=1,`=1
Similarly for the element B with αk → βk .

X X
ABA−1 = A(E + )A−1 = E + AX` A−1 .
` `
−1
It is clear that the element AX` A = Y` is infinitesimal.
X X
ABA−1 = A(E + )A−1 = E + β` Y` + O(β 2 ).
` `
On the other hand for sufficiently small values of the parameters up to

second order we find
X X
AX` A−1 = (E + αk Xk )X` αm (E + αm Xm )
k m
X X
=E+ αk Xk X` − αm X` Xm ,
k m
X
AX` A−1 = αk (Xk X` − X` Xk ).
k
Thus
X
Y` − X` = αk (Xk X` − X` Xk ) + O(α2 ) + O(β 2 ). (3.4)
k
This means that up to second order the quantity Xk X` − X` Xk is a linear

combination of the generators, i.e. X
m
[Xk , X` ] ≡ Xk X` − X` Xk = C̃k` Xm . (3.5)
m
Often the choice Jk = −iXk is adopted.X Thus we write
m
[Jk , J` ] = Ck` Jm . (3.6)
m
The quantities Ck` are known as structure constants. It is clear that they
are antisymmetric with respect to the exchange of k and `,
m m
Ck` = −C`k .
Further constraints can be obtained from the Jacobi identity:
[[Jk , J` ], Jm ] + [[J` , Jm ], Jk ] + [[Jm , Jk ], J` ], (Jacobi identity). (3.7)
So the above system forms a closed system. This system constitutes an
algebra with set multiplication defined by the commutator,
A.B ⇔ [A, B]. (3.8)
Since it is associated with a Lie group, it is called Lie algebra (see next
chapter). In many aspects the structure of the algebra is adequate for the
study of the corresponding group. We briefly discussed this in the first two
chapters and we will explore it more in the sequel.
Let us now consider the special case of the element Ak which results
from the parameter choice
αi = δik ⇔ Ak (αk ) = φ(0, 0, · · · , αk , 0, · · · , 0).
Then for infinitesimal parameter , Ak () = E + iJk . Applying it N times,
we have
Ak (N ) = (φ(0, 0, · · · , N , 0, · · · , 0) = (E + iJk )N .
In the limit
→ 0, N → ∞, N → αk ,
αk N
Ak = (φ(0, 0, · · · , αk , 0, · · · , 0) = lim E + i = eiαk Jk . (3.9)
N →∞ N
Applying this method successfully for k = 1, 2, · · · , r we get
A = φ(α1 , α2 , · · · , αr ) = eiαr Jr eiαr−1 Jr−1 , · · · , eiα2 J2 eiα1 J1 . (3.10)
We can simplify this expression and write P
A = φ(α1 , α2 , · · · , αr ) = e k iαk Jk .
But this is useless (even dangerous!), if we do not keep track of the correct
order of operations which is given explicitly by Eq. (3.10). There is a one-
to-one correspondence between the group elements Ak and the generators
Jk of the Lie algebra. Some examples can be found in the introductory
chapter (chapter 1).
Chapter 4
Lie Algebras
4.1 Introduction to Lie algebras
A Lie algebra A is a set of linear operators, which have the properties:

X ∈ A and Y ∈ A ⇒ ∃ Z ∈ A such that Z = [X, Y ]. The quantity [X, Y ]
has the meaning of a product with the properties:
i) [X, Y ] + [Y, X] = 0̄, where 0̄ is the zero element of the algebra in

the sense that X ∈ A ⇒ X = X + 0̄.
• It satisfies the Jacobi identity
[[X, Y ], Z] + [[Y, Z], X] + [[Z, X], Y ] = 0̄. (4.1)
Normally there is no confusion if we write 0 instead of 0̄.

ii) In practice the product maybe defined by the commutator:
[X, Y ] = XY − Y X. (4.2)
iii) The elements of A constitute a vector space, i.e.

[Z, αX + βY ] = α[Z, X] + β[Z, Y ], X, Y, Z ∈ A and α, β are num-
bers.
iv) It is obvious that, since such an algebra possesses the known prop-
erties of a vector space, a basis can be chosen. Then the structure
constants can be defined.
The scalar product is defined by the Killing form:
Let L be a Lie algebra and let X, Xj ∈ L. The Killing form is
defined by Kij = (Xi , Xj ) = T r(adj(Xi ) adj(Xj )), where the adj is
the adjoined representation defined in section 1.5.2.
v) For any Lie algebra one can define the structure constants discussed
in section 1.3.
93
vi) The elements of a Lie algebra are not uniquely defined.

In particular one can show that if X1 , X2 , · · · , XN is a basis, an-
PN
other set Xi0 = ρ αiρ Xρ , i = 1, 2, · · · , N , with (α) a non-singular
matrix, is an equally good set. Furthermore, one can show that in
this case the structure constants satisfy the relation
0ρ
σ
[Xλ , Xµ ] = Cλµ Xσ , [Xi0 , Xj0 ] = Cij Xρ
0ρ
X
σ
α−1 σρ .

⇒ Cij = αiλ αjµ Cλµ (4.3)
λ,µ,σ
For a given group one can locally define a Lie algebra in a manner discussed
in section 1.3. Different groups, however, may yield the same Lie algebra.
Lie algebras are classified using Dynkin diagrams, which encode the geo-
metric structure of root and weight diagrams associated with an algebra.
This chapter begins with an introduction to Lie algebras, roots, and Dynkin
diagrams. We then show how Dynkin diagrams define an algebra’s root and
weight diagrams, and provide examples showing this construction.
4.2 Homomorphism-isomorphism of Lie algebras
Consider two algebras A and A0 and a mapping P such that:

P : X ∈ A → X 0 ∈ A0 or X 0 = P (X).
We say that the mapping is a homomorphism if:
• for any set of numbers α and β: P (αX + βY ) = αP (X) + βP (Y ).
• P ([X, Y ]) = [P (X), P (Y )], that is the corresponding structure
constants are the same.
Then the algebra A0 is homomorphic to the algebra A.
The homomorphism is an isomorphism if it is 1-1. Thus the algebra
of the operators Ti (see Eq. (1.85)) and si = (1/2)σi (see Eq. (1.62)) are
isomorphic. On the other hand, the algebra σi is not isomorphic to the
previous since:
[σj , σ` ] = 2ij`k σk .
Thus a proper basis for the algebras must be chosen to establish isomor-
phism.
We remark that two algebras maybe isomorphic, but the associated
groups need not be. Such, e.g., is the case for the groups SO(3) and SU(2).
0ρ ρ
Can you give further examples of isomorphic algebras, i.e. Cij = Cij ?
Lie Algebras 95
4.3 Classification of Lie algebras
A Lie algebra is semisimple, if it is the direct sum of simple Lie algebras.

A Lie algebra is called simple if it is non-Abelian and contains no non-
trivial ideals. A subset L0 of a Lie algebra L is said to be an ideal, if it
is a vector subspace under addition, and for any X ∈ L0 , Y ∈ L we have
[X, Y ] ∈ L0 . Note that any such ideal is, in particular, also a Lie subalgebra.
Recall the Killing form is K(X, Y ) = tr(adj(X)adj(Y )), with adj indicating
the adjoined representation of the algebra. Then an algebra is semisimple
if the Killing form is non-degenerate. Since all complex semisimple Lie
algebras are the direct sum of simple Lie algebras, we follow the standard
practice of studying the simple algebras, which are the building blocks of
the semisimple algebras.
There are four infinite families of Lie algebras as well as five exceptional
Lie algebras. The (compact, real forms of the) algebras in the four infinite
families and five special algebras are as follows:
i) The algebras An , which correspond to the special unitary groups

SU(n + 1).
ii) The algebras Bn , which correspond to real special orthogonal
groups in odd dimensions, SO(2n + 1).
iii) The algebras Dn , which correspond to the real special orthogonal
groups in even dimensions, SO(2n), and
iv) the algebras Cn , which correspond to the symplectic group Sp(2n)
of transformations, which preserve an antisymmetric scalar prod-
uct, sometimes referred to as unitary groups SU(n, H) over the
quaternions.
v) There exist, in addition, some exceptional Lie algebras, namely the
14-dimensional G2 , the 52-dimensional F4 , the 78-dimensional E6 ,
the 133-dimensional E7 and 248-dimensional E8 .
4.4 Roots and root diagrams
We summarize here some basic properties of root and weight diagrams.

Further information can be found in the bibliography, where a description
of how root and weight diagrams are applied to particle physics will also
be given. Every simple Lie algebra L contains a Cartan subalgebra h ⊂ L,
whose dimension is called the rank ` of L. The Cartan subalgebra h is
a maximal Abelian subalgebra such that adj(H) is diagonalizable for all
H ∈ h. Cartan showed that the Killing form can be used to choose an

orthonormal basis {h1 , · · · , hl } of h which can be extended to a basis
{h1 , · · · , h` , E1 , E−1 , E2 , E−2 , · · · , E n−` , E− n−` }
2 2
of L satisfying:
i) [hi , Ej ] = λji Ej (no sum), λji ∈ R
ii) [hi , hj ] = 0
iii) [Ej , E−j ] ∈ h
Cartan showed that this can be done by diagonalizing adj(H) and, thus,
obtaining the nonzero eigenvalues which come in pairs α and −α. Further-
more Cartan showed that there is one and only one element Ej for any
given eigenvalue λji . The basis elements Ej and E−j are referred to as
raising and lowering operators.
Property i) associates every Ej with an `-tuple of real numbers rj =
(λ1 , · · · , λj` ), called roots of the algebra. This association is one-to-one.
j
Further, if rj is a root, then so is −rj , which is written as r−j . These are

the only two real multiples of rj which are roots.
According to property ii) each hi is associated with the `-tuple
(0, · · · , 0). As this association holds for every hi ∈ h, these `-tuples are
sometimes referred to as zero roots.
Property iii) states that, for the raising and lowering operators Ej and
E−j , rj +r−j = (0, · · · , 0). Let ∆ denote the collection of nonzero roots. For
roots ri and rj 6= −ri , if there exists rk ∈ ∆ such that ri +rj = rk , then the
associated operators for ri and rj do not commute, that is, [Ei , Ej ] 6= 0. In
k k k
this case, [Ei , Ej ] = Cij Ek (no sum), with Cij ∈ C, Cij 6= 0. If ri + rj 6∈ ∆,
then [Ei , Ej ] = 0.
When plotted in R` , the set of roots provide a geometric description
of the algebra. Each root is associated with a vector in R` . We draw `
zero vectors at the origin for the ` zero roots corresponding to the basis
h1 , · · · , h` of the Cartan subalgebra. We then plot each nonzero root ri =
(λi1 , · · · , λi` ) as a vector extending from the origin to the point (λi1 , · · · , λil ).
The terminal point of each root vector is called a state. As it is commonly
done, we use ri to refer to both the root vector and the state. In addition,
we allow translations of the root vectors, i.e. we can connect two states ri
and rj by a root vector rk , provided that rk + ri = rj in the root system.
The resulting system is called a root diagram.
Example 1. Let us consider the algebra SU(2), which is classified as A1 .
The Cartan root diagram method is trivial in this case and essentially we
Lie Algebras 97
have dealt with it in chapter 1. The algebra SU(2) is the set of 2×2 complex
traceless Hermitian matrices. Setting

01 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = .
10 i 0 0 −1
We choose now as a basis h1 = 21 σ3 for the Cartan subalgebra h, and use
E1 = 21 (σ1 +iσ2 ) and E−1 = 21 (σ1 −iσ2 ). Then [h1 , h1 ] = 0, [h1 , E1 ] = 1E1 ,
[h1 , E−1 ] = −1E−1 , [E1 , E−1 ] = h1 .
Example 2. As an example consider the representation T of section 1.5.2,
the adjoined representation of SO(3). The Abelian subalgebra consists of
one element, ` = 1. Let us choose this to be the element T3 . The eigenvalues
of T3 are 1, −1, 0 with eigenvectors the column of the matrix
 1 
√ √1 0
 
1 −i 0 2 2
T3 =  i 0 0  ⇒ S =  √i2 − √i2 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
respectively. Thus
− √12
 

1 i 0
 0 0
1
h = −T3 = −i 0 0 , f−1 = √ (T1 − iT2 ) = 
   0 0 − √i2 
,
2 √1 √i
0 0 0 0
2 2
√1
 
0 0 2
1
f1 = √ (T1 + iT2 ) = 
 0 0 − √i2 .

2
− √12 √i
2
0
One can verify:
 
0 i 0
[h, f1 ] = f1 , [h, f−1 ] = −f−1 , [f1 , f−1 ] = h =  −i 0 0  .
0 0 0
This is equivalent to the standard form, i.e. one with T3 brought into
diagonal form via the unitary matrix S:
   
1 0 0 0 0 0
h = −S + T3 S =  0 −1 0  , E1 = S + f1 S =  0 0 1  ,
0 0 0 −1 0 0
 
0 0 −1
+
E−1 = S f−1 S = 0 0
 0 .
0 1 0
We can verify:
[h, E1 ] = E1 , [h, E−1 ] = −E−1 , [E1 , E−1 ] = h.
So with the above normalization the nonzero roots are r1 = 1 and
−1
r = −1. By Properties ii) and iii), we associate the root vector r1 = (1)
with the raising operator E1 and the root vector r−1 = (−1) with the
lowering operator E−1 , while the zero root (0) associated with h, we plot
the corresponding three points (1), (−1), and (0) for the states r1 , r−1 , and
h.
4.5 The Cartan-Weyl theory — The root diagrams
Let us suppose that h1 , h2 , · · · , h` is a basis of the maximal Abelian sub-

algebra L0 of the algebra L. Consider an element Eα associated with the
λ hi of L0 . Then the Jacobi identity
P i
nonzero root α and the element h =
reads:
[h, [hi , Eα ]] + [hi , [Eα , h]] + [Eα , [h, hi ]] = 0.
Recall that:
[Eα , h] = −αEα , [h, hi ] = 0 ⇒ [h, [hi , Eα ]] = α[hi , Eα ].
In other words, [hi , Eα ] is an eigenvector of h with eigenvalue α. By Car-
tan’s theorem of uniqueness we conclude that [hi , Eα ] must be proportional
to Eα , i.e. [hi , Eα ] = αi Eα . Thus
[h, [Eα ] = λi αi Eα , α = λi αi .
In other words, since h = λi hi , we get
[hi , Eα ] = αi Eα , α = (α1 , α2 , · · · , α` ). (4.4)
Furthermore, from the Jacobi identity:
[h, [Eα , Eβ ]] + [Eα , [Eβ , h]] + [Eβ , [h, [Eα ]] = 0
using [h, Eα ] = αEα we get:
[h, [Eα , Eβ ]] = (α + β)[Eα , Eβ ]. (4.5)
We now distinguish two cases:
i) α + β 6= 0. Then [Eα , Eβ ] is an eigenvector of h with eigenvalue
α + β. In this case:
α+β
[Eα , Eβ ] = Nαβ Eα+β , Nαβ = Cα,β . (4.6)
Lie Algebras 99
ii) α + β = 0. Then [Eα , Eβ ] is an eigenvector of h with eigenvalue

zero. Thus
i
[Eα , E−α ] = Cα,−α hi . (4.7)
Let us now consider the metric tensor, Eq. (1.40), with one of its compo-
nents being the root α. Then it can be written as:
µ µ
X α+β β
ρ α i −α
gα,λ = Cαµ Cλρ = Cαµ Cλα + Cα,−α Cλi + Cαβ Cλ,α+β .
β6=−α
From this relation one can see that the metric tensor becomes zero, unless
λ = −α. Thus
gαλ = 0 or λ = −α.
In other words if −α is not a root det (g) = 0, which contradicts Cartan’s
criterion, since the algebra was assumed semisimple. Thus
Theorem 1: If α is a nonzero root of a semisimple algebra, −α is also a
root.
Theorem 2: If α and β are two roots of a semisimple algebra, then
2hα|βi hα|βi
= integer and β − 2α is also a root. (4.8)
hα|αi hα|αi
In our notation hα|βi = αi β i = αi g ij βj .
We will follow here the proof of Racah [Racah (1965)]. Suppose that α
and β are roots, but there exists a vector Eγ , such that α + γ is not a root.
Then
0
[E−α , Eγ ] = N−α,γ Eγ−α = Eγ−α
0 00
[E−α , Eγ−α ] = N−α,γ N−α,γ−α Eγ−2α = Eγ−2α
after j steps:
0 0
[E−α , Eγ−jα ] = Eγ−(j+1)α . (4.9)
This procedure cannot continue forever. It has to stop after some steps,
say g
0
[E−α , Eγ−gα ] = 0.
Then
0 0
[E−α , Eγ−(j+1)α ] = Λj+1 Eγ−jα , (4.10)
0
see Eq. (4.6). So we must compute Λj+1 . Substituting the value of Eγ−jα
as given by Eq. (4.9) in the last equation we find:
0 0
Λj+1 Eγ−jα = [Eα , [E−α,Eγ−jα ]].
Thus using the Jacobi identity we find:

0 0 0
Λj+1 Eγ−jα = [E−α , [Eα , Eγ−jα ]] − [Eγ−jα , [Eα , E−α ]]
or
0 0 0
Λj+1 Eγ−jα = Λj [Eα , Eγ−(j−1)α ] + αi [hi , Eγ−jα ],
that is
0 0 0
Λj+1 Eγ−jα = Λj Eγ−jα + αi (γi − jαi )Eγ−jα .
Hence:
Λj+1 = Λj + hα|γi − jhα|αi, j ≥ 1.
Obviously assuming Λ0 = 0 we get
Λj+1 = Λj + hα|γi − jhα|αi, j ≥ 0, Λ0 = 0. (4.11)
This is a recursion formula yielding:
1
Λj = jhα|γi − j(j − 1)hα|αi. (4.12)
2
Assuming Λg+1 = 0 we get:
1
(g + 1)hα|γi = (g + 1)ghα|αi. (4.13)
2
This leads to:
1
hα|γi = j(g − j + 1)hα|αi. (4.14)
2
Thus, if α + γ is not a root, we get:
1
hα|γi = ghα|αi. (4.15)
2
From the above analysis one can see that, if β is a root, one can find j ≥ 0
so that γ = β + jα is a root. Putting this value of γ in Eq. (4.15) we get
1 2hα|βi
hα|βi = (g − 2j)hα|αi or = g − 2j = integer. (4.16)
2 hα|αi
So the first part of the theorem is complete.
From Eq. (4.15) we get:
2hα|γi
g= .
hα|αi
Thus given two roots α and γ we obtain the root sequence:
hα|γi
γ, γ − α, γ − 2α · · · γ − 2 α.
hα|αi
Lie Algebras 101
hα|γi
One member of the chain is γ − 2α hα|αi . After changing notation γ → β
the proof is complete. As a side effect we got the bonus of the root chain
hα|βi
β, β − α, β − 2α · · · β − 2 α. (4.17)
hα|αi
Theorem 3: If α is a root among its multiples only α, 0, −α can be roots.
Proof: Obviously 2α is not a root, since
[Eα , Eα ] = 0.
Then kα, |k| > 2 cannot be a root, since then, according to the previous
theorem, 2α should have been a member of the chain.
Theorem 4: Consider a chain of the root α, which contains the root β with
hα|βi 6= 0, then the quantity 2hα|βi/hα|αi can take at most the following
7 values:
2hα|βi
= 0, ±1, ±2, ±3. (4.18)
hα|αi
Proof: Clearly the theorem holds for β = ±α according to the previous
theorem. Suppose now that β 6= ±α and there exist five roots. We can
then number them to take the form:
β − 2α, β − α, β, β + α, β + 2α (4.19)
we have seen that 2α and 2(α + β) cannot be roots. Then, since 2α =
(β + 2α) − β and 2(α + β) = (β + 2α) + β, the chain beta, which contains
β + 2α, contains only one element, i.e.
hβ|β + 2αi = 0. (4.20)
Similarly −2α and −2(β − α) cannot be roots, which means (β − 2α) − β
and (β − 2α) + β are not roots. So again
hβ|β − 2αi = 0. (4.21)
Now the conditions (4.20) and (4.21), imply hβ|βi = 0, which is against our
assumption. So the formula (4.18) is the only possibility.
4.6 Graphical representation of roots
We remind the essential facts of Cartan’s analysis of semisimple algebras:

• A root α can be expressed as α = (α1 , α2 , · · · , α` ) with αi given
by [hi , Eα ] = αi Eα .
• If α is a root −α is also a root.
2hα|βi
• hα|αi = integer.
hα|βi
• If α and β are roots so is 2α hα|αi .
• hα|βi can be chosen to be real. Thus one can define the angle φ
between two roots by:
hα|βi
cos φ = p . (4.22)
hα|αihβ|βi
From the above we find that:
1 2hα|βi 2hα|βi 1
cos2 φ = = nn0 , n, n0 = integers.
4 hα|αi hβ|βi 4
From the above second proposition it is adequate to consider 0 ≤ φ ≤ π/2.
Thus
1√ 0
cos φ = nn , n, n0 , non-negative integers
2
and thus
√
1 1 3 π π π π
cos φ = (0, , √ , , 1) → φ = (0, , , , ).
2 2 2 6 4 3 2
The above relation constrains the ratios of the lengths of the roots as fol-
lows:
(1) φ = 0. Then
hα|αi
α=β→ = 1.
hβ|βi
(2) φ = π/6 → nn0 = 3. Then
2hα|βi 2hα|βi hα|αi
i) n = 1, n0 = 3 → = 1 and =3→ =3
hα|αi hβ|βi hβ|βi
2hα|βi 2hα|βi hα|αi 1
ii) n = 3, n0 = 1 → = 3 and =1→ = .
hα|αi hβ|βi hβ|βi 3
(3) φ = π/4 → nn0 = 2. Then
hα|αi hα|αi 1
= 2, = .
hβ|βi hβ|βi 2
(4) φ = π/3 → nn0 = 1. Then
hα|αi
= 1.
hβ|βi
(5) φ = π/2 → nn0 = 0. Then
hα|αi
is not defined.
hβ|βi
Lie Algebras 103
Thus if the roots are ordered so that hα|αi ≤ hβ|βi and define hβ|βi =
khα|αi we summarize the above results as follows:
π π π
φ = 0 ↔ k = 1, φ = ↔ k = 3, φ = ↔ k = 2, φ = ↔ k = 1,
6 4 3
π
φ= ↔ k = undefined.
2
4.7 Examples with ` ≤ 2
Example 1: ` = 1.
Now there is one Abelian element and two nonzero roots α and −α. The
root diagram is two vectors in opposite directions. The structure of the
algebra is:
[h, E1 ] = E1 , [h, E−1 ] = −E1 , [E1 , E−1 ] = h.
This algebra is denoted by A1 and isomorphic to the one associated with
SU(2) and SO(3).
Example 2: ` = 2, φ = π/2.
Now we have four nonzero roots. We can choose the two orthonormal roots
α = (1, 0) and β = (0, 1). The root diagram is composed of the roots ±α
and ±β. We observe that any two different roots are orthogonal. The root
system breaks into sets i) ±α and ii) ±β. This indicates that the algebra
is not simple but it breaks into two rank one algebras L = L1 ⊕ L1 . It is
associated with the symmetry SO(4) = SO(3) ⊗ SO(3) (see Fig. 4.1(a)).
Example 3: ` = 2, φ = π/4.
Let us begin with a root α such that hα|αi = 1. We can choose α = (1, 0).
Then there is a root β such that hβ|βi = 2hα|αi = 2. This can be at angles
φ = π/2 relative to the previous, i.e. β = (1, 1). Since
2hα|βi
= 2,
hα|αi
the α chain containing β, see Eq. (4.17), is β, β − α, β − 2α, which yields
the additional roots (−1, 1) and (0, 1). Thus we have the following system
±(1, 1), ±(1, 0), ±(1, −1), ±(0, 1).
This exhausts all the roots. So the number of elements of the algebra
2 + 2 × 4 = 10. This algebra is named B2 and is isomorphic to that
corresponding to the group SO(5). It is also isomorphic to the algebra C2
associated with the group Sp(4), the symplectic group in four dimensions.
The structure constants of the algebra can be constructed applying the
techniques of section 4.8. The root system is exhibited in Figs. 4.1(c), (d).
Joining the ends of the roots by straight lines we form a square.
Example 4: ` = 2, φ = π/3. √
Here hβ|βi = hα|αi = 1. Choosing α = (1, 0) and β = (1/2, 3/2). The
condition
2hα|βi
= 1,
hα|αi
√
yields the β chain: β, β − α, i.e. the new root (−1/2, 3/2). We thus
obtain the system:
√ √
1 3 1 3
±(1, 0), ±( , ), ±(− , ),
2 2 2 2
which is complete. The number of elements is 2 + 2 × 3 = 8. This is the
algebra A2 , which is isomorphic to that corresponding to the group SU(3)
(see Fig. 4.1(b)). If we join the tops of the roots via straight lines we obtain
the regular hexagon.
Example 5: ` = 2, φ = π/6.
Let us suppose that there is a root of unit length along √ the x-axis, i.e.
α = (1, 0). Then there exists another root β of length √ 3, which forms
an angle π/6 with the previous one, i.e. β = (3/2, 3/2). Clearly two
additional roots are the opposite of the above. Thus
2hα|βi 3
= 2 = 3 → yielding the chain β, β − α, β − 2α, β − 3α. (4.23)
hα|αi 2
√ √
Thus in√ addition to β we obtain the roots (1/2, 3/2), (−1/2, 3/2),
(−3/2, 3/2). Thus we also get as new √ roots their opposites.
√ Tak-
ing now from the above list α = (1/2, 3/2), β = (3/2, √ 3/2) we find
that Eq.√ (4.23) still
√ holds. This yields the roots: (3/2,√ 3/2), (1,0),
(1/2, − 3/2), (0, − 3), i.e. we obtain the new root (0, − 3) and, hence,
its opposite. We thus have the following 12 roots:
√ √ √ √
±(1, 0), ±(0, 3), ±(3/2, 3/2), ±(3/2, − 3/2), ±(1/2, 3/2),
√
±(1/2, − 3/2).
This is the exceptional algebra G2 which has 2 + 2 × 12 = 26 elements.
The structure constants of the algebra can be constructed applying the
techniques of section 4.8. For the root system, see Fig. 4.1(e). Joining the
ends of the roots by straight lines, a shape like the star of David is formed.
Lie Algebras 105
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Fig. 4.1: The root diagrams for D2 = A1 × A1 (a), A2 ↔ SU(3) (b), B2 ↔ SO(5)
(c), C2 ↔ Sp(4) (d) and G2 (e). The algebras B2 and C2 are isomorphic. The
algebra D2 is not simple.
4.8 Construction of the algebras from the root system
As we have mentioned the roots associated with semisimple algebras are

g, ` zero roots and g − ` nonzero roots. Cartan has shown that one can
construct the semisimple Lie algebra, which contains a subalgebra with `
Abelian elements, i.e. find the associated structure constants. The rules
are:
• [hi , Eα ] = αi Eα
• [Eα , E−α ] = α̃i hi
• [Eα , Eβ ] = 0, if α + β is not a root
α+β
• [Eα , Eβ ] = Nα,β Eα+β = Nα,β ≡ Cα,β , if α + β is a root
One can choose Nα,β to be real and positive, but some authors choose
some of them to be imaginary. Given the roots α we need to construct the
contragredient roots α̃ and the constants Nα,β . Since the roots come in
pairs ±α, we construct the tensor:
X X
gij = αi αj = 2 αi αj , α > 0 ⇔ root with the plus sign.
α α>0
Then
α̃i = g ij αi , g ij the inverse of gij .
The constants Nα,β must be defined in a consistent way using the Jacobi
identity. We will not elaborate further on this point since for the most
common cases, i.e. algebras associated with matrices, A` , B` , C` , D` , there
exist alternative convenient methods, see the following chapter. We only
mention the results:
• The following are true:
Nα,β = Nβ,−(α+β) , N−α,α+β = −N−β,(α+β) ,
N−α,α+β = −N−β,(α+β) , Nα,−β = N−β,−α etc.

• From Eq. (4.10) for γ = β + jα we get
Λj Eα+β = [Eα , [Eα , Eα+β ]] → Λj = Nα,β N−α,α+β .
• Isomorphic algebra via
∗
hi → −hi → N−β,−α = Nα,β .
• One can choose:
2
|Nα,β | = Λj .
Lie Algebras 107
• Eq. (4.13) for g = j + k yields

1 2
|Nα,β | =
j(k + 1)hα|αi
2
with j and k specifying the extreme elements in the chain of α
containing β:
β + jα, β + (j − 1)α, · · · , β, β + α, · · · , β + kα.
• One can choose Nα,β to be real and positive1 :
1/2
1
Nα,β = j(k + 1)hα|αi .
2
As an application we will evaluate the multiplication table of A2 applying
the above techniques. We label the roots as
√ √
1 3 1 3
α(1) = (1, 0), α(2) = ( , ), α(3) = ( , − ), α(−ρ) = −α(ρ) .
2 2 2 2
Then
3
(ρ) (ρ)
X
gij = 2 αi αj .
ρ=1
Thus

30 1/3 0
(gij ) = → (g ij ) = (gij )−1 =
03 0 1/3
√ √
1 1 3 1 3
α̃(1) = ( , 0), α̃(2) = ( , ), α̃(3) = ( , − ), α̃(−ρ) = −α̃(ρ) .
3 3 6 6 6
From these expressions we get:
(ρ)
[hi , Eα(ρ) ] = αi Eα(ρ) (4.24)
[Eαρ , E−αρ ] = α̃(i) hi . (4.25)

The other nonzero commutators are:
[E1 , E−3 ] = N E2 , [E1 , E−2 ] = N E3 , [E2 , E3 ] = N E1 , [E2 , E− 1] = N E3 ,
1
[E−2 , E−3 ] = N E−1 , N = √ (4.26)
2
where we simplified the notation by α(ρ) → ρ. We obviously have not listed
those cases obtained with the exchange in the order of the elements and
N → −N . The reader should compare the form of the above table with
Table 1.2 and comment on it.
1 Sometimes in the literature other choices are adopted, e.g. Nα,β to be imaginary.
b2530 International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads

Chapter 5
The Classical Algebras L`, A`, B`, C`
In the previous chapter we presented Cartan’s classification of all semisim-

ple Lie algebras in terms of the root systems. In this chapter we will discuss
in more detail and directly the classical matrix algebras.
5.1 The algebra Lie associated with GL(n, c)
Consider the set of n × n matrices. A subset of n × n matrices eij are given

such that its elements are given by
(eij )α,β = δiα δjβ . (5.1)
Then any matrix (α) takes the form:

X
α= αij eij , αij = complex numbers.
i,j
• The set eij constitutes a Lie algebra and its structure constants are
obtained as follows:
X
[eij , ek` ]mn = [(eij )mp (ek` )pn − (ek` )mp (eij )pn ]
p
= δjk δim δ`n − δmk δjn δì = δjk (ei` )mn − δi` (ekj )mn
or
[eij , ek` ] = δjk ei` − δi` ekj . (5.2)
• The number of elements of the algebra is n2 .
Consider now the set
hi = eii . (5.3)
Clearly these commute and they constitute an Abelian subalgebra

[hi , hj ] = 0. (5.4)
Obviously this is a complete set, since any diagonal matrix h is a linear
combination of hi . Furthermore:
[hk , eij ] = δik ekj − δkj eik = (δik − δkj )eij . (5.5)
From the discussion of the previous chapter we see that we have a system
of nonzero roots α(ij) ↔ eij given by
αρ (ij) = δiρ − δjρ (5.6)
α(ij) = (0, 0, . . . , 1, . . . , −1, . . . , 0). (5.7)

i j
We also note that

α(ij) + α(ji) = 0 → α(ji) − α(ij),
α(ij) + α(jk) = α(ik), (5.8)

given two roots α ↔ α(ij). β ↔ α(k`) 6= −α, from Eq. (5.2) we find:

 1 k=i
[eα , eβ ] = Nα,β eα+β , −1 i=` (5.9)

0 otherwise.
Furthermore Eq. (5.5) can be cast into the form:
[hk , eij ] = αk eij , αk = δik − δjk . (5.10)
Finally
[eα , e−α ] = [eij , eji ] = eii − ejj = hi − hj , (5.11)
that is
α̃ij = (0, 0, . . . , 1, . . . , −1, . . . , 0) = αij (5.12)
i j
in other words the contragredient of a root coincides with the root.

This algebra, associated with the general linear transformation group,
has rank ` = n and order n2 . It has n zero roots and n(n − 1) nonzero
roots. Alternatively it can be defined by a set of operators Aij satisfying
the commutator rules:
[Aij , Ak` ] = δjk Ai` − δi` Akj , (5.13)
The Classical Algebras L` , A` , B` , C` 111
see Eq. (5.2). It is not, however, semisimple or simple, since it contains the
Pn
element I = i Aii which commutes with all the elements of the algebra.
One is able, however, to construct Casimir invariants, i.e. operators which
commute with all the elements of the algebra, e.g.:
X
K (1) = Aii
i
K (2) = Aij Aji summation convention
K (3) = Aij Ajk Aki summation convention

etc. up to order n, K (n) . The reader must prove this.
5.2 The algebra A` ↔ SU(` + 1)
This can be realized by restricting the algebra to the set of traceless matri-
ces. We have seen in the previous chapter that this corresponds to the set
of transformations represented by matrices of determinant unity: U = eiα ,
det(U ) = 1 ↔ tr(α) = 0.
Obviously any linear combination of traceless matrices is traceless:
tr(λ(α) + µ(β)) = λtr(α) + µtr(β) = 0.
A basis for this algebra is made up of the elements eij as before and ` = n−1
traceless diagonal matrices. We will find it convenient to select:
hi = eii − ei+1,i+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1. (5.14)
We now find
[hk , eij ] = (δik − δjk − δi+1,k + δj+1k )eij (5.15)
it is adequate to construct the roots for i < j, since the rest are obtained
as the opposites of these, i.e.
αρ (ij) = (δρi − δρ+1,i − δρj + δρ+1,j ), i ≤ ρ ≤ j − 1, i < j ≤ n. (5.16)
Thus
α(1, 2) = (2, −1, 0, . . . , 0), α(`, ` + 1) = (0, . . . , 0, −1, 2), (5.17)
and
α(ij) = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, −1, . . . , −1, 1, 0, . . . , 0), 1 < i < j, j < n. (5.18)
i i+1 j j+1
We see that all entries in the roots can take values 0, ±1, ±2. We also
have αji = −αij as in the previous section and relation (5.9) still holds.
Furthermore
j−1
X
[eα , e−α ] = eii − ejj = hi , i < j − 1. (5.19)
i
In other words
α̃(i, i + 1) = (0, 0, . . . , 1, 0, . . . , 0), (5.20)
i
α̃(ij) = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, . . . , 1, 0, . . . , 0), i < j + 1. (5.21)

i j−1
Since Eq. (5.8) still holds, one can obtain all roots, once the following root
set:
α(1, 2), α(2, 3), α(3, 4), · · · , α(`, ` + 1) (5.22)
is already known. Indeed:
α(1, 3) = α(1, 2) + α(2, 3)
α(1, 4) = α(1, 2) + α(2, 3) + α(3, 4) all the way to
α(1, `) = α(1, 2) + α(2, 3) + α(3, 4) + · · · + α(`, ` + 1)
α(2, 4) = α(2, 3) + α(3, 4) etc.

The roots of A` can be obtained from those of A`−1 via a reiteration
procedure. First of all we mention that the only truly new root of A` is
α(`, ` + 1) = (0, · · · , 0, −1, 2). For the rest we note that:
i) a root of the type α(i, j), j 6= `, j 6= ` + 1 can be obtained by
extending the corresponding root of A`−1 by adding a zero in the
last position.
ii) the root α(` − 1, `) is obtained by adding −1 in the last position of
the corresponding root of A`−1 .
iii) for the root α(i, `) use the formula:
α(i, `) = α(i, ` − 1) + α(` − 1, `), i < ` − 1.
iv) for the root α(i, ` + 1) use the formula:
α(i, ` + 1) = α(i, `) + α(`, ` + 1), i < `.
We can start with the root α = (2) of A1 .

i) The algebra A1 n = 2, ` = 1
basis : h1 = e11 − e22 , e12 , e21
[h1 , e12 ] = 2e12 , [h1 , e21 ] = −2e21 , [e12 , e21 ] = h1 .
Defining:
S0 = h1 /2, S+ = e12 , S− = e21
⇒ [S0 , S+ ] = S+ , [S0 , S− ] = −S− , [S+ , S− ] = 2S0 .
This is the well-known algebra of SU(2).
ii) The algebra A2 n = 3, ` = 2
h1 = e11 − e22 , h2 = e22 − e33
ei,j , i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, 3
α(1, 2) = (2, −1) extension of the root of A1 , rule ii)
α(2, 3) = (−1, 2) truly new root
α(1, 3) = α(1, 2) + α(2, 3) = (2, −1) + (−1, 2) = (1, 1), rule iv)
(rules i) and iii) are not applicable in this example).
α(j, i) = −α(i, j)
α̃(1, 2) = (1, 0), α̃(1, 3) = (1, 1), α̃(2, 3) = (0, 1)
(see Eqs. (5.20) and (5.21)) and
α̃(j, i) = −α̃(i, j), i > j.
Commutation relations analogous to Eqs. (4.24)–(4.26) can easily
be constructed.
iii) The algebra A3 n = 4, ` = 3
h1 = e11 − e22 , h2 = e22 − e33 , h3 = e33 − e44
ei,j , i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , 4
α(1, 2) = (2, −1, 0) extension of the root of A2 , rule i)
α(2, 3) = (−1, 2, −1) extension of the root of A2 , rule ii)
α(3, 4) = (0, −1, 2) truly new root
α(1, 3) = α(1, 2) + α(2, 3) = (1, 1, −1), rule iii)
α(1, 4) = α(1, 3) + α(3, 4) = (1, 0, 1), rule iv)
α(2, 4) = α(2, 3) + α(3, 4) = (−1, 1, 1), rule iv)
α(j, i) = −α(i, j), i > j.
iv) The algebra A4 n = 5, ` = 4

h1 = e11 − e22 , h2 = e22 − e33 , h3 = e33 − e44 , h4 = e44 − e55
ei,j , i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , 5
α(1, 2) = (2, −1, 0, 0) extension of the root of A3 , rule i)
α(2, 3) = (−1, 2, −1, 0) extension of the root of A3 , rule i)
α(3, 4) = (0, −1, 2, −1) new root, rule ii)
α(4, 5) = (0, 0, 2, −1) truly new root.
From those via suitable additions and their opposites all the roots
can easily be constructed.
Note: Physicists sometimes prefer to define the generators of the algebra
SU(n) in the following fashion:
r i+1
2 X 1 k<i
hi = c e
k kk , c k = , i = 1, · · · , n − 1,
i2 + i −i k = i + 1
k=1
uij = eij + eji , υij = −i(eij − eji )

which is an extension of the Gell-Mann basis for SU(3) discussed in chapter
1. These operators are defined so that they become normalized to 1/2,
i.e. the Killing form is√K(α, β), = 21 δαβ . They must be multiplied by an
additional factor of 1/ 2 to be normalized to unity. Sometimes the off-
diagonal elements are similar to those of Cartan, but the diagonal ones are
modified as above normalized to unity.
These are equivalent representations, but the simplicity and beauty of the
Cartan choice is lost.
5.3 The algebras B` and D` associated with SO(2` + 1) and

SO(2`)
Consider the orthogonal transformation in real space:

≺ Oξ|Oηi =≺ ξ|η ⇒ hξ||OT Oηi = hξ|ηi ⇒ OT O = 1.
Suppose now we write:
O = eS , S = real, O = O−1 ⇒ S T = −S, (S T )ij = −Sji .
Indeed O = 1 + S and OT = 1 + S T imply
hξ|(1 + S T )(1 + S)ηi = hξ|ηi ⇒ S + S T = 0 ⇒ S T = −S.
It is more convenient to select a complex basis as follows:
i) n = 2` = even. We choose:
e2k−1 + i e2k e2k−1 − i e2k
ξk = √ , ξ−k = √ , k = 1, 2, · · · , `
2 2
then
hξk |ξk i = ξ−k |ξ−k i = 0, hξk |ξ−k i = hξ−k |ξk i = 1
or
hξi |ξj i = δi,−j , i, j = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`.
ii) n = 2` + 1 = odd. We choose:
|ξk i, k = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±` as above, |ξ0 i = e2`+1 .
Now we have the additional constraints:
hξ0 |ξ0 i = 1, hξ0 |ξk i = hξk |ξ0 i = 0
again
hξi |ξj i = δi,−j , i, j = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`.
The matrix S can be written as:
S = S ij eij (summation convention understood).
We would like to express it in the new basis. We write |ξi = xi |ξi i, |ηi =
yi |ξi i. Then
hξ|Sηi = yi xk S ij hξk |ξj i = yi x−j S i,j , hSξ|ηi = hη|Sξi = xi y−j S ij
hSξ|ηi + hξ|Sηi = 0 ⇒ (yi x−j + xi y−j ) S ji = 0.

∂ ∂
Acting on the last expression with the operator ∂xk ∂ym we get:
(δim δ−j,k + δik δ−j,m ) S ji = 0.

This implies:
S −k,m + S −m,k = 0 ⇒ S −k,k = 0,
X X X −ij
S= S −i,j e−i,j = S −ij e−ij + S −ji e−ji = S (e−ij − e−ji )
i6=j i>j i>j
or
X
S= S −i,j fij , fij = e−ij − e−ji .
i>j
The fij constitute a basis for the algebra. In fact one can show that:
[fij , fk` ] = δj,−k fi` + δ`,−i fjk − δj,−` fik − δk,−i fj` . (5.23)
At this point we should mention the commutator relations that hold for the
operators associated with rotations in the i, j plane in units of ~/i, namely
∂ ∂
Lij = xi − xj .
∂xj ∂xi
Noting that

∂ ∂
xα , xρ = δβρ Lασ + δασ Lβρ
∂β ∂xσ
and
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
[Lij , Lk` ] = xi , xk − xi , x` − xj , xk
∂xj ∂x` ∂xj ∂xk ∂xi ∂x`

∂ ∂
+ xj , x` .
∂xi ∂xk
We obtain
[Lij , Lk` ] = δjk Li` + δi` Ljk − δj` Lik − δik δj` . (5.24)
This algebra has the same commutations with that of matrices (see
Eq. (5.23)), even though the latter has been derived in Cartesian coor-
dinates (so the indices are now positive).
5.3.1 The algebra D` ⇔ SO(2`)

A basis is
fij , i < j, i 6= −j, i, j = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`
hi = fi,−i = e−i,−i − eii , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
It is clear that:
[hi , hj ] = 0, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , `, (5.25)
the set hi is maximal. From Eq. (5.3) one obtains:
[hk , fij ] = (δk,i − δi,−k + δk,j − δj,−k ) fij , i > j, i 6= −j, k = 1, 2, · · · , `,
i, j = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`. (5.26)
Thus we have ` zero roots and r = (1/2)2`(2` − 1) = `(2` − 1) nonzero roots
with root components
αρ (i, j) = δρ,i + δρ,j − δρ,−i δρ,−j , i > j, i 6= −j, αρ (−j, −i) = −αρ (i, j).
(5.27)
Thus we have:
• 0 < i < j:
α(i, j) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 0, · · · , 0, · · · , 0, 1, 0, · · · , 0) (5.28)
i j
• i > 0, j < 0, −j > i > 0:
α(i, j) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 0, · · · , 0, · · · , 0, −1, 0, · · · , 0). (5.29)
i −j
The above roots are positive roots (the first component is positive).
The second set of roots includes
{α(n − 1, −n), α(n − 2, −n), · · · , α(1, −n), α(n − 2, −n + 1),
α(n − 3, −n + 1), · · · , α(1, −n + 1), · · · , α(2, −3), α(1, −3), α(1, −2)} .
We notice that
α(i, −(i + 1)) + α(i + 1, −(i + 2)) = α(i, −(i + 2)),
that is all the roots of this set can be obtained from the minimal set
α(` − 1, −`), α(` − 2, −(` − 1)), · · · , α(1, −2).
We note in addition that
α(i, −(i + 1)) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, −1, 0, · · · , 0).
i i+1
Thus, if the root α(`, ` − 1) is known, all the roots can be obtained,
α(`, ` − 1) + α(` − 2, −(` + 1)) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 1) + (0, 0, · · · , 1, −1, 0)
= (0, 0, · · · , 1, 0, 1) = α(` − 2, `)
α(`, ` − 2) + α(` − 3, −(` + 2)) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 0, 1) + (0, 0, · · · , 1, −1, 0, 0)

= (0, 0, · · · , 1, 0, 0, 1) = α(`, ` − 3) etc.
Thus all roots can be obtained from the set:
n [ o
{α(`, ` − 1)} {α(` − 1, −`), α(` − 2, −(` − 1)), · · · , α(1, −2)} .
(5.30)
Furthermore from Eq. (5.23) we obtain
[fα , f−α ] = [fi,j , f−j,−i ] = sign(i)h|i| + sign(j)h|j| , (5.31)
i.e.
α̃(i, j) = (0 0 · · · 0 sign(i) 0 · · · 0 · · · 0 sign(j) 0 · · · 0). (5.32)
|i| |j|
Note that for i > 0, j > i we have α(i, −j) = α̃(i, −j).
We can now write down all the commutators of the algebra

[hk , fα ] = αk fα (5.33)
X
[fα , f−α ] = α̃k hk (5.34)
k

1 if j = −k or ` = −i
[fα , fβ ]=Nα, β fα+β , Nα, β = , α ⇔ (ij), β ⇔ (k`),
−1 if j = −` or k = −i
(5.35)
if α+β is a nonzero root. All other commutators are the opposite (obtained
by changing the order in the commutator) or zero.
5.3.2 The algebra B` ⇔ SO(2` + 1)

Now
fij = e−i,j − e−j,i , i > j, i, j = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`, hi = fi,−i, , i = 1, · · · , `,
(5.36)
i.e. we have the new elements fi,0 and f−0,−i . So we obtain what we found
above except for the extra relations:
[hk , fi,0 ] = [fk,−k , fi,0 ] = δki fk,0 , [fi,0 , f0,−i,0 ] = [e−i,0 , e0,−i, ] + [e0i,0 , ei,0 ]
= e−i,−i − ei,i = hi . (5.37)
Thus we have the new roots
α(i, 0) = −α(0, i) = (0 0 · · · 0 1 0 · · · 0) (5.38)
i
α̃(i, 0) = α(i, 0), α̃(0, i) = α(0, i).

All roots can be generated by the set:
n [ o
{α(i, −(i + 1)), i = 1, 2, · · · ` − 1} {α(`, 0)} .
Indeed
α(`, 0) + α(` − 1, −`) = (0, · · · , 0, 0, 1) + (0, · · · , 0, 1, −1) = (0, · · · , 0, 1, 0)
= α(` − 1, 0) etc.
Furthermore
i > 0, j > 0, i 6= j ⇒ α(i, j) = α(i, 0) + α(j, 0).
With the above information one can extend the algebra of D` and construct
the commutation relations for the algebra B` .
5.4 The algebra C` associated with Sp(2`)
The symplectic transformations are linear transformations A defined in a

real 2n-dimensional space equipped with scalar product of any two vectors
α and β defined by

In 0
α.β ≡ hα|Ω|βi with Ω = , In = n × n identity matrix. (5.39)
0 −In
We demand the product to be invariant under A, i.e.
hAα|Ω|Aβi = hα|Ω|βi ⇒ AT ΩA = Ω. (5.40)
In such a case it is natural to define a basis
|ξi = (ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · , ξn , ξ−1 , ξ−2 , · · · , ξ−n ) . (5.41)
Then
n
X
hξ|Ω|ηi = (ξi η−i − ξ−i ηi ) . (5.42)
i=1
In particular

δi,−j i > 0
hξi |Ω|ξj i = = sign(i)δi,−j . (5.43)
−δi,−j i < 0
Then the matrices S, such that A = eS , satisfy the condition
AT ΩA = Ω ⇒ (1 + S T )Ω(1 + S) ≈ Ω ⇒ S T Ω + ΩS = 0.
Thus

(p) (q) (p) (q)
if S = ⇒ (t)T = −(p), (r)T = (r), (q)T = (q) ⇒ S =
(r) (t) (r) (−p)T
(5.44)
with (q) and (r) real symmetric n × n matrices. From this form we see that
we have two independent real symmetric and one real n × n matrices. Thus
the number of parameters is
1
N (Sp(2n, R)) = 2 × n(n + 1) + n2 = n(2n + 1)
2
which is the same number of generators of the algebra Cn . In the case of
n = 2 we have
 
a1 a2 a3 a4
 a5 a6 a4 a7 
S=  a8 a9 −a1 −a5  .

a9 a10 −a2 −a6

We can now obtain a set of generators of the algebra

∂S
Ti = , i = 1, 2, · · · , 10.
∂ai
Thus for n = 2
     
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0  0 0 0 0
T1 = 
 0 0 −1
 , T6 =   , T2 =  ,
0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 −1 0
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0  0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
T5 =   , T4 =   , T9 =  .
0 0 0 −1  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
The matrices T3 , T7 , T8 and T10 have 1 in positions (1, 3), (2, 7), (3, 1) and
(2, 3) respectively and zero elsewhere.
A mathematically more convenient basis is found if we number the 2n
coordinates as 1, · · · , n, −1, −2, · · · , −n, then by observing that S ji =
sign(i, j)S ji we see that:
X X
S= S i,j ei,j ⇒ S = S −i,j e−i,j + S j,−i ej,−i
i,j i>j
X
−i,j
= S (e−i,j + sign(ij)ej,−i ).
i>j
Thus a basis can be constructed:

fij = e−i,j + sign(ij) + e−j,i , i ≥ j, i, j = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`. (5.45)
The elements
hk = fk,−k = e−k,−k − ek,k , k = 1, 2, · · · , ` (5.46)
commute with each other and constitute a basis for the maximal Abelian
subalgebra. Indeed
[hk , fij ] = (δki + δkj − δ−k,i − δ−k,j ) fij , k = 1, 2, · · · , `. (5.47)
To get an idea of the type of matrices we encounter, we compare this basis
with that found above in the case of n = 2. Thus
f1,−1 = T1 , f2,−2 = T6 , f1,2 = T9 , f−1,−2 = T4 , f1,−2 = −T2 , f2,−1 = −T2 ,
f−2,−2 = 2T7 , f−1,−1 = 2T3 , f2,1 = T3 + T8 , f−1,−2 = T3 − T8 .

It is not surprising that the last four elements can be chosen arbitrarily (no
symmetry)1 .
The nonzero roots are obtained from the elements of Eq. (5.45) for
i 6= −j. Furthermore if h = k λk hk and α = αij fij we get
P
[h, α] = λk αij [hk , fij ] ⇒ [h, α]m,n = λm + λn − λ−m − λ−n αmn ,

which means
[h, α] = 0 ⇒ αmn = 0 for m 6= n
which means that the above set hk is maximal. The algebra is semisimple
of rank `, has ` zero roots, 2`2 nonzero roots
αρ (ij) = (δρi + δρj − δρ,−i − δρ,−j ) , i ≥ j, i 6= −j, , ρ = 1, 2, · · · , ` (5.48)
and
r = (1/2)(2` + 1)(2`) = `(2` + 1)
is the number of its elements. Furthermore, the above set forms a closed
system, since it is a bit tedious but straightforward to show that:
[fij , fk` ] = δj,−k fi` − δi,−` fkj + δi,−k sign(ij)fj` − δj,−` sign(kj)fki . (5.49)
[fiji , f−ji,−i ] = 4 [e−i,i ,i,−i ] = 4 [e−i,−i ,i,i ] = 4hi . (5.50)
[fij , f−j,−i ] = [fi,−i , f−j,j ] = hi + hj = α̃k hk . (5.51)

So this system is indeed closed.
The roots of Eq. (5.48) are those of D` plus the roots
αρ (i, i) = 2 (δiρ − δ−iρ ) ⇔
α(i, i) = (0, 0, · · · 2, 0, · · · 0) , α(−i, −i) = (0, 0, · · · −2, 0, · · · 0) .

i i
1 This allows one to write the matrices in the standard coordinates. This may be needed,
if the symplectic symmetry Sp(2n, c) is embedded in higher symmetry, e.g. SU(2n).
Thus, e.g., for C2 h1 = e11 − e33 and h2 = e22 − e44 . One can write these Abelian
elements in terms of the Abelian elements of A3 :
H1 = e11 − e22 , H2 = e22 − e33 , H3 = e33 − e44
as follows
h1 = H1 + H2 , .h2 = H2 + H3 .
Thus in the study of the chain C2 ⊃ A2 we may write h1 = H1 + H2 , h2 = H2 (see
section 7.12).
All roots can be obtained from the roots α(i, −(i + 1)) of D` and the root
α(`, `). As an example:
α(`, `) + α(` − 1, −`) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 0, 2) + (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, −1)
= (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 1) = α(` − 1, `),
α(`, ` − 1) + α(` − 1, −`) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 0, 1, 1) + (0, 0, · · · , 0, 0, 1, −1)
= (0, 0, · · · , 0, 2, 0) = α(` − 1, ` − 1) etc.
The conjugate roots are
α̃(i, j) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 0, 1, 0, · · · , 0, · · · , 0, 1, 0 · · · , 0) (5.52)
i j
α̃(i, i) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 4, 0, · · · , 0). (5.53)

i
The above information is adequate for constructing the commutator algebra
of C` .
5.5 Problems
One can use the matrix basis employed in this chapter to construct related
operators, which form an isomorphic algebra with the matrix algebra.
(1) The algebra A` as follows:
eij → Aij = a+ + + +
i aj such that [a, aj ] = [ai , aj ] = 0, [a, aj ] = δij ,
i, j = 1, 2, · · · , ` + 1.
For the Abelian elements we use
Hi = Aii − Ai+1,i+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
(2) The algebra B` as follows.2 Thus
∂ ∂
fij → Fi,j = x−i − x−j ,
∂xj ∂xi
i > j, i, j = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`
hi → Hi = Fi,−i , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
2 For the algebras B` , C` and D` the association:
∂
eij → xi
∂xj
is first made.
(3) The algebra D` as follows:

∂ ∂
fij → Fi,j = x−i − x−j , i > j, i, j = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`
∂xj ∂xi
hi → Hi = Fi,−i , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
(4) The algebra C` as follows:
∂ ∂
fij → Fi,j = x−i +sign(ij)x−j , i ≥ j, i, j = ±1, ±2, · · · , ±`
∂xj ∂xi
hi → Hi = Fi,−i , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.

Chapter 6
The Dynkin Diagrams — Another

Classification of Classical Lie Algebras
In this chapter we will classify the semisimple Lie algebras in terms of

their corresponding positive roots. This approach, due mainly to Dynkin,
is different with that of Cartan Weyl discussed in section 4.5. It will lead
to the construction of essentially simple plane diagrams and the Cartan
matrices. These elegant constructions contain all the essential information
characterizing such algebras.
6.1 Definition and properties of root vectors
We have seen in the previous two chapters that a given semisimple al-
gebra of rank ` is characterized by r − ` nonzero vectors (roots) which
can be represented by an `-tiplet of numbers which will be denoted by
x = (ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · , ξ` ). All these vectors can result from a set of roots known
as simple roots. There is a 1-1 correspondence between the simple roots
and the Dynkin diagrams.
Definition: We will say that a vector x of the root space is positive, if its
first nonzero component is positive. We will indicate it as x > 0.
Definition: We will write x1 > x2 if x1 − x2 > 0.
As an example let us consider the algebra B2 . We have seen the nonzero
root vectors are:
{(1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, −1), (−1, 0), (−1, −1), (0, −1), (−1, 1)} .
The first four of these are positive. We also see that (1, 1) > (1, 0) >
(0, 1) > (1, −1) > (0, −1) etc.
Definition: We shall call a root simple, if it is positive and cannot be
written as a sum of positive roots. From the above roots of B2 only the
(0, 1) and (1, −1) are simple. The other two positive roots are not simple,
since: (1, 0) = (0, 1) + (1, −1) and (1, 1) = (0, 1) + (1, 0). The set of simple
125
roots of a semisimple will be denoted by Π. The following statements are

true.
i) If α ∈ Π and β ∈ Π, then β − α is not a root.

hβ|αi
ii) If α ∈ Π and β ∈ Π, β 6= α, 2 hα|αi = integer ≤ 0.
iii) The elements of Π are linearly independent and constitute a basis
for the space spanned by the roots.
iv) Every positive root x can be written as
X
x= ki βi , ki = integer ≥ 0 and βi ∈ Π.
i
v) If x is not a simple root, then
x = β + ψ, β ∈ Π and ψ is a root 0 < ψ < x.
Proof:
i) Suppose that ψ = β − α is a root, then −ψ = α − β is also a root.

Furthermore we will have the additional roots α + ψ and α + (−ψ).
We now distinguish the following two cases:
– ψ > 0. Then β = α + ψ is not simple, which contradicts our
assumptions.
– ψ < 0. Then α = β + (−ψ) is not simple, which again contra-
dicts our assumptions. Thus ψ = β − α is not a root.
ii) We already know (see Eq. (4.8)) that
2hα|βi
= integer (6.1)
hα|αi
and that the chain α which contains the root β is
β + jα, β + (j − 1)α, · · · , β, β − α, · · · , β − kα
where j, k non-negative integers. Thus (see Eq. (4.16)), we have

2hα|βi
= g − 2j = k + j − 2j = k − j.
hα|αi
But we saw by property i) that β − α is not a root, which implies
k = 0, so this proposition has been proved.
iii) This statement can be proved by i) above and the following lemma:
Lemma: If x1 , x2 , · · · , xk are positive vectors with
hxi |xj i ≤ 0, i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , k
The Dynkin Diagrams — Another Classification of Classical Lie Algebras 127
these vectors are linearly independent.

Proof: Suppose that there exist numbers λ0i , i = 1, · · · , k not all
zero such that:
λ01 x1 + λ02 x2 · · · + λ0k xk = 0.
Let us suppose that we have ordered them so that λ0k 6= 0. Then
k−1
X λ0i
xk = λi xi , λi = .
i
λ0k
Then we can write xk = y + z with
k−1
X k−1
X
y= λi xi , z = λ i xi .
i,λi >0 i,λi ≤0
Then
hxk |yi = hy|yi + hz|yi
but
hy|yi > 0, hy|zi ≥ 0 ⇒ hxk |yi > 0.
Pk−1
But contradicts the assumption hxk |yi = i λi hx|yi ≤ 0. Thus
x1 , x2 , · · · , xk are linearly independent. Thus according to proposi-
tion ii) the elements of Π are linearly independent and they should
be exactly ` in number, since if there were less one could find an-
other root which cannot be a linear combination of the elements of
Π. If this root is α, it should be accompanied by a root −α, but one
of the two should be positive and cannot be a linear combination
of the elements of Π. Thus it is simple, which is contrary to the
assumption, i.e. the fact that Π contains all simple roots.
iv) This proposition is obvious, since a positive root is either simple or
a sum of simple roots.
v) Let us suppose that there exists a positive root x, which is not
contained in Π. Then x is not linearly independent of the elements
of Π. According to the above lemma there exists β ∈ Π such that
hx|βi > 0. Then following the same steps as in ii) we will have:
2hx|βi
=k−j >0
hα|αi
⇒ x + jα, x + (j − 1)α, · · · , x, x − α, · · · , x − kα
which means that ψ = x − α is a nonzero root vector. If ψ > 0,
α > β and α = β + (α − β), which is contrary to the assumption
that α ∈ Π. Thus necessarily ψ < 0 and x = α + ψ, α ∈ Π. Then,
since α > 0, x > ψ and the proposition is proved.
Definition: Given two subsets Π0 and Π00 of Π, which are mutually orthog-
onal in the sense that
α ∈ Π0 , β ∈ Π00 ⇒ hα|βi = 0.
Then we say that Π splits. Otherwise it does not split.

Theorem 1: A semisimple algebra is simple if, and only if, the system Π
of its roots does not split. The proof will not be given here. For a proof
see [Gilmore (1974)], [Jacobson (1962)]. As an example let us consider the
algebra D2 . We already know that this algebra is not simple. We can see
this in view of the above theorem. The two roots of Π are α = (1, 0) ∈ Π0
and β = (0, 1) ∈ Π00 with hα|βi = 0.
Theorem 2: If α and β are two simple roots of a semisimple Lie algebra, the
angles between them can only be 90◦ , 120◦ , 135◦ , and 150◦ . Furthermore,
if hα|αi ≤ hβ|βi the following formula holds
if θ = 120◦

 1
if θ = 135◦

hβ|βi 
2
(6.2)
hα|αi 
 3 if θ = 150◦
indefinite if θ = 90◦ .

We are not going to prove Eq. (6.2), but we are going to illustrate it with
some special examples like B3 and G2 .
We know that the three simple roots of B3 are α = (0, 0, 1), β =
(0, 1, −1) and γ = (1, −1, 0). We find
−1 1 hβ|βi
cos θαβ = √ = − √ ⇒ θαβ = 135◦ ⇒ = 2,
1× 2 2 hα|αi
hγ|γi
cos θαγ = 0 ⇒ θαγ = 90◦ ⇒ = 1 (accidentally possible in this case),
hα|αi
1 1 hβ|βi
cos θβγ = − √ √ = − ⇒ θβγ = 120◦ ⇒ = 1.
2 2 2 hγ|γi
So we have two lengths and two angles in this case.
We know the roots of algebra
√ G2 (see section
√ 4.7). The two positive
simple roots are α = (1/2, − 3/2) and β = (0, 3). Thus
√
−3/2 3 hβ|βi
cos θαβ = √ =− ⇒ θαβ = 150◦ ⇒ = 3.
1× 3 2 hα|αi
6.2 The Dynkin root diagrams
We will exploit the above results to find a different way of classifying the
semisimple Lie algebras obtained by Dynkin according to the following
rules:
(1) To every simple root α ∈ Π we assign a circle. Under the circle we
write the length of the root in some units say λ, from which the
relative length of the roots is seen.
(2) The circles corresponding to the roots α and β are connected by
straight lines as follows:
• One line if the angle θαβ between the roots is 120◦ .
• Two lines if θαβ is 135◦ .
• A triple line if θαβ is 150◦ .
• The circles corresponding to the roots α and β are not con-
nected, if θαβ is 0◦ . This does not occur if the algebra is
simple.
• The circle corresponding to the root of minimal length may
be filled (black).
Note: According to√the√previous theorem, if the ratio of the lengths of the
roots β and α is 3, 2 and 1, the angle θαβ is 150◦ , 135◦ , and 120◦
respectively is indicated by drawing three, two and one line respectively.
This is shown in Fig. 6.1. Dynkin showed that there exist no other
systems, but we will not give the proof here. We see that:
• The lengths of all roots are equal. Then
- The circles are connected by a single line forming a chain.
This is the case of A` .
- It is possible to have more than two terminating circles.
These can stem from the root β`−2 like in the case D` .
They can also stem from one of the other roots like in the case
of the special algebras E6 , E7 and E8 . Dynkin showed that
they are no other such special systems.
• It is possible to have one root with different length than that of
the rest. This root can only be put at the end of a chain. There
exist two possibilities:
- this root can have the smallest length as in the case of B`
(this root is half of that of the other roots, put at the end of
the chain).
- This root can be the largest length like the case of C` (this
root has double length compared to that of all the others. It
is put last).
• It is possible to group the roots into two sets, with the members of
each group having equal length. Dynkin showed that there exists
only one such special system indicated as F4 . The smallest roots
are put at the end of the chain.
• There is only one possibility for a triple line. So we have one special
Lie algebra, indicated by G2 .
Aℓ F4 G2
Bℓ
Cℓ E6
E7
Dℓ
E8
Fig. 6.1: The Dynkin diagrams associated with the simple classical algebras.
From left to right we write the roots of Π in the order β1 , β2 , · · · , β` . In
the case of B` , C` , F4 and G2 the roots do not have the same length. The
roots in black have the smallest length.
From the Dynkin diagrams one can draw a number of conclusions, e.g.
whether two algebras are isomorphic or whether a given algebra is contained
in one with a higher rank. Thus it is evident that B2 and C2 are isomorphic.
Similarly A3 and D3 . We also find the relations
• A` ⊃ A`−1 (obvious)
• B` ⊃ B`−1 (obvious) B` ⊃ A`−1 (not so obvious)
• C` ⊃ C`−1 (obvious) and C` ⊃ A`−1 (not obvious)
• D` ⊃ D`−1 (obvious), D` ⊃ A`−1 (not obvious)
• We cannot conclude from the Dynkin diagram that B` ⊃ D` , i.e.
SO(2` + 1) ⊃ SO(2`)
• E8 ⊃ E7 ⊃ E6 (obvious), E8 ⊃ A7 (not obvious), E7 ⊃ A6 , E6 ⊃
A5 (not obvious) etc.
The unitary groups sneak in everywhere!

Of course many more subalgebras can be found, if we cut the chain, but
then these subalgebras are not maximal.
In finding subalgebras it is often useful to consider the associated Dynkin
diagrams [Slansky (1981)], see section 8.14, which can also be found in
Table A.2 of appendix A.
Further information about the algebras is given compactly in the form
of the Cartan matrix.
6.3 The Cartan matrix for the classical Lie algebras
Let us suppose that the simple roots of a given algebra A` are

α1 , α2 , · · · , α` . The Cartan matrix for the algebra is defined by:
hαi |αj i
(A)ij = 2 , i, j = 1, 2, · · · , `. (6.3)
hαi |αi i
It is clear that the diagonal elements (A)ii are equal to 2. Furthermore
with the roots defined1 in the previous section 5.2:
p p "p #1/2
hαi |αj i hαi |αj i hαj |αi i hαj |αj i
2 ≤2 =2 p
hαi |αi i hαi |αi i hαi |αi i
√
⇒ |(A)ij | ≤ 2 3.
This means that the diagonal elements take the value 2 and for the off-
diagonal ones the possible values are 0, ±1, ±2, ±3.
6.3.1 The Cartan matrix of A`

We have seen in the previous chapter that the simple roots of A` are
α(i, i + 1), i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Not all of them are positive, but the fact that they are simple is adequate2
for the construction of the Cartan matrix. Furthermore from the previous
1 The reader is alerted that other choices are often used.
2 One could in fact choose a set of positive simple roots, e.g. the set: α(i + 1, i), i =
2, 3, · · · , ` and α(1, ` + 1). One can then generate the rest of the roots by noting
α(i, i + 1) + α(i + 1, i + 2) = α(i, i + 2) ⇒ α(i + 1, i) + α(i + 2, i + 1) = α(i + 2, i).
Thus from these and their opposites we can generate all positive roots except α(1, 2).
The root α(1, 2) can be generated by noting that
α(1, 2)+α(2, 3)+· · ·+α(`, `+1) = α(1, `+1) ⇒ α(1, 2) = α(3, 2)+α(4, 3)+· · ·+α(`+1, `)
+α(1, ` + 1).
So indeed we have a complete set of positive simple roots.
chapter we know that αρ (i, i + 1) = 2δρ,i − δρ,i−1 − δρ,i+1 . The metric in

this case is not diagonal. So we have to consider the roots α̃ρ (i, i + 1) in
the expression for the scalar product. We have seen in the previous chapter
that
α̃ρ (i, i + 1) = δρ,i , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Defining βi = α(i, i + 1) and β̃i = α̃(i, i + 1) we obtain
β̃j .βi = 2δj,i − δj,i−1 − δj,i+1 .
We find

 0 |i − j| > 1
hβi |βj i = 2 i=j (6.4)
−1 |i − j| = 1.

Recall that this value of the diagonal elements has already been used in the
construction of the Dynkin diagram. Thus, e.g., we find
 
2 −1 0
2 −1
A2 = , A3 =  −1 2 −1  . (6.5)
−1 2
0 −1 2
The general form is:
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . .
 
A` ⇔ (A) =  . (6.6)
 . . . . . . .

 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 

 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 
0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2
This is a symmetric and, somewhat surprisingly, the columns (rows) coin-
cide with the roots as obtained in the previous chapter (the α̃’s were just
an intermediary).
6.3.2 The Cartan matrix of B`

Now we select the simple roots:
βi = α(i, −(i + 1)), i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, β` = α(`, 1)
(see section 5.3.2). We have:
(βi )ρ = α(i, −(i + 1))ρ = δρ,i − δρ,i+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, (β` )ρ = δ`,ρ .
Since the scalar product is symmetric, it is adequate to consider i ≤ j.

Thus for j < ` we have:
X
hβi |βj i = (δρ,i − δρ,i+1 )(δρ,j − δρ,j+1 ) = δi,j − δi,j+1 − δi,j−1 ,
ρ
hβi |β` i = δi,` − δi,`−1 .

Recall that in this case α̃(i, j) = α(i, j). Thus:
 
 2 i=j  1 i=`
hβi |βj i = −1 i = j − 1 , i ≤ j , hβi |β` i = −1 i = ` − 1
 
0 otherwise 0 otherwise.
We find that the Cartan matrix for B` is the same with that of A` , except
for the entries of the last row and the last column, i.e.
2(−1) 2(−1) 2(1)
A`−1,` = = −1, A`,`−1 = = −2, A`,` = = 2.
2 1 1
Thus
 
2 −1 0
2 −1
B2 = , B3 =  −1 2 −1  (6.7)
−2 2
0 −2 2
with the general form:
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . . .
 
B` ⇔ (A) =  . . . . . . . .  . (6.8)
 
 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 0 
 
 0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2 −1 
0 0 0 · · · 0 0 −2 2
6.3.3 The Cartan matrix of C`

The first simple ` − 1 roots of C` are the same with those of B` (see section
5.3.2), but the last one is β` = α(`, `) with α(`, `)ρ = δρ,` . Thus

 2 i=`
hβi |β` i = −2 i = ` − 1

0 otherwise.
Thus the Cartan matrix of C` is the transpose of that of B` , i.e. obtained
by interchanging rows and columns:
(A) of C` = transpose of (A) of B` .
6.3.4 The Cartan matrix of D`

The first simple ` − 1 roots of D` are the same with those of B` and C` (see
section 5.3.1). Here, though,
β` = α(`, ` − 1), with α(`, ` − 1)ρ = δρ,` + δρ,`−1 .
Thus
X
hβi |β` i = (δρ,i − δρ,i+1 )(δρ,` + δρ,`−1 ) = −δi,`−2 , i 6= `
ρ
X
hβ` |β` i = (δρ,` + δρ,`−1 )(δρ,` + δρ,`−1 ) = 2
ρ
or

 2 i=`
hβi |β` i = −1 i = ` − 2

0 otherwise.
Thus

 2 i=`
D`,i = Ai,` = −1 i = ` − 2

0 otherwise.
Thus the Cartan matrix of D` differs from those of B` and C` only with
regard to the elements of the last row and columns:
2 −1 0 0 0
 
2 −1 0 0
 
 
2 −1 −1  −1 2 −1 0 
 −1 2 −1 0 0 
 
D3 = −1 2 0 , D4 = 
   
 0 −1 2 −1 −1  .
, D5 =  
0 −1 2 −1 
−1 0 2  0 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 −2 2
0 0 −1 0 2
(6.9)
The algebra D2 is not included since it is not simple, D2 = B1 ⊗ B1 . The
D5 ⇔ SO(10) is very useful in particle physics. The general form is
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . . .
 
D` ⇔ (A) =  . . . . . . . .  . (6.10)
 
 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 −1 
 
 0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 0 2
6.3.5 The Cartan matrix of the special algebras

We list for completeness the Cartan matrix of the special algebras:
 
2 −1 0 0 0 0
2 −1 0 0  −1 2 −1 0 0 0 
 
 
2 −1  −1 2 −1 0  0 −1 2 −1 0 −1
 
G2 = , F4 =   , E6 =  .
 
−3 2  0 −2 2 −1   0 0 −1 2 −1 0 
0 0 −1 2

 0 0 0 −1 2 0 

0 0 −1 0 0 2
(6.11)
 
  2 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 −1 0 0 0 0 0  −1 2 −1 0 0 0 0 0 
 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 0   
   0 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 −1 
 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 −1   
 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 
   
E7 =  0 0 −1 2 −1 0 0  E8 =  .
 
 0 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 
 0 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 
 

 0 0 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 

 
 0 0 0 0 −1 2 0   
 0 0 0 0 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 −1 0 0 0 2
0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 2
(6.12)
The reader is urged to reproduce these matrices from the Dynkin diagrams.
You may use, even if you did not derive, up to possible reordering, as simple
roots the following:
For E6 :
(1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, −1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, −1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0),
1 √
(0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0), − (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3).
2
For E7 :
(1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, −1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0, 0),
1
(0, 0, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1, −1, −1, −1, −1).
2
For E8 :
(1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0),
(0, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0),
1
(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0), − (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1).
2
6.4 The roots in the Dynkin representation
The Dynkin root j with component i is defined as

(D)
hαj |αi i
α(j) =2 , i, j = 1, 2, · · · , `. (6.13)
i hαi |αi i
Thus they are integers and given by the rows of the corresponding Cartan
matrix. It is customary to represent vectors as columns. It is perhaps
more appropriate to say that the roots correspond to the columns of the
transpose of the Cartan matrix.
(k)
ai = AT ki , AT ki = (A)ik , (A) is the Cartan matrix, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , `

(6.14)
(see Eq. (6.3)). We note the beauty of the Dynkin representation, the roots
and the weights for all semisimple Lie algebras are expressed in terms of
integers.
Thus for A2 we have:
2 −1
(D) (D)
α(1) = , α(2) = .
−1 2
Sometimes the superscript D will be dropped, if it is obvious that we are
talking about the Dynkin roots. These coincide with the roots we encoun-
tered in section 5.2. This is true for all the roots A` discussed there. This,
of course, has been a clever coincidence but, it need not have been. The
same applies to the algebras B` , C` , and D` , but other choices exist. For
the A2 another set of simple roots is:

(1) √ 0 (2) √ 1/2
α = ,α = .
3 − 3/2
We find the matrix of overlaps

3 −3/2
αi .αj = .
−3/2 3/4
Thus
2×3 2 × (−3/2)
a(1) 1
= = 2, a(1) 2 = = −1,
3 3
2 × (−3/2) 2 × (3/4)
a(2) 1
= = −1, a(2) 2 = = 2,
3/4 3/4
i.e. we obtain the Dynkin matrix. Furthermore, we find the inverse of the
Cartan matrix to be:

1 21
(AT )−1 = .
3 12
We thus find the contragredient roots:

(1) 1 (2) 0
a = ,a = .
0 1
Problems: √ √
(1) Consider the roots α1 = (1/2 3, 1/2) and α2 = (1/2 3, −1/2), find
the corresponding Dynkin roots. Then from these obtain all the Dynkin
roots. √ √
(2) Consider the roots α1 = (0, 3) and α2 = (1/2, − 3/2). Show that
the corresponding Dynkin roots are

2 1
a1 = , a2 = .
−3 −2
Find their congruent roots. Find all the Dynkin roots of G2 .

Chapter 7
Weights of Irreducible
Representations — Maximal
Subalgebras
In this chapter, utilizing the root vectors and diagrams in the Dynkin rep-
resentations, we will construct the weights, which characterize a given rep-
resentation. These are expressed in terms of the eigenvalues of the elements
of the Abelian subalgebra of the Lie algebras we examined previously. We
will see that a representation is characterized completely from the maximal
weight. Using the Weyl group of reflections we will obtain the constraints
that the maximal weights must satisfy. Then the formulas providing the
character of the irreducible representations and their dimensions are given
in terms of the maximum weight. We also show how to obtain all weights
from the maximum weight and how to construct a basis for the irreducible
representations of a semisimple Lie algebra.
7.1 Weight vector, maximum weight, some basic theorems
As mentioned in the previous chapters, given a semisimple Lie algebra, a

basis can be found such that the elements of the algebra can be grouped
into two classes
i) there exist ` elements hi , which commute and constitute an Abelian
subalgebra indicated by B or H.
ii) The remaining r − ` elements eα do not belong to B.
iii) The basis is such that:
[hi , hj ] = 0, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , ` (7.1)
[hi , eα ] = αi eα , α = (α1 , α2 , · · · , α` ) (7.2)
αi hi ,

α = −β
[eα , eβ ] = (7.3)
Nα+β eα+β , α + β 6= 0.
139
The vectors α are known as root vectors. In this section we are going to
extend and generalize these concepts. Let us suppose that there exists a
basis |u1 i, |u2 i, · · · , |un i, which defines a representation of the algebra:
hi → Hi , eα → Eα .
The matrices Hi can be diagonalized simultaneously, so that if an eigen-

vector |ui is found, we have:
Hi |ui = mi |ui, i = 1, 2, · · · , `. (7.4)
The vector Λ, which has ` components mi , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` in the `-

dimensional space is called a weight vector or simply weight,
Λ ⇔ (m1 , m2 , · · · , m` ) ⇔ Λ(h), mi = Λ(hi ).
Then
Hj Hi |ui = mi Hj |ui ⇒ Λ is also an eigenvector of Hj .
Furthermore,
Hi Eα |ui = Eα Hi |ui + [Hi , Eα ]|ui = αi Eα |ui + mi Eα |ui

⇒ Hi Eα |ui = (mi + αi )Eα |ui
in other words the vector Eα |ui has Λ + α as a weight. We will see later
that by acting on u with suitable polynomials of the operators Hi , Eα Eβ
etc. we obtain a basis set ∆, which covers the space RT , on which the
representation T is defined. The set ∆ is not empty, since one such weight
system exists, namely the set of the roots α associated with the regular
representation.
Definitions:
• A weight Λ is positive, designated as Λ > 0, if its first nonzero

component is positive.
• Given two weights Λ(1) and Λ(2) we will write Λ(1) > Λ(2) if the
weight Λ = Λ(1) − Λ(2) is positive.
• Given a set of wights Λ(i) , i = 1, 2, · · · , k we will say that Λ(j) is
maximal if Λ(j) ≥ Λ(i) , i = 1, 2, · · · , k.
Weights of Irreducible Representations — Maximal Subalgebras 141
Theorem 1: Every representation has at least one weight Λ.

Proof: Indeed the matrix H1 has at least one eigenvector. Let us denote by
R1 the set of such eigenvectors of H1 . Then:
H1 H2 |ui = H2 H1 |ui = m1 H2 |ui ⇒ H2 |ui ∈ R1 .
The matrix H2 has at least one eigenvector, which can be chosen to be
|ui, i.e. |ui ∈ R1 . Thus the matrix H2 has at least one eigenvector in R1 .
Proceeding this way we find at least one eigenvector such that:
(1) (1) (1) (1)
Hi |ui = mi |ui, i = 1, 2 · · · , `, Λ ⇔ (m1 , m2 , · · · , m` ).
Theorem 2: If |ui is a vector with weight Λ and at the same time it is
a linear combination of other vectors |uk i with weights Λ(k) 6= Λ, then
|ui = 0.
Proof: Indeed suppose that:
(k)
Hi |uk i = mi |uk i, Λ(k) ⇔ |uk i, k = 1, 2, · · · , `
X
Hi |ui = mi |ui, Λ ⇔ |ui, u = γk |uk i, Λ 6= Λ(k) , k = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Consider now the function:
f (H) = (H−Λ(1) )(H−Λ(2) ), · · · , (H−Λ(n) ), H = Hi some i, i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Then clearly
X
f (H)|ui = γk f (H)|uk i.
k
But then f (H)|uk i = 0, since one of the factors in f (H) will yield zero as
|uk i was assumed to be a vector with weight Λ(k) . Then
f (H)|ui = (H − Λ(1) )(H − Λ(2) ), · · · , (H − Λ(n) )|ui
⇒ (Λ − Λ(1) )(Λ − Λ(2) ), · · · , (Λ − Λ(n) )|ui = 0.
However, Λ 6= Λ(k) , k = 1, 2, · · · , n we must have |ui = 0, QED.
Theorem 3: An irreducible representation is fully characterized by its max-
imum weight.
We will not give a complete proof, but will sketch the essential steps.
Lemma: Consider two vectors ui and |u0 i such that
|u0 i = Eαm Eαm−1 · · · Eα2 Eα1 |ui, α1 , α2 , · · · , roots.
Suppose further that these vectors have the same maximum weight. Then
they are proportional to each other.
Suppose that the lemma holds. Then consider all the weights of the
representation T and let Λ their maximum. The lemma guarantees that
the vector |ui associated with the weight Λ is uniquely specified. Consider
now two representations T = {H, Eα } and T 0 = {H 0 , Eα0 } and the two sets
of vectors:
S = {|ui, Eα |ui, Eα Eβ |ui · · · } and S 0 = |ui, Eα0 |ui, Eα0 Eβ0 |ui · · · .

The above vectors are not all independent, but they cover the spaces RT
and RT 0 respectively associated with the representations T and T 0 . One
can show that there exists a 1-1 correspondence between S and S 0 with the
given order. Thus the representations T and T 0 are equivalent. In other
words, representations with the same maximum weight are equivalent.
Proof of the lemma: According to what we have seen above the state |u0 i
has weight Λ = Λ + α1 + α2 + · · · + αm . This means α1 + α2 + · · · + αm = 0.
In other words, not all roots can be positive. Suppose |u01 i = Eα1 |ui, then,
since Λ = Λ + α1 , it is not possible to have m = 1. On the other hand,
if m > 1 we must have α1 < 0, since otherwise Λ + α1 , contrary to the
assumption that Λ is maximum. Similarly if m = 2, we get α1 + α2 = 0.
Thus |u02 i = Eα1 E−α2 |ui, α2 > 0. Thus
|u02 i = Eα2 E−α2 |ui = [Eα2 , E−α2 ] |ui + E−α2 Eα2 |ui
X
= α2i Hi , since Eα2 |ui = 0,
i
which means that |u02 i = i α2i mi |ui, i.e. the vector |u02 i is proportional
P
to |u0 i.
Let us now suppose that the lemma holds for m = µ. We will show that
it holds for m = µ + 1. We write:
|uµ+1 i = Eαµ+1 Eαµ · · · Eα2 Eα1 |ui,
with the understanding that the operations start from the right. Suppose
now that the first positive root is αk , i.e.
|uµ+1 i = Eαµ+1 Eαµ · · · Eαk+1 Eαk · · · Eα2 Eα1 |ui.
Our goal is to bring it to be the first to act, in which case it will give
zero. On its way, however, the commutators Eαk , Eαj , j = 1, 2, · · · , k
will come into the picture. Note, however, that:
P i
 i αk Hi , if αk + αj = 0
Eαk , Eαj = Nαk +αj Eαk +αj , if αk + αj = root

0 , otherwise.
We thus encounter the following two forms:
• of type F1
F1 = Eαµ+1 Eαµ · · · Eαk+1 Eαk−1 · · · Eα2 Eα1
in which case αµ+1 + αµ + · · · αk+1 + αk−1 · · · + α2 + α1 = Λ,
X
|u0µ+1 i=F1 |ui= αki Hi Eαµ+1 Eαµ · · · Eαk+1 Eαk−1 · · · Eα2 Eα1 |ui,

i
which is of the given form with µ products.
• of type F2
F2 = Nαk +αj Eαµ+1 Eαµ · · · Eαk+1 Eαk−1 · · · Eαj+1 · · · Eαk +αj Eαj−1
· · · Eα2 Eα1
with the operator Eαj replaced by Eαk +αj . Then the operator
|u00µ+1 i = F2 |ui is of the given form with µ products.
Thus finally the |uµ+1 i is a sum of terms of the form |uµ i. Since the lemma
holds for |uµ i, it holds for |uµ+1 i.
Before proceeding further let us apply this in the familiar case of A1 or
B1
|ui = |j ji
|u1 i = E−1 |ui
|u2 i = E−1 E−1 |ui, |u02 i = E1 E−1 |ui
|u3 i = E−1 E−1 E−1 |ui, |u03 i = E1 E−1 E−1 |ui, |u003 i = E−1 E1 E−1 |ui etc.
From all these linear independent are the following1 :
j−m
|um i = (E−1 ) |ui, m = −j, −j + 1 · · · j1 , j.
Clearly:
H|um i = m|um i ⇒ Λ = (m), m = −j, −j + 1 · · · j1 , j, Λmax = (j).
The above states can be normalized.
Definition: Multiplicity of a weight Λ, indicated as n(Λ) is the number of
times it can occur in a representation Λ. If n(Λ) = 1, we say the weight is
simple.
We can now state the converse of the above theorem:
Theorem 4: A representation is irreducible if its maximum weight is simple.
We will not give the proof here, for a proof see [Racah (1965)], [Jacobson
1 E.g. |u02 i = [E1 , E−1 ] + E−1 E1 = 2H|ui ∝ |ui.
(1962)]. We simply note that if the maximum weight Λ is simple, the vector
uΛ associated with it is unique. Then starting from this we obtain a set
of linearly independent states, which cover the space RΛ by simply acting
with the operators:
Ωµ = Eαµ Eαµ−1 , · · · , Eα2 Eα1 .
Thus from a vector |ui i ∈ RΛ we obtain the vector |ui,α i:

|ui i, α=0
|ui,α i =
Eα |ui i, α 6= 0.
Clearly it is not possible to have X|ui,α i = 0 for every element of the
algebra. Indeed, if Hi |ui i = mi |ui i,
X
E−α |ui,α i = E−α Eα ui = [E−α , Eα ] ui = − αj Hj ui 6= 0.
j
Thus the representation is covered by the above states and it is irreducible.

Theorem 5: Given a weight Λ and a root α of a semisimple Lie algebra the
following are true:
2hΛ|αi 2hΛ|αi
i) = integer, ii) Λ̃ = Λ − |αi is another weight.
hα|αi hα|αi
(7.5)
Proof: We will assume that the representation is finite dimensional. As we
have seen above if |ui is a vector with weight Λ, Eα |ui is another vector
with weight Λ+α. The vectors generated this way are linearly independent,
since they correspond to different eigenvalues. Since the space is finite
dimensional there exists a vector |u0 i such that
Eα |u0 i = 0, α > 0.
Starting with this vector we construct the vector sequence:
|ui i = E−α |ui−1 i, i = 1, 2, · · · .
It is clear that we have the following correspondence between vectors and
weights:
|u0 i ⇔ Λ, |ui i ⇔ Λ − iα.
Again since the space is finite dimensional and the |ui i are linearly inde-
pendent there exists an integer g such that |ug i =
6 0, but E−α |ug i = 0. We
will show that there exist constants µi such that:
Eα |ui i = µi |ui−1 i, i = 1, 2, · · · .
The proof will follow by induction.

 
X
Eα |u1 i = Eα E−α |u0 i = [Eα , E−α ] |u0 i + E−α Eα |u0 i =  αj Hj  |u0 i
j
since Eα |u0 i = 0. Thus

X
Eα |u1 i = µ1 |u0 i, µ1 = αj Λj = hα|Λi
j
in other words the theorem holds for i = 1. Suppose it holds for i. Then
Eα |ui+1 i = Eα E−α |ui i = [Eα , E−α ] |ui i + E−α Eα |ui i

X
= αj Hj |ui i + µi E−α |ui−1 i
j
 
X X
= αj Hj |ui i + µi E−α |ui−1 i = µi + (Λ − iα)j  |ui i.
j j
In other words,
µi+1 = µi + hα|Λ − iαi
and, hence, from this recursion formula we find

1
µi+1 = (µi + 1)hα|Λi − i(i + 1)hα|αi,
2
1
µg+1 = 0 ⇒ (g + 1)hα|Λi = g(g + 1)hαi.
2
Thus for hαi =
6 0 we get
2hΛ|αi
= g = integer.
hα|αi
So part i) of the proof is complete.
We now encounter two possibilities.
a) The weight Λ is maximum. Then with the procedure just described

we obtain the weights Λ̃α = Λ − kα. Thus
2hΛ|αi
Λ̃ = Λ − gα = Λ − |αi
hα|αi
is a weight.
b) The weight Λ is not maximum. Then from this we obtain the

weights:
Λ − kα, Λ − (k − 1)α, · · · , Λ, Λ + α, · · · , Λ + jα, j + k = g.
Thus according to what we saw previously we obtain the weights:
Λ0 = Λ + jα − gα, Λ00 = Λ0 − jα.
Thus the expression:
2hΛ|αi
Λ̃ = Λ − gα = Λ − |αi
hα|αi
is also a weight.
We define as the projection of the weight Λ on the root α the expression:
2hΛ|αi
Λα = . (7.6)
hα|αi
This appears as the usual expression if the root α is of unit length, as for
example was the case for A` .
We summarize: With the aid of this theorem we see that we can con-
struct a chain of weights beginning with a weight and a root.
Theorem 6: Suppose that Λ is a weight of an irreducible representation T .
Then the weight is maximal if and only if:
2hΛ|αi
α ∈ Π ⇒ Λα = is non-negative integer. (7.7)
hα|αi
Furthermore if |uΛ i is the vector with the maximum weight,

0 k > Λα
(E−α )k |uΛ i = (7.8)
6= 0 Λα ≤ k.
This theorem asserts that we can determine an irreducible representation
completely if we know all the numbers Λα of all the weights. Diagrammati-
cally this can be done indicating by a circle the non-negative quantities Λα
for any positive root of the Dynkin diagram. If Λα = 0 the representation
is 1-dimensional with weight Λ = 0.
Any of the vectors of the theorem has a weight Λ̃ = Λ − kα.
Proof: If we make the correspondence:
|u(k, α)i = (E−α )k , |u(0, α)i = |uΛ i
the proof proceeds as in the previous theorem, except that now the root α
is positive, which implies that g is positive. As a result
2hΛ|αi
Λα = = g > 0.
hα|αi
The net result of the above theorem is that the weights can be chosen to
be integers.
Combining the above two theorems we can state the following theorem:
Theorem 7: Suppose that T is a representation of a semisimple Lie algebra
and m a given weight of T then:
i) The weight is maximal m = Λ or

P
ii) it can be written as m = Λ − i ki αi , ki = integer and αi the
positive roots of the algebra, i.e. αi ∈ Π.
For a proof see [Jacobson (1962)].
7.2 Weights and equivalent weights of the algebras L` , A` ,

B` , C` and D`
We will exploit the results of Theorem 5 to study the weights of the irre-
ducible representations of the classical algebras: L` , A` , B` , C` and D` .
i) The algebra L`
Here the elements are hi = eii and eij , i 6= j with roots αρ (ij) =
δiρ − δjρ . Thus hα(ij)|α(ij)i = 2 and hΛ|αi = mi − mj . Then the
second of Eq. (7.5) yields

 mρ , ρ 6= i, ρ 6= j
m̃ρ = mρ − (mi − mj )αρ (ij) ⇒ m̃ρ = mj , ρ=i

mi , ρ = j.
In other words, given a weight equivalent weights are obtained by

exchanging two of its components and leaving the rest unchanged.
Furthermore, the condition implied by the first of Eq. (7.5) yields:
2(mi − mj )
= integer ⇒ mi − mj = integer.
2
Thus the highest weight of Ln is specified by the numbers
m1 , m2 , · · · , m` such that
m1 ≥ m2 , · · · ≥ m` , mi − mj = integer, ` = n.
Any such set specifies an irreducible representation of Ln .

ii) The algebra A`

The only essential restriction coming from the traceless condition
is ` = n − 1
m1 ≥ m2 , · · · ≥ m` , mi − mj = integer, ` = n − 1.
iii) The algebra D` or SO(2`)

δiρ + δjρ , i > j > 0
αρ (ij) =
δiρ − δ|j|ρ , i > 0, j < 0, −j > i.
In both cases hα(ij)|α(ij)i = 2 but

mi + mj = integer, i > j > 0
hΛ|αi= ⇒ 2mi = integer,
mi − mj = integer, i > 0, j < 0, −j > i
i, j = 1, 2, · · · , `.
The equivalent eights are

mρ − (mi + mj )(δρi + δρj ), i > j > 0,
m̃ρ =
mρ − (mi − m−j )(δρi − δρ,−j ), i > 0, j < 0, −j > i.
The first of these sends mi → −mj and mj → −mi . The second
of these sends mi → m−j and m−j → mi . Thus

 −mρ , ρ 6= i or ρ 6= j
m̃ρ = m−j ρ = i
ρ = −j.

mi
We see that an equivalent weight is obtained by exchanging two
of its components or by exchanging two of its components and
changing the sign of both. The weights are integral or half integral
satisfying the relations
m1 ≥ m2 , · · · ≥ m` , ` = even, m1 ≥ m2 , · · · ≥ m`−1 ≥ |m` |, ` = odd.
(7.9)
iv) The algebra B` or SO(2`+1). This algebra has the same roots with
D` and the additional roots αρ (i0) = δiρ . Thus hαρ (i0)|αρ (i0) = 1i,
hΛ|α(i0)i = mi , m̃ρ = mρ − mi δiρ . Thus
2hΛ|α(i0)i
= integer ⇒ 2mi = integer
hα(i0)|α(i0)i
as in D` and

mρ ρ 6= i
m̃ρ =
−mi ρ = i.
Thus now equivalent weights can also occur with sign change of
one of the two exchanged components. As a result all negative
components can eventually become positive. Thus the numbers
m1 ≥ m2 , · · · ≥ m` ≥ 0, 2mi = integers ≥ 0 (7.10)
define a representation with maximum weight Λ = (m1 ,

m2 , · · · , m` ).
v) The algebra C` . The roots are α(ij), i ≥ j with
αρ (ij) = sign(i)δρ|i| + sign(j)δρ|j| , αρ (ii) = 2sign(i)δρ|i| .
We now distinguish the following two cases:

case (a) i 6= j
hα|αi = 2, hΛ|αi = sign(i)m|i| + sign(j)m|j|
2hΛ|αi
= integer ⇒ ±mi ± mj = integer, i, j = 1, 2 · · · , `
hα|αi

m̃ρ = mρ − sign(i)m|i| + sign(j)m|j| sign(i)δρ|i| + sign(j)δρ|j| .
In the special case j = −i we find, e.g. for ρ = i > 0, that

m̃ρ → mρ . For j 6= −i we find m|i| → −sign(ij)m|j| , m|j| →
−sign(ij)m|i| . In other words:

 mρ , ρ 6= |i| and ρ 6= |j|, |i| = |j|
m̃ρ = −sign(ij)m|j| , ρ = |i|, i 6= −j
−sign(ij)m|i| , ρ = |j|, i 6= −j

case (b) i = j
2hΛ|αi
hα|αi = 4, = sign(i)m|i| = integer
hα|αi

mρ , ρ 6= |i|
m̃ρ = mρ − sign(i)m|i| δρ|i| = .
−m|i| , ρ = |i|
Thus the mi are integers. Furthermore equivalent weights can be
obtained by exchanging two weights with a sign change of one of
them. Thus the maximum weight is defined with the natural num-
bers mi that is
Λ = (m1 , m2 , · · · , m` ) such that: m1 ≥ m2 , · · · ≥ m`−1 ≥ m` ≥ 0.

7.3 The Dynkin representation
This convenient representation is obtained starting with any weight m =

(m1 , m2 , · · · , m` ) and the roots α ∈ Π by the replacement:
2hm|αi i 2hαi |mi
mi ⇒ mαi = =
hαi |αi i hαi |αi i
2hΛ|αi i 2hαi |Λi
Λi ⇒ Λαi = = . (7.11)
The roots in the Dynkin representation have been defined in section 6.4
According to the above theorems mαi are integers. Furthermore the highest
weight Λαi is characterized by positive integers, Λαi > 0.
7.3.1 The weights in the Dynkin representation

Given the weights m1 , m2 , · · · , m` and the maximum weight Λ =
(Λ1 , Λ2 , · · · , Λ` ), the corresponding quantities in the Dynkin represen-
tation mD = (mα1 , mα2 , · · · , mα` ) and ΛD = (Λα1 , Λα2 , · · · , Λα` ) are
defined by
hm|αi i hΛ|αi i
mαi = 2 , Λαi = 2 , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
We often omit the subscript D. We will specialize it in the case of the
classical algebras.
i) The algebra L` . A system of simple roots is:
βi = α(i, i + 1), i = 1, 2, · · · , `, β` = α(1, `) ⇒ αρ (i, j) = δiρ − δjρ ,
hβi |βi i = 2
hΛ|βi i
Λβi = 2 = Λi −Λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , `−1, Λβ` = Λ1 −Λ` , ` = n.
hβi |βi i
ii) The algebra A` . The traceless condition imposes a few conditions,
essentially, ` − 1, λn = 0, Λβn . Thus
Λβi = Λi − Λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, Λβ` = Λ` .
iii) The algebra B` . The simple roots are:
βi = α(i, −(i + 1)), i = 1, 2, . . . , ` − 1,
β` = α(`, 0) ⇒ (βi )ρ = δiρ − δi+1,ρ , (β` )ρ = δiρ ,
hβi |βi i = 2, i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, hβ` |β` i = 1.
Thus
Λβi = Λi − Λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, Λβ` = 2Λ` .
Now these values are integral.
iv) The algebra C` . Now the simple roots are:

βi = α((i + 1), i), i = 1, 2, . . . , ` − 1,
β` = α(`, `) ⇒ (βi )ρ = δiρ − δi+1,ρ ,
(β` )ρ = 2δiρ , hβi |βi i = 2, i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1,
hβ` |β` i = 4,
that is
Λβi = Λi − Λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, Λβ` = Λ` .
v) The algebra D` . The roots are βi as above in B` and β` = α(`, `−1).
Thus
(βi )ρ = δiρ −δi+1,ρ , (β` )ρ = δ`ρ +δ`−1,ρ , hβi |βi i = 2, i = 1, 2, · · · , `,
Λβi = Λi − Λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, Λβ` = Λ`−1 + Λ` .
7.3.2 The metric tensor

In general since the roots α ∈ Π are linearly independent, any weight can
be written as a linear combination of these roots, i.e.
X
m= λk αk , αk ∈ Π, k = 1, 2, · · · , `.
k
The parameters λk depend on the chosen set of roots. In the special case
of the Dynkin roots we get
hm|αi i X 2hαj |αi i X
λj AT ij .

mαi = 2 = λj = (7.12)
hαi |αi i j
hαi |αi i j
Since the Cartan matrix is non-singular, we can invert the above equation
to get:
−1
λj = AT mαi .
ji
In other words,
−1
m= AT mD αk ,
k
with mD the corresponding weight in the Dynkin representation. One can
proceed in an analogous fashion to obtain the parameters λk in any root
system.
−1
With the aid of AT we can obtain the metric G of the roots:
−1 1
Gij = AT hαi |αj i (7.13)
ij 2
which can be used to find expressions for scalar products, e.g.

X i i
hm|mi = mαi mαj Gij = mα mαi , mα = Gij mαj .
i,j
Example 1: The Algebra A2 √ √

Two positive roots are α1 = ( 12 , 23 ) and α2 = ( 12 , − 23 ) with hαi |αi i = 1,
hα1 |α2 i = −1. The Dynkin roots are given by the rows of the Cartan
matrix:

2 −1
a(1) = , a(2) = .
−1 2
Now
2 1

−1
AT = 3 3
1 2 .
3 3
Thus
2 1
1
3 3 2 0 1 21
G= 1 2 1 = .
3 3 0 2 6 12
We thus find

1 1 21 2 1 1 2 1 21 −1 1 0
ã = = , ã = = .
6 12 −1 2 0 6 12 2 2 1
The normalization of the roots is arbitrary. We could have chosen α0 =
√
3α. Then the metric G would have been:
2 1 3
3 3 2 0 1 21
G= 1 2 = ,
3 3 0 32 2 12
which is preferred not only for A2 . It can be extended to A` and in general
to all classical algebras (see Table A.8 of appendix A).
Example 2: The Algebra G2 √ √
Two positive roots are α1 = (0, 3) and α2 = ( 21 , − 23 ) with hα1 |α1 i = 3,
hα2 |α2 i = 1, hα1 |α2 i = −3/2. The Dynkin roots are given by the rows of
the Cartan matrix:

2 −1
a(1) = , a(2) = .
−3 2
Now

2 −1 −1 21 T −1
23
A= ⇒A = ⇒ A = .
−3 2 32 12
Thus
3
23 2 0 1 63
G= 1 = .
12 0 2 2 32
We thus find

1 63 2 1 3 1 63 −1 1 0
ã1 = = , ã2 = = .
2 32 −3 2 0 2 32 2 2 1
From these roots, which can be treated as positive, since they were obtained
from genuinely positive roots, one can obtain all roots by considering all
possible chains.
One can show that in all cases the components of the contragredient
roots ãk obey
i 1
ã(k) = δik hαk |αk i.
2
Indeed
i
(k) −1 hαj |αj i 2hαk |αj i −1
ã(k) = Gij aj = AT ij = AT ij hαk |αj i
2 2hαj |αj i
−1 hαk |αk i −1 hαk |αk i 1
= AT ij Akj = AT ij Ãjk

= δik hαk |αk i.
2 2 2
Thus these roots have only one nonzero component which is positive.
The matrices giving the metric (metric matrices) are very useful in ob-
taining and handling the weights of the representations of the semisimple
Lie algebras and they are tabulated in appendix A (see Tables A.8 and
A.9).
7.3.3 Equivalent weights in the Dynkin representation

According to Theorem 5, given the maximum weight Λ we easily obtain
other weights Λ̃:
2hΛ|αi
Λ̃ = Λ − kα, α ∈ Π, k = 1, 2, · · · , g, g = . (7.14)
hα|α|i
In the special case of the Dynkin representation we have seen that the
roots are a(i) j = 2hαi |αj i/hαj |αj i. Furthermore, since α =
P α
i σi α i ,
σiα = integer, we find
X
σiα a(i) j

Λ̃αj = Λαj − k
i
or
X X α
σiα a(i) = γi a(i) , γiα = integers.

Λ̃ = Λ − k (7.15)
i i
This is remarkable. All weights in the Dynkin representation can be ob-

tained starting from the highest weight by subtracting multiples of the
roots. It is clear that the maximum value γiα is Λαi . We continue the
same way starting from a weight we thus found. The root a(i) can be
subtracted only if mαi > 0 and it can be subtracted up to mαi times. With
this procedure we can obtain all the roots. The process stops if (i) we reach
a stage that all components of a weight are non-positive or (ii) we reach
the stage that the weight coincides with a root, α ∈ Π, but the zero weight
is allowed. Thus when we reach the zero weight, we subtract either root.
The above rule, valid for any semisimple algebra, but only if one works
in the Dynkin representation, has become very useful in our computer era
(integer mathematics!). We will illustrate the method by considering some
simple examples.
Let us consider the familiar algebra A2 . The weights are now represented
by two integers. Let us consider the fundamental 3-dimensional representa-
tion with highest weight (1, 0), the adjoined (regular) 8-dimensional repre-
sentation with highest weight (1, 1) and the simple symmetric 6-dimensional
representation with highest weight (2, 0). We have seen that the two simple
Dynkin roots are:

2 −1
a(1) = , a(2) = . (7.16)
−1 2
In the case of (1, 0) we can subtract the first root once to get the weight
(−1, 1). From this weight we can subtract the second root once to get the
weight (0, −1). The procedure stops, which is fine, since only three weights
are possible.
If we consider the other 3-dimensional representation with highest
weight (0, 1), which is not equivalent to the previous one, we can sub-
tract the second Dynkin weight once to get the weight (1, −1). From this
we subtract the first weight once to get (−1, 0) and the procedure stops.
This set of weights is different from that of (1, 0), which shows that the
representations are not equivalent. Furthermore the corresponding weights
are opposite. As we will see that they are conjugate of each other.
Finally for the regular representation, as expected, the weights coincide
with the Dynkin roots. Here the weights are accompanied by their opposite,
the representation is self adjoined. The procedure is exhibited in Fig. 7.1.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7.1: Diagrammatic representation of obtaining the weights of the

(1, 0) ⇔ 3-dimensional, the (2, 0) ⇔ 6-dimensional and the (1, 1) ⇔ 8-
dimensional (regular) representations of the algebra A2 .
We see that the weight (−1, 0) of the representation (2, 0) has been pro-
duced twice. Yet it is not, double but single, since in the process of getting it
we ended up in the same location. The same is true for the weight (−1, −1),
of (1, 1), which is again single. The weight (0, 0) of (1, 1), however, is not
single. It is encountered twice in different places. In other words we have
degeneracy. This has nothing to do with the Dynkin algorithm. The eigen-
values of the Abelian elements do not suffice. We need additional quantum
numbers, in the case of A2 three operators need to be diagonalized. We will
see later that for all the algebras one can find such a set, but the beauty
of the simple weight description is lost. For particle physics applications,
however, this is not a serious problem, since the groups encountered could
be complicated, but the needed representations are very simple.
The way of obtaining the weights associated with the representations
(1, 0) (regular) and (0, 1) of the algebra G2 is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 7.2. We see that the weight (0, 0) is also degenerate in the case of
(1, 0). The (1, 0) coincides with the regular representation of G2 (the (0, 1)
is not the conjugate of (1, 0)).
Fig. 7.2: Diagrammatic representation of obtaining the weights of the

(1, 0) ⇔ 14-dimensional regular representation and the (01) ⇔ 7-
dimensional representation of the algebra G2 .
Two simple roots of G2 are:

2 −1
a(1) = , a(2) = .
−3 2
Let us now consider the fundamental representation of B2 . Its highest
weight is (1, 0). Recall that the two simple roots of B2 are:

2 −1
a(1) = , a(2) = .
−2 2
We start with (1, 0) and subtract a(1) once to get the weight (−1, 2). From
this we subtract a(2) once to get the weight (0, 0) and another time to get
the weight (1, −2). We then subtract a(1) to get (−1, 0). The procedure
stops, since there are no positive components and the obtained weight is
not a root. This is expected since the representation is 5-dimensional and
we have obtained all the five weights.
Let us consider the fundamental representation of C2 . Its highest weight
is (1, 0). Recall that the two simple roots of C2 are:

2 −2
a(1) = , a(2) = .
−1 2
We start with (1, 0) and subtract a(1) to get the weight (−1, 1). From this
we subtract a(2) to get the weight (1, −1). Then we subtract the weight a(1)
we get the weight (−1, 0). The procedure stops, since there are no positive
components and the obtained weight is not a root. This is expected since the
representation is 4-dimensional and we have obtained all the four weights.
Finally let us consider some more involved examples of interest to par-
ticle physics like the fundamental 10 of D5 , see Fig. 7.3, the spinorial rep-
˘ 1/2, 1/2) ⇔ 16 and (1/2, 1/2, 1/2, 1/2, −1/2) ⇔
resentations (1/2, 1/2, 1/2,
16 of D5 , see Fig. 7.4, and the representations 27 and 27∗ of E6 , see
∗
Fig. 7.5.
Fig. 7.3: The tree of obtaining the weights from the maximum weight and
their level in the case of the fundamental 10 of D5 .
7.4 The Weyl reflection group
Consider the transformation

2hξ|αi
Sα : ξ → ξ 0 = ξ − α (7.17)
hα|αi
where α is any nonzero root of the Lie algebra and ξ any vector in the space
spanned by the roots. Then we note the following:
i) The transformation Sα is linear.

Fig. 7.4: The same as in Table 7.3 for the spinorial representations 16 (left)
and 16∗ (right) of D5 . The weights are given in the Dynkin representation.
ii) If ξ = α, ξ 0 = −α. In other words this transformation sends a root

to its opposite. Hence the name reflection. Furthermore according
to Theorem 5 discussed above it transforms a weight to another
weight. Weight connected this way are called equivalent.
iii) If hξ|αi = 0, the vector ξ remains unchanged.
iv) Sα = S−α . Thus it suffices to consider α > 0.
v) The transformations Sα are orthogonal.

2hξ|α 2hη|α
hSξ|Sηi = h ξ − α | η− α i
α|αi α|αi
Fig. 7.5: The same as in Table 7.3 but for the 27 (left) 27∗ (right) of E6 .
2hξ|α 2hη|α 4hα|ξihη|αihα|αi

= hξ|ηi − hα|ηi − hα|ξi +
hα|αi hα|αi hα|αi2
4hξ|α 4hξ|α
= hξ|ηi − hα|ηi + hα|ηi = hξ|ηi.
hα|αi hα|αi
2
vi) det(Sα ) = −1. Clearly (detSα ) = 1, since the transformation is
orthogonal. The root +1 is excluded since Sα |αi = −α.
With the aid of its reflection group, Weyl proved the following important
theorems. We will state them without proof:
Theorem 8: Let Λ be the maximum weight of the representation T of the
semisimple Lie algebra L. Let h be an element of the Abelian subalgebra
B. Then the character associated with representation T (h) is given by
P
detS exp hS(Λ + δ)|hi
χ(h) = S∈W P (7.18)
S∈W detS exp hSδ|hi
where W is the Weyl group and

1X
δ= α. (7.19)
2 α>0
Recall
X
h = λi hi , hΛ|hi = λi mi , Λ = (m1 , m2 , · · · m` ).
i
Theorem 9: Let ΓΛ be an irreducible representation with maximum weight

Λ. Then the dimension of the representation is given by:
Q
hα|Λ + δi 1X
dim (ΓΛ ) = α>0
Q ,δ= α. (7.20)
α>0 hα|δi 2 α>0
7.5 Dimensions of the irreducible representations of the

classical algebras
We will apply the above formulas to obtain explicit expressions giving the
dimension of the irreducible representations, in terms of their maximum
weight Λ = (Λ1 , Λ2 , · · · , Λ` ), of the algebras L` , A` , B` , C` and D` . The
essential ingredient is to obtain an expression for δ.
i) The algebra L` . Here the matrices are n × n and ` = n.

The positive roots are
α(ij), i < j, αρ (ij) = δiρ − δjρ , i, j = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Thus
X X X
α= δρi − δρj
α>0 i<j i<j
in the first sum we get :

1 in position 1 ` − 1 times
1 in position 2 ` − 2 times
··· ··· ··· ···
1 in position ` − 1 1 times
1 in position ` 0 times.
From the second sum we get:
1 in position 1 0 times
1 in position 2 1 times
··· ··· ··· ···
1 in position ` − 1 ` − 2 times
1 in position ` ` − 1 times.
The net effect is
1 1
δ = (` − 1, ` − 3, · · · , −(` − 3), −(` − 1)) ⇔ δρ = (` + 1 − 2ρ)
2 2
hα|(Λ + δ)i = hα|Λi + hα|δi = Λi − Λj + j − i.
Thus
`
Y Λi − Λj + j − i
dimΓΛ = . (7.21)
i<j
j−i
Note: The above rule does not apply in the case of SU(2). In this
case we have only one root α = (1), i.e. δ = (1/2) and one weight
Λ = j. Thus
1 1 j + 1/2
hα|δi = , hα|α + δi = j + ⇒ dimΓj = = 2j + 1
2 2 1/2
as expected.
In the case of U(3) we get
Λ1 − Λ2 + 1 Λ1 − Λ3 + 2 Λ2 − Λ3 + 1
dimΓΛ =
1 2 1
1
= (Λ1 − Λ2 + 1)(Λ1 − Λ3 + 2)(Λ2 − Λ3 + 1).
2
ii) The algebra A` .
The expression is the same as i) above, except that now ` = n − 1.
Thus for SU(3) we have only two components (Λ3 = 0). Thus
1
dimΓΛ = (Λ1 − Λ2 + 1)(Λ1 + 2)(Λ2 + 1).
2
In the case of SU(3) it is more convenient to use λ = Λ1 − Λ2 and
µ = Λ2 − Λ3 . Then
1
dimΓΛ = (λ + 1)(µ + 1)(λ + µ + 2).
2
iii) The algebra D` = SO(2`).

Now we have two types of positive roots:

0, · · · , 1 · · · , 1 · · · , 0, i > j > 0
a) αij =
i j

0, · · · , 1 · · · , −1 · · · , 0, i > 0, j < 0, i < −j
b) αij =
i −j
The sum of the roots of type a) gives δa = (` − 1, ` − 1, · · · , ` − 1).
The sum of the roots of type b) is the same as the one we found
above for L` , δb = (` − 1, ` − 2, · · · , −(` − 3), −(` − 1)). Thus
δ = (` − 1, ` − 2, · · · , 2, 1, 0) ⇒ δρ = ` − ρ,
⇒ hα(ij)|δi = ` − i + ` − j, hα(i, −j)|δi = ` − i − (` − j) = j − i

Y Y Y
⇒ hα|δi = (2` − (i + j)) (j − i)
α>0 0<i<j 0<i<j
Y Y Y
hα|Λ + δi = (Λi + Λj + 2` − (i + j)) (Λi − Λj + j − i).
α>0 0<i<j 0<i<j
Thus finally
`
Y Λi + Λj + 2` − (i + j)
dimΓΛ =
i<j
2` − i − j
`
Y Λi − Λj + j − i
× . (7.22)
i<j
j−i
In the special case of D3 or SO(6) we get

Λ1 + Λ2 + 6 − 3 Λ1 + Λ3 + 6 − 4 Λ2 + Λ3 + 6 − 4
dimΓΛ =
6−3 6−4 6−4
Λ1 − Λ2 + 2 − 1 Λ1 − Λ3 + 3 − 1 Λ2 − Λ3 + 3 − 2
×
2−1 3−1 3−2
or
1
dimΓΛ = (Λ1 + Λ2 + 3)(Λ1 + Λ3 + 2)(Λ2 + Λ3 + 1)
12
× (Λ1 − Λ2 + 1)(Λ1 − Λ3 + 2)(Λ2 − Λ3 + 1).
iv) The algebra B` = SO(2` + 1).

In addition to the above roots of D` we have the positive roots
1
α(i0) ⇔ α(i0)ρ = δiρ with sum is (1, 1, · · · , 1) ⇒ δρ = ` + − ρ.
2
Thus we get the additional factors
1 1
hα|δi = ` + − i, hα|Λ + δi = Λi + ` + − i, i > 0, j = 0.
2 2
Thus we get
` `
Y Λi + Λj + 2` + 1 − (i + j) Y Λi − Λj + j − i
dimΓΛ =
i<j
2` + 1 − i − j i<j
j−i
`
Y 2(Λi + ` − i) + 1
× . (7.23)
i=1
2(` − i) + 1
In the special case of B1 = SO(3) we have only one weight Λ = (j),
so only the last factor contributes and we get dimΓΛ = 2j + 1 as
expected. In the interesting case of B2 = SO(5), Λ = (Λ1 , Λ2 ), we
get
1
dimΓ(Λ1 ,Λ2 ) = (2Λ1 + 3)(2Λ1 + 1)(Λ1 + Λ2 + 2)(Λ1 − Λ2 + 1).
6
In the case of the fundamental representation we find dimΓ(1,0) = 5
as expected in five dimensions and in the case of the regular repre-
sentation dimΓ(1,1) = 10 as expected from the structure constants
of the algebra.
v) The algebra C` = Sp(2`).
Now we have the same positive roots as in the case of D` plus the
additional roots:
X
α(ii) ⇒ αρ (ii) = 2δiρ ⇒ = (2, 2, · · · , 2) ⇔ δρ = ` + 1 − ρ
α(ii)
⇒ hα|δi = 2(` + 1 − i), hΛ|δ + αi = 2Λi + 2(` + 1 − i),

i > 0, j = 0,
contributing the last factor in the expression:
` `
Y Λi + Λj + 2(` + 1) − (i + j) Y Λi − Λj + j − i
dimΓΛ =
i<j
2(` + 1) − i − j i<j
j−i
`
Y Λi + ` + 1 − i
× . (7.24)
i=1
`+1−i
In the special case of C1 we have only one component weight λ =

(2j) and thus
dimΓ(2j) = 2j + 1
expected since the A1 , B1 and C1 are isomorphic. For C2 , Λ =
(Λ1 , Λ2 ) we find:
1
dimΓ(Λ1 ,Λ2 ) = (Λ1 + 2)(Λ1 + 1)(Λ1 + Λ2 + 3)(Λ1 − Λ2 + 1)
6
in the case of the fundamental representation we find dimΓ(1,0) = 4
as expected in four dimensions and in the case of the regular repre-
sentation dimΓ(2,0) = 10 as expected from the structure constants
of the algebra and the fact that B2 and C2 are isomorphic.
For the special algebras we exploit the Dynkin representation, once the
Cartan algebra is known.
7.6 Dimensions of the irreducible representations in the

Dynkin representation
We have seen that if Λ = (m1 , m2 , · · · , m` ) we obtain the weight ΛD =

(Λα1 , Λα2 , · · · , Λα` ) where
2hΛ|αi i
Λαi =
hαi |αi i
and the roots |αi i are the columns of Cartan matrix. The procedure out-
lined in the previous section can be simplified and extended to all cases
such that the Cartan matrix is known. The starting point is to notice that
every positive root can be written as
X
α= kjα αj , αj ∈ Π, kjα non-negative integers. (7.25)
j
In such a case
h2α|αi i X α hαj |αi i X
= kj or (a(α ))j = kjα Aij
hαi |αi i j
hαi |αi i j
⇒ kjα = (A−1 )ji (a(α) )i , A = the Cartan matrix, (7.26)

i.e. the quantities kjα can be constructed solely from the Cartan matrix.
Furthermore,
δ = (1, 1, · · · , 1), (7.27)
1X α 1 X −1
hα|δi = kj hαj |αi i = (A )ji (a(α) )i hαi |αj i (7.28)
2 2 i,j
1 X −1
hα|Λ + δi = (A )ji (a(α) )i hαi |αj i(1 + Λαj ). (7.29)
2 i,j
Thus Weyl’s equation becomes

Y j λα
P
j (1 + Λαj )
X
dimΓΛ = P α , λα
j = (A−1 )ji (a(α) )i . (7.30)
α>0 j λj i
There is no point repeating the evaluation for the classical algebras. The
method can be applied in the case of the special algebras. As an example
we will consider G2 . The roots of this algebra were obtained in section 4.8
√ √ √ √
√ 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 3
±(1, 0), ±(0, 3), ±( , ), ±( , − ), ±( , ), ±( , − ).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √
The two simple roots are (0, 3), (1/2, 3/2). From these we construct
the following data:

2 1 2 −1 21
A= , a(1) = , a(2) = , A−1 = .
−3 2 −3 2 32
The positive roots are:

0 1/2 3/2 0 3/2
α1 = √ , α2 = √ , α3 = √ , α4 = , α5 = √ ,
3 − 3/2 3/2 1 − 3/2

1
α6 = .
0
To these we associate the Dynkin roots:

2 −1 1 0 1
a(1) = , a(2) = , a(3) = , a(4) = , a(5) = ,
−3 2 −1 1 −3

1
a(6) = .
0
Obviously the Dynkin roots are not literally positive, but they belong to
the set π of positive roots, if their parent was positive. The contragredient
to those are:
a(1) = 3/2, 0 , a(2) = 0, 1/2 , a(3) = 1, −1 , a(4) = 3/2, 1 ,

a(5) = 3/2, 3/2 , a(6) = 3, 3/2 .

Table 7.1: The relevant data for determining the dimensions of the irre-
ducible representations of C3 = Sp(6). The quantity j λα
P
j is obtained
from the last column by setting the weights equal to zero.
Pα
α kα λα
j λj (1 + Λ αj )
(2,0,0) (2,2,1) (2,2,2) 6 + 2(Λ1 + Λ2 + Λ3 )
(0,1,0) (1,2,1) (1,2,2) 5 + 2Λ1 + 2Λ3
(1, −1, 1) (1,1,1) (1,1,2) 4 + Λ1 + Λ2 + 2Λ3
(−2, 2, 0) (0,2,1) (0,2,2) 4 + 2Λ2 + 2Λ3
(1, 1, −1) (1,1,0) (1,1,0) 2 + Λ1 + Λ 2
(−1, 0, 1) (0,1,1) (0,1,2) 3 + Λ2 + 2Λ3
(2, −1, 0, ) (1,0,0) (1,0,0) 1 + Λ1
(−1, 2, −1) (0,1,0) (0,1,0) 1 + Λ2
(0, −2, 2) (0,0,1) (0,0,2) 2 + 2Λ3
From the above data we find:

α1 3 α2 0 α3 3 α4 3 α5 3 α6 6
λ = ,λ = ,λ = ,λ = ,λ = ,λ =
0 1 1 2 3 3
with the understanding that the weights are given in the Dynkin represen-
tation. Thus
3(λ1 + 1) λ2 + 1 3λ1 + λ2 + 4 λ2 + 1 3λ1 + 2λ2 + 5
dimΓ(Λ1 ,Λ2 ) =
3 1 4 1 5
3(λ1 + λ2 + 2) 2(2λ1 + λ2 + 3)
×
6 6
1
= (1 + Λ1 )(1 + Λ2 )(4 + 3Λ1 + Λ2 )(5 + 3Λ1 + 2Λ2 )
120
× (2 + Λ1 + Λ2 )(3 + 2Λ1 + Λ2 ). (7.31)
Thus we find that the representation Λ = (1, 0), regular or adjoined is 14-
dimensional. While the representation Λ = (0, 1) is 7-dimensional, i.e. this
is the fundamental representation (see also Fig. 7.2).
We will consider another application of this approach, namely the alge-
bra C3 = Sp(6). The results are summarized in Table 7.1. Weyl’s formula
becomes:
1
dimΓ(Λ1 ,Λ2 ,Λ3 ) = (6 + 2(Λ1 + Λ2 + Λ3 ))(5 + 2Λ1 + 2Λ3 )
5760
× (4 + Λ1 + Λ2 + 2Λ3 )(4 + 2Λ2 + 2Λ3 )(2 + Λ1 + Λ2 )
× (3 + Λ2 + 2Λ3 )(1 + Λ1 )(1 + Λ2 )(2 + 2Λ3 ). (7.32)
The dimensions of some representations of various algebras can be found

in Tables B.6–B.8, B.11–B.13, B.30–B.32 and B.38 of appendix B.
7.7 Construction of the states of an irreducible

representation
The construction of the states associated with an irreducible representation

with maximum weight Λ is a generalization of the methods exhibited in
section 2.2. One starts from the maximum weight and using the needed
step down operators in a pattern indicated by the methods described for
obtaining the weighs of the representation (see section 7.3.3), if one works
in the Dynkin basis.
We have seen in section 7.1 that if m is a given weight m,
E−α |mi = N (−α, m)|m − αi. (7.33)
Now we note that
|N (−α, m)|2 = hm|Eα E−α |mh= hm|[Eα , E−α ]|mh+hm|E−α Eα |mi

= αi hm|Hi |mi + hm|E−α |m + αi
1
= hα|mi + hm|E−α |m + αi = mα hα|αi + hm|E−α |m + αi
2
making the choice in the phase
r
1
N (−α, m) = mα hα|αi + hm|E−α |m + αi.
2
We thus get the recursion formula:
r
1
E−α |mi = mα hα|αi + hm|E−α |m + αi|m − αi (7.34)
2
so one can compute all the relevant matrix elements staring from the highest
weight
r
1
E−α |Λi = mα hα|αi|Λ − αi. (7.35)
2
We can see which matrix elements of any operator are nonzero by inspecting
the weight ladder in the diagrams of section 7.3.3. Once we have obtain the
matrix elements of the lowering operators, we can find the matrix elements
of all operators. Clearly
+
Γαi = (Γ−αi ) .
The diagonal matrices ΓHa(i) are easily obtained. First we order the possible
weights in some fashion, m(1) , m(2) , · · · , m(`) and associate the state |ki
with the weight m(k) . We know that Ha(i) are diagonal, i.e.
(k)
Ha(i) |ki = mm
a(i) |ki.
If β is not a simple root, the corresponding representation can be found

from the commutation
relations,
since there exist two simple roots a(i) and
a(j) such that Ea(i) , Ea(j) = Naβ(i) ,a(j) Eβ . Thus
1
Γβ = Γa(i) , Γa(j) .
Naβ(i) ,a(j)
The essential calculations are the matrices of the operators associated with
the simple roots.
Let us illustrate this with the simple fundamental representation of A2
with highest weight Λ = (1, 0). Then ordering the states |1i ⇔ (1, 0), |2i ⇔
(−1, 1), |3i ⇔ (0, −1), we can only act once with E−1 on |1i and only once
on |2i with the operator E−2 . The nonzero matrix elements are:
r r
1 1
E−1 |1i = 0 + 2|2i = |2i, E−2 |2i = h2|E−2 |1i + 2|3i
2 2
r
1
= 0 + 2|3i = |3i.
2
To simplify matters we write i for the Dynkin root a(i) . Thus
   
000 000
Γ−1 =  1 0 0  , Γ−2 =  0 0 0 
000 010
   
010 000
+ +
Γ1 = (Γ−1 ) =  0 0 0  , Γ2 = (Γ−2 ) =  0 0 1 
000 000
also
   
000 001
+
Γ−3 = − [Γ−1 , Γ−2 ] =  0 0 0  , Γ3 = (Γ−3 ) =  0 0 0 
100 000
H1 |1i= |1i, H1 |2i= −|2i, H1 |3i = 0, H2 |1i= 0, H2 |2i= |2i, H2 |3i= −H2 |3i
   
1 0 0 00 0
ΓH1 =  0 −1 0  , ΓH2 =  0 1 0  .
0 0 0 0 0 −1
A more intricate example is to consider the regular representation (1, 1),

since in this case the weight (0, 0) appears more than once and we want to
explore the difficulties involved in the case of degeneracy. In this case, of
course, the matrices representing the generations can simply be constructed
from the structure constants. Be that as it may let us list the eight so that:
|1i ⇔ (1, 1), |2i ⇔ (−1, 2), |3i ⇔ (2, −1), |5i ⇔ (−2, 1), |7i ⇔ (1, −2),
|8i ⇔ (−1, −1).

We purposely left out the two (0, 0) roots, since they are degenerate.
We define |4i = (0, 0)1 = √12 E−1 |2, −1i = √12 E−1 |3i. Then Eq. (7.35)
yields
√ √ 1
E−1 |4i = 2(2, −1) = 2|5i, (0, 0)2 = √ E−2 | − 1, 2i.
2
We find, however,
1 1
h(00)2 |(00)1 i = h(−1, 2)|E2 E−2 (2, −1) = Λ|E1 E2 E2 E−1 |Λi
2 2
1 1
= hΛ|H1 H2 Λi = ,
2 2
i.e. they are not orthogonal. The orthogonalization Gram-Schmidt proce-
dure yields a choice
2 1 1
|6i = √ (00)2 − √ (00)1 = √ (2E−2 E−1 − E−1 E−2 )|Λi
3 3 6
1
⇒ E−1 |6i = √ (2E−1 E−2 E−1 − E−1 E−1 E−2 )|Λi.
6
We must now shift the operator E−2 to the right. Thus
1
E−1 |6i = √ (E−1 E−1 E−2 + [E−1 , E−2 ]E−1 − [E−1 E−1 , E−2 ])|Λi.
6
But [E−1 , E−2 ] = E−3 , [E−1 E−1 , E−2 ] = E−3 E−1 + E−1 E−3 = 2E−3 E−1 .
Thus
1
E−1 |6i = √ (E−2 E−1 E−1 )|Λi.
6
However, (E−1 E−1 )|Λi = 0. Thus finally
E−1 |6i = 0.
The previous equation implies:
1 √
E−1 |(0, 0)2 i = |(0, 0)1 i ⇒ E−1 |(0, 0)1 i = 2| − 2, 1i,
2
1
E−1 |(0, 0)2 i = √ |1, −2i.
2
Thus:
1 √
r
1 1 1 3
E−2 |4i = √ |1, −2i = √ |7i, E−2 |6i = √ (2 2 − √ )|1, −2i = |7i.
2 2 3 2 2
We summarize the above results as follows:
√ √
E−a(1) |1i = |2i, E−a(1) |2i = 0, E−a(1) |3i = 2|4i, E−a(1) |4i = 2|5i,
E−a(1) |5i = 0, E−a(1) |6i = 0, E−a(1) |7i = |8i, E−a(1) |8i = 0

r
1 3
E−a(2) |1i = |3i, E−a(2) |2i = √ |2i + |4i,
2 2
r
1
E−a(2) |3i = 0, E−a(2) |4i = |7i,
2
r
3
E−a(2) |5i = |8i, E−a(2) |6i = |7i, E−a(2) |7i = 0, E−a(2) |8i = 0.
2
Thus the two important representations are:
 
  0 0 0 0 0 0 00
00 0 0 0000  0 √1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  2
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 1 q0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 √  
0 3

 0 0 2 √0 0 0 0 0 
 
2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Γ−a(1) =   , Γ−a(2) = 
 
0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 q0 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 √12 0 32 0 0 
 
00 0 0 0010
0 0 0 0 1 0 00
(7.36)
we also find:
H1 |1i = 1|1i, H2 |1i = 1|2i, H1 |2i = −1|2i, H2 |2i = 2|2i,
H1 |3i = 2|3i, H2 |3i = −1|3i, H1 |4i = 0, H2 |4i = 0, H1 |5i = −2|5i,
H2 |5i = 1|5i, H1 |6i = 0, H2 |6i = 0, H1 |7i = 1|7i, H2 |7i = −2|7i,
H1 |8i = −1|8i, H2 |8i = −1|8i.

We thus get:
   
1 000 000 0 10 0000 0 0
 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
ΓH1 =   , ΓH2 =   . (7.37)
 0 0 0 0 −2 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 −2 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
As we have mentioned these matrices can be constructed from the knowl-
edge of the structure constants, see section 1.5.2, i.e. given the elements λk
of an algebra ordered in some way the structure constants provide a basis
|ki yielding the adjoined representation Γk via the rule:
m m
[λk , λ` ] = Ck` λm ⇒ Γk |ì = Ck` |mi (7.38)
In the case of A2 we order the elements as follows H1 , H2 , E12 , E23 , E13 ,
E21 , E32 , E31 . For our purposes it is sufficient to consider the commutators
involving the elements E21 and E32 , we find:
[E21 , H1 ] = −2E21 , [E21 , H2 ] = E21 , [E21 , H12 ] = −H1 , [E21 , E23 ] = 0,
[E21 , E13 ] = E23 , [E21 , E21 ] = 0, [E21 , E32 ] = −E32 , [E21 , E31 ] = 0
[E32 , H1 ] = −2E32 , [E32 , H2 ] = −2E32 , [E32 , H12 ] = 0, [E32 , E23 ] = −H2 ,
[E32 , E13 ] = −E12 , [E32 , E21 ] = E31 , [E32 , E32 ] = 0, [E32 , E31 ] = 0.
Thus we get:
Γ21 |1i = 2|6i, Γ21 |2i = −1|6i, Γ21 |3i = −|1i, Γ21 |4i = 0,
Γ21 |5i = |4i, Γ21 |6i = 0, Γ21 |7i = −|8i, Γ21 |8i = 0
Γ32 |1i = −|7i, Γ32 |2i = 2|7i, Γ32 |3i = −0, Γ32 |4i = −|2i,
Γ32 |5i = −|3i, Γ32 |6i = |8i, Γ32 |7i = 0, Γ32 |8i = 0
   
0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
Γ21 =   , Γ32 =   . (7.39)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 2 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
  
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  −1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 000 0 0100
The diagonal matrices are the same as above.
This representation is equivalent to the one above, i.e. the two are
related by a similarity transformation. Note that there is an arbitrariness
in this case as well, namely the ordering of the generators.
7.8 Weight levels — Multiple weights
The level of a weight is the integer specifying the number of times the low-
ering operator must act on the maximum weight to yield this weight. The
maximum weight is characterized by level 0. For the (1, 1) representation of
A2 from Fig. 7.1 we see that the level of the weights of (2, −1) and (−1, 2)
is 1, the level of (0, 0) is 3 and the level of (−1, −1) is 4. The last is the
maximum possible level.
The maximum level T (Λ) corresponding to a given weight can be cast
in the form
X 1 X −1
T (Λ) = R̃i Λi , R̃i = A ji
.
i
2 j
According to Theorem 5 the level E(m) of a weight (mα1 ,
mα2 , · · · , mα` ) is given by
1X i
E(m) = R̃ (Λαi − mαi ).
2 i
For A2 we find R̃ = (2, 2). In the case of representation (1, 1) of SU(3)

we find:

1 2 −1
E(1, 1) = 0, E(2, −1) = (1, 1) − = (1, 1) =1
1 −1 2

1 −1 2
E(−1, 2) = (1, 1) − = (1, 1) =1
1 2 −1

1 0 1
E(0, 0) = (1, 1) − = (1, 1) =2
1 0 1

1 −2 3
E(−2, 1) = (1, 1) − = (1, 1) =3
1 1 0

1 1 0
E(1, −2) = (1, 1) − = (1, 1) =3
1 −2 3

1 −1 2
E(−1, −1) = (1, 1) − = (1, 1) = 4.
1 −1 2
In the case of G2 we have R̃ = 2(5, 3) = (10, 6) we have T (Λ) =
1
(10, 6) = 10. Proceeding as above we find:
0
E(−1, 3)=1, E(0, 1)=2, E(1, −1)=3, E(−1, 2)=E(2, −3)=4, E(0, 0)=5,
E(−2, 3) = E(1, −2) = 6, E(−1, 1) = 7, E(0, −1) = 8, E(1, −3) = 9,
E(−1, 0) = 10.
Now we are ready to state a theorem regarding the degeneracy of roots.

Theorem 10: Let Λ be the highest weight of a given representation. The
degeneracy of a given weight m is given as follows:
X
(hΛ + δ|cΛ + δi − hm + δ|m + δi) n(m) = 2 n(m + ka)h(m + kα)|αi.
α>0,k>0
The theorem simply says that the degeneracy can be determined if the
degeneracies of the weights of the higher levels are known. We are not going
to prove the theorem, but the proof can be found in standard textbooks.2
We will determine the degeneracy of the weight (0, 0) of the (1, 1) rep-
resentation of A2 . We have
hΛ + δ|Λ + δi = (2, 2), m + δ = (1, 1), m + kα = α.
Thus

2 1 X
(2, 2) − (1, 1) n((0, 0)) = 2 |αi
2 1
α>0
but

2 1 X
(2, 2) , (1, 1) = 2,2 = 12 ⇒ 6n((0, 0)) = 12
2 1
α>0
or
n((0, 0)) = 2.
We conclude by saying that clearly there exist problems in the case of a

weight appears in a given representation more than once. The degree of
complexity increases if the degree of degeneracy increases or the distance to
the intersection of the branches containing the degenerate roots increases.
The problem can be resolved, if quantum numbers in addition to the weights
can be found. This can be achieved by finding additional operators which
can be simultaneously diagonalized, for SU(3) see, e.g., [Hecht (1965)]. This
is not a very serious problem for particle physics, however, since in this case
the groups involved are complex, but the needed representations are simple.
Anyway this will be briefly discussed in the next chapter.
2 See e.g. [Jacobson (1962)] p. 247.
7.9 Conjugate representations
It is clear that if Γ(X) is a representation of a Lie algebra, its complex

∗
conjugate Γc (X) = (Γ(X)) is also a representation. If the representation
Γc (X) is equivalent to Γ(X) the representation is called real. Otherwise it
is called complex. It is easy to see that if a representation is irreducible, so
is its complex conjugate.
One has to be a bit careful, however, since if a basis Xi is found then
for the Lie algebra the above relations should hold for each element of the
algebra. Then
∗
(Γ(Xi ))k` = Γ∗k` (Xi ),
i.e. the complex conjugate of the representation is obtained by taking the

complex conjugate of every element of the matrix involved. Furthermore if
P ∗ P ∗
Γ(X) = i µi Γ(X) we demand (Γ(X)) = i µi (Γ(X)) , which may not
hold if the algebra is not defined over the field of real numbers. If, however,
the algebra is defined over the field of complex numbers one can show, see
e.g. [Cornwell (1984)], that given a basis for a compact Lie algebra L:
hj , j = 1, 2, · · · , `, eα , e−α , α ∈ Σ (a nonzero root), α > 0, e+

α = e−α .
Then the elements

1 1
ηj = ihj , ηα = (eα − e−α ) , η−α = (eα + e−α )
2 2
constitute a basis for the compact Lie algebra Lc defined over the field of
real numbers. Clearly the second set is a basis for the algebra L, defined,
however, over the field of complex numbers.
The benefit for us is that we can apply the results of Cartan-Weyl
∗
we have obtained in the case of Lc and make certain that (Γ(Xk )) is a
representation of the algebra, so long as Γ(Xk ) is, for the elements Xk =
{ηj , ηα , η−α }. It is obvious of course that in this case all the weights are
pure imaginary:
m(η) = im(h).
In light of the above we can state the following theorem:

Theorem 11: Given that m is a weight for Γ, −m is the weight for Γ∗ .
Indeed
∗ ∗
Γ∗ (ηj ) = (Γ(ηj )) = (iΓ(hj )) = −iΓ∗ (hj ) = −iΓ(hj ) = −Γ(ihj ) = −Γ(ηj ).
Remarks: As a result of this theorem the following hold:

• The algebras A` admit complex representations.
A representation is real if, whenever m is a weight, −m is also a
weight. This e.g. is true for the representation (1, 1) of A2 . So this
is real. The representations (1, 0), (2, 0) etc. are not real. Their
conjugates are the (0, 1) and (0, 2), which have opposite weights.
• The representations Γ and Γ∗ of B` and C` are equivalent. They
do not admit complex representations.
• The representations Γ and Γ∗ of D` are equivalent, whenever ` = 2k
(even).
So the D2k+1 admits complex representations.
In particle physics complex representations are preferred to rectify prob-
lems related with anomalies. Thus algebras A` , D2k+1 and the special
algebra E6 , are very popular. For the D2k+1 we find
Γ ⇔ Λ = (Λ1 , Λ2 , · · · , Λ2k+1 ), Γ∗ ⇔ Λ = (−Λ1 , −Λ2 , · · · , −Λ2k+1 )
⇔ (Λ1 , Λ2 , · · · , Λ2k , −Λ2k+1 ).
Thus Γ and Γ∗ are equivalent if Λ2k+1 = 0. In the Dynkin representation,
since Λ2αk = Λ2k − Λ2k+1 and Λ2αk +1 = Λ2k + Λ2k+1 we should have
Λ2αk = Λ2αk +1 .
7.10 Maximal subalgebras
Finding the maximal subalgebra of a given Lie algebra is a very interesting

problem especially in model building of particle physics. A subalgebra L0
of a given algebra L is maximal if there is no subalgebra L00 of L, which
contains L0 .
L0 ⊂ L, but there is no L00 such that L0 ⊂ L00 ⊂ L.
In practice this means that the maximal algebra has the highest rank of all
the subalgebras of L. Let us start with the algebra A2 with elements:
L : h1 = e11 − e22 , h2 = e22 − e33 , e12 , e21 , e13 , e31 , e23 , e31
and the elements
1
λ3 = h1 , λ8 = √ (h1 + 2h2 ), λ1 = e12 + e12 , λ2 = −i(e12 − e21 ).
3
Since [λ8 , λi ] = 0, i = 1, 2, 3 and λi are the elements of A1 we write
SU(3) ⊃ SU(2) ⊗ U(1) ⇔ A2 ⊃ A1 ⊗ U(1).
The subalgebra L0 = A1 ⊗ U(1) has the same rank with A2 (both are of
second rank ` = 2) but the L0 is not semisimple. We could, of course, have
chosen another set, e.g. the set
L1 = −i(e23 − e32 ), L2 = −i(e13 − e31 ), L3 = −i(e12 − e21 )
which are the generators of SO(3) or B1 . L0 = B1 is maximal semisimple
Lie algebra, but it has smaller rank than the previous one.
7.11 Projection of weights
It is useful to construct transformations which transform a weight of L to

weights of L0 . In practice we do not worry about the weight components
which correspond to U(1). These transformations are often called projec-
tors. The projection is called proper if `0 < `. Let us consider the algebras
L = A2 and L0 = A1 ⊗ U(1). Let

m1 m
weight of A2 and weight of A1 ⊗ U(1)
m2 b
where m is the eigenvalue of λ3 , the Abelian element of A1 , and b is the
eigenvalue of the Abelian factor, i.e. λ8 . Clearly
1 1
λ8 |mi = √ (m1 + 2m2 ), λ3 |mi = m1 |mi ⇒ m = m1 , b = √ (m1 + 2m2 ).
3 3
Thus the projection operator is
!
1 0
P = √1 √2
.
3 3
Usually the normalization of the Abelian elements is√only fixed by conven-

tion. Thus another commonly used is the operator 3λ8 . In this case the
projection operator is

10
P = , A1 ⊗ U(1).
12
If we do not care about the U(1) the projection operator is simply P =
(1, 0). As an example consider the fundamental representation (1, 0). The
encountered weights are (1, 0), (1, −1), (0, 1). With the above convention
we find the correspondence

1 1 1 −1 0 0
⇔ , ⇔ , ⇔ .
1 1 −1 1 1 −2
The upper quantum number characterizes the A1 and the lower the Y
or U(1). Thus the triplet of A2 breaks into a doublet of A1 with values
m = 1, −1 and Y = 1/3, the first two states, and a singlet of A1 with
m = 0 and Y = −2/3, the third state. Thus we write

1 2 1 2
(1, 0) → (1) ⊗ + (0) ⊗ − or 3 → 2, + 1, − .
3 3 3 3
Let us now consider the chain A2 ⊃ B1 . This chain is favored in nuclear
physics, since the higher symmetry SU(3) is that of the harmonic oscillator
and provides a good shell model basis. The lower symmetry’s SO(3) yielding
wave functions of good angular momentum. This chain is harder to deal
with, since the angular momentum operators are linear combinations of
eij , i.e. involving all three indices. Furthermore the weights characterizing
A2 and B1 have degeneracies, which must somehow be removed. So two
additional labels are needed. One of them is easy to incorporate, it can be
the eigenvalue of the angular momentum operator L2 , while the other is
hard to construct.
Let us see what we can do with the technology we have already devel-
oped. Consider any weight Λ of A2 . Then
hΛ|L3 |Λi = −ihΛ|e12 |Λi + ihΛ|e21 |Λi = −i (Λ|Λ + αi − Λ|Λ − αi)
= −2ihΛ|αi.
In the Dynkin representation this becomes
X
ihΛ|L3 |Λi = Λαi hαi |αi i = (Λα1 hα1 |α1 i + Λα2 hα2 |α2 i)
i
= 2 (Λα1 + Λα2 ) .
Thus
Λα1
A2 ⇔ → 2 (Λα1 + Λα2 ) ⇔ B1 ⇒ P = (2, 2), 1 × 2 matrix.
Λα2
Thus
A2 : Λ (1, 0) (1, −1) (0, −1)
B1 : 2m 2 0 −2
i.e. the SU(2) triplet contains an angular momentum triplet (L = 1; m =
1, 0, −1). Similarly for the SU(3) representation (2, 0) ⇔ 6 we get
A2 : Λ (2, 0) (0, 1) (2, −2) (1, −1) (−1, 0) (0, −2)
B1 : 2m 4 2 0 0 −2 −4
i.e. the SU(2) (2, 0) ⇔ 6 contains an angular momentum 5, quadruplole,
(L = 2; m = 2, 1, 0, −1, 2) and a scalar (singlet) with L = 0.
The projection procedure is a simple matter in the Dynkin representa-
tion, provided that the maximal subalgebra is known.
7.12 Classification of the maximal subagebras
The subalgebras of a given algebra are divided into two main groups, regular
and irregular:
Definition: A subalgebra L0 of L with a basis h0i and e0α is regular if a
basis hi and eα for L can be found such that {h0i } ⊂ {hi }, {e0α } ⊂ {eα }.
Otherwise the algebra L0 is called irregular.
Finding the maximal subalgebras of a given algebra is not a trivial
problem. So we will concentrate in some cases of interest to physics. For a
more complete discussion see Dynkin [Dynkin (1975)], and Slansky [Slansky
(1981)].
The maximal subalgebras are semisimple and non-semisimple. The lat-
ter have factors U(1) in them. The subalgebras originating from semisim-
ple algebras can be determined by inspecting the Dynkin diagrams, by just
cutting off one dot (more subalgebras can be obtained by subsequently re-
moving additional dots or cutting the diagram at some other dot). When
cutting from the beginning or the end, keep track of the relative size of the
remaining roots to determine the subalgebra. We thus obtain the following
chains:
A` ⊃ A`−1 ⊗ U(1) ⊃ A`−2 ⊗ U(1) ⊗ U(1) · · · (7.40)
B` ⊃ B`−1 ⊗ U(1) ⊃ B`−2 ⊗ U(1) ⊗ U(1) · · · and B` ⊃ A`−1 ⊗ U(1) · · ·

(7.41)
C` ⊃ C`−1 ⊗U(1) ⊃ C`−2 ⊗U(1)⊗U(1) · · · and C` ⊃ A`−1 ⊗U(1) · · · (7.42)
D` ⊃ D`−1 ⊗ U(1) ⊃ D`−2 ⊗ U(1) ⊗ U(1) · · · and D` ⊃ A`−1 ⊗ U(1) · · · .

(7.43)
For the special algebras from the Dynkin diagram we find:
F4 ⊃ C3 ⊗ U(1) and F4 ⊃ B3 ⊗ U(1), E6 ⊃ D5 ⊗ U(1) and E6 ⊃ A5 ⊗ U(1)
(7.44)
E7 ⊃ E6 ⊗ U(1) and E7 ⊃ A6 ⊗ U(1), E8 ⊃ E7 ⊗ U(1) and E8 ⊃ A7 ⊗ U(1).
(7.45)
For ` ≥ 5 we can cut a dot one step further from the ends to obtain:
A` ⊃ A`−2 ⊗ A2 (7.46)
B` ⊃ B`−2 ⊗ A2 or B` ⊃ A`−2 ⊗ A2 (7.47)
C` ⊃ C`−2 ⊗ A2 or C` ⊃ A`−2 ⊗ A2 (7.48)

D` ⊃ D`−2 ⊗ A2 or A` ⊃ A`−2 ⊗ U(1) ⊗ U(1). (7.49)

Some additional subalgebras can be found by suitably extending the Dynkin
diagrams to include one more root, not linearly independent. We will not
elaborate on this here, but some results are:
B` ⊃ D` or SO2`+1 ⊃ SO2` ,
which is obvious from the point of view of orthogonal transformations, and
the not obvious reductions:
C2 ⊃ A2 , F4 ⊃ B4 , E7 ⊃ A7 , E8 ⊃ A8 , E8 ⊃ D8 .
We must mention again that for model building the factors U(1) are im-
portant3 . Consider e.g. the chains:
C2 ⊃ A1 ⊗ A1 ⊃ A1 × U(1) (chain 1) (7.50)
C2 ⊃ A1 × U(1) (chain 2). (7.51)

The factor A1 × U(1) in the first chain has different mathematical structure
and different physical meaning from that of the second chain. It is maximal
in the second chain but not in the first. The elements of C2 are:
H1 = e11 − e33 , H2 = e22 − e44 , f2,2 , f2,1 , f2,−1 , f1,1 , f1,−2 , f−1,−2 , f−2,−2 .
These can be written in terms of operators relevant for A2 , H1 = h1 +
h2 , H2 = h2 , with h1 = e11 − e22 and h2 = e22 − e33 . Then
• In the first chain the generators of the maximal subalgebra are:
A1 : h1 , f1,1 , f−1,−1 ; A01 : h2 , f2,2 , f−2,−2 .
In the first chain we have:
(Λ1 , Λ2 ) of C2 → (2m1 )(2m2 ) of A1 ⊗A1 → (2m1 )(2m2 ) of A1 ⊗U(1)
where 2m1 and 2m2 are the eigenvalues of h1 and h2 in the Dynkin
basis. However, we have H1 = h1 + h2 , H2 = h2 . The projection
operator for C2 ⊃ A1 ⊗ A1 is:

11
P = .
01
As an example let us consider the fundamental representation with
highest weight (1, 0). Its other weights are (−1, 1), (1, −1) and
3 Even the so successful group G of the standard model of particle physics is neither
s
simple nor semisimple, but it has the form SU(3) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ U(1).
(0, −1) (see section 7.3.3). The above projection operator makes
the reduction:

1 −1 1 −1
→(1)(0), →(0)(1), →(0)(−1), →(−1)(−1).
0 1 −1 0
Recalling that the weights are doubled, we see that in the reduction
C3 ⊃ A1 ⊗ A1 both A1 representations are 2-dimensional indicated
by (1) ⇔ 1/2. In the reduction C3 ⊃ A1 ⊗ U(1) we have (1)0 +
(0)(−1) + (0)(−1) where the first number in parentheses is the
weight of A1 and the second number indicates the value of Y . In
other words the first term in the above sum is an SU(2) doublet
and the other two are SU(2) singlets.
• In the second chain the generators of the maximal subalgebra are:
A1 : H1 = h1 + h2 , f−2,1 f1,−2 , U (1) : H1 + H2 .
Indeed the operator H1 + H2 of C3 commutes with all the elements

of the subalgebra A1 . Now

10
(Λ1 , Λ2 ) of C2 → (2m1 )(m1 + 2m2 ) ⇒ P = ,
12

1 1 −1
→ (1)(1), → (1)(−1), → (−1)(−1).
0 −1 0
That is
C3 ⊃ A1 ⊗ U(1) → (1)1 + (1)(−1).
There are two A1 doublets distinguished by the associated U(1)

numbers. The pattern is very different.
Applying the above techniques as well as those of the next chapter one can
obtain useful group chains, see e.g. Tables B.23–B.29, B.33, B.34, B.35,
B.37 and B.39 of appendix B. One can also obtain maximal subalgebras,
see e.g. Tables B.9–B.10 of appendix B.
One can write the reduction of the weights of a representation of an
algebra in terms of a desired chain, see e.g. Tables B.4 and B.5 of appendix
B.
7.13 Projection operators for a chain of subalgebras
We have seen in the previous section that given L ⊃ L0 there exists a

projection matrix which sends weights of L to weights of L0
(m0 ) = (P )(m).
This can be generalized for a chain:
L ⊃ L1 ⊃ L2 · · · ⊃ Ln−1 ⊃ Ln ,
such that
(m(n) ) = (Pn )(Pn−1 ) · · · (P2 )(P1 )(m),
where

m(i) = (Pi ) m(i−1) , i = 2, 3, · · · , n, m(1) = (P1 )(m).
One must make sure that the dimensions of the projection matrices are
appropriately defined to allow for their multiplication.

Chapter 8
Construction of Irreducible
Representations — Young Tableaux
In this chapter starting with the fundamental representation we will obtain

other integral representations of the classical algebra employing techniques
of tensor algebra and the Young tableaux associated with the discrete group
Sn .
8.1 The fundamental representation revisited
From what we have discussed so far we know that every Lie algebra has a
least two non-trivial representations.
• The regular representation constructed from the structure con-

stants of the algebra.
• The fundamental representation.
The fundamental representation arises by considering a basis xi , i =

1, 2, · · · , n in the n-dimensional space, on which the algebra is defined,
consisting of columns containing 1 in position i and 0 elsewhere. We will
consider each algebra separately.
8.1.1 The algebra U(n)
We have seen that a basis for the algebra is:
hi = eii and eij , i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
These matrices provide a faithful representation of the algebra, (eij )α,β =

δiα δjβ . Furthermore, its weight Λ associated with x1 is given by
hi x1 = δ1k ⇔ Λ1 = (1, 0, · · · , `), ` = n.
183
Similarly the weight of the vector xi is

(0 · · · 0 1 0 · · · 0)
position
i
Λ1 is the maximum weight characterizing the fundamental representation.
This weight is simple and the representation is irreducible. The other non-
diagonal matrices can simply be constructed
0 1 ··· 0 0 0 ··· 0
   
0 0 ··· 0 0 0 ··· 0
eij xk = δjkxi ⇒ e.g. E12 =  0 0 · · · 0  , E32 =  0 1 · · · 0  .
  
0 ··· ··· 0 0 ··· ··· 0

But we will not consider these matrices further.
8.1.2 The algebra A` or SU(` + 1)

A basis is
hi = eii − ei+1,i+1 , i = 1, 2 · · · , `; eij , i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , ` + 1.
Hence
hi xj = (δij − δi+1,j ) xj , i = 1, 2, · · · , `, j = 1, 2, · · · , ` + 1.
Thus for j = 1 we have
h1 x1 = x1 , hi x1 = 0, i = 2, 3, · · · , ` ⇒ Λ1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0).
Similarly
h1 x2 = −x2 , h2 x2 = x2 , h2 xi = 0, i = 3, 3, · · · , ` ⇒ Λ2 = (−1, 1, 0, · · · , 0)
and

0 0 · · · −1, 1 · · · 0 0
Λρ = , ρ = 2, 3 · · · , `; Λ`+1 = (0, 0, · · · , 0, −1).
ρ
The maximum weight is Λ = Λ1 . Since the highest weight is simple, the
representation is irreducible1 .
1 This elegant picture is, of course, lost in some treatments in which the Abelian elements
of the algebra are chosen to be:

1 1
H1 = √ h1 , H2 = √ (e11 + e22 − 2e33 )
2 6
so that the product of any two operators has trace zero or one. Then the fundamental
representation looks different:
1 √ 1 √ 1
Λ = Λ1 = √ ( 3, 1), Λ2 = √ (− 3, 1), Λ3 = √ (0, −2).
6 6 6
Construction of Irreducible Representations — Young Tableaux 185
8.1.3 The algebra B` or SO(2` + 1)

The basic representation is defined with the vectors:
1
ξ i = √ x2|i|−1 + sign(i)x2|i| , ξ 0 = x2`+1 .
2
The elements of the Abelian subalgebra are:
hi = fi,−i = e−i,−i − eii , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
Thus
hi ξ j = (−δij + δi,−j )xj
h1 ξ 1 = −ξ 1 , h1 ξ j = 0, i = 2, 3, · · · , ` ⇒ Λ1 = (−1, 0, · · · , 0)
h1 ξ −1 = ξ −1 , hi ξ −1 = 0, i = 2, 3, · · · , ` ⇒ Λ−1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0).
Generally:

0 0 · · · ∓1 0 0
Λ±ρ = , ρ = 1, 2, 3, · · · , `; Λ0 = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 0).
ρ
The maximum weight Λ = Λ−1 . Since the highest weight is simple, the
representation is irreducible.
8.1.4 The algebra C` or Sp(2`)

Now the basis is:
xi ,

i = 1, 2, · · · , `
ξ=
x`+|i| , i = −1, −2, · · · , −`.
The elements of the Abelian algebra are hi = e−i,−i − eii . Thus:
h1 x1 = −1, h1 x−1 = x−1 , hi ξ ±1 = 0, i = 2, 3, · · · , `
⇒ Λ1 = (−1, 0, · · · , 0, 0), Λ−1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0, 0).
Proceeding the same way we find:

0 0 · · · ∓1 0 0
Λ±ρ = , ρ = 1, 2, 3, · · · , `.
ρ
Again the maximum weight is Λ = Λ−1 , which is simple and thus the
fundamental representation is irreducible.
8.1.5 The algebra D` or SO(2`)

The situation is similar with B` , except that the zero component is missing.
Thus

0 0 · · · ∓1 0 0
Λ±ρ = , ρ = 1, 2, 3, · · · , `
ρ
with the maximum weight being Λ = Λ−1 , which is simple and thus the
fundamental representation is irreducible.
8.2 Kronecker products and the emergence of tensors
We have that the fundamental representation is specified by the basis vec-

tors xi . Then we expect them to transform as:
X
(xi )0 = αji xj , (8.1)
j
where α is the matrix of the fundamental representation with j specifying
the columns and i the rows, i.e. αij is what traditionally written as αij .
Any quantity transforming as above will be called a vector and it will be
designated as v i . It is now clear that
X
(v i )0 (v j )0 = αki αm
j k m
v v . (8.2)
k,m
Any quantity transforming as above under G will be called second rank
tensor, i.e.
F ij = αki αm
j
F km (8.3)
with summation over repeated indices understood. The product of two
vectors is not, of course, the only second rank tensor. But any tensor can
be expressed as a linear combination of terms of the form of Eq. (8.2). A
linear combination of tensors of a given rank is also a tensor of the same
rank. Of particular interest are the combinations:
S ij = F ij + F ji (symmetric) , Aij = F ij − F ji (anti-symmetric).
It is easy to see that the symmetry does not change under G, that is:
αki αm
j
S km = (S ij )0 , αki αm
j
Akm = (Aij )0 .
The above concept can be generalized to arbitrary rank r:
F i1 ,i2 ,··· , ir = αji11 αji22 , · · · , αjirr F j1 ,j2 ,··· , jr . (8.4)
This transformation is represented by the Kronecker product:

T = (α) ⊗ (α) ⊗ · · · (α) ⊗ (α) .
r times
Unfortunately the representation T is not, in general, irreducible. In this

case we say that the associated tensor is reducible. In the reduction the
discrete symmetry group Sr will play an important role.
8.3 Construction of tensors of a given symmetry
The construction of tensors which are completely symmetric tensors is easy.

All one has to do is to apply all possible permutations on the r indices of
any tensor of the form of Eq. (8.4).

X i1 i2 · · · ir
F S(1,2, ···r) = SF i1 ,i2 ,··· , ir , S = .
j1 j2 · · · jr
{j1 ,j2 ,··· , jr }
Similarly for antisymmetric tensors

X i1 i2 · · · ir
F A(1,2, ···r) = AF i1 ,i2 ,··· , ir , A = (−1)π(i,j) ,
j1 j2 · · · jr
{j1 ,j2 ,··· , jr }
where (−1)π(i,j) is +1 if the permutation is even or −1 if it is odd.

In practice we need to construct tensors of mixed symmetry. For this
purpose the Young tableaux (diagram) is very useful2 . It consists of r boxes
arranged in at most r rows and each row containing at most r boxes. In
each box we put one of r different indices, e.g. 1, 2, · · · , r. The Young
tableaux is called standard, if the indices are not decreasing in any row,
e.g. from left to right, and must increase in any column, e.g. from up to
down. Sometimes this arrangement will be denoted by
[f1 , f2 , · · · , fs ]
where s is the number of rows, f1 is the number of boxes in the first row,
f2 in the second row etc. For r = 2 we have two possibilities:
1
1 2 , 2 .

1
corresponding to [2] and ≡ [12 ]. Both are standard. For three objects
1
the standard tableaux are:
1
1 2 1 3 2
1 2 3, 3 , 2 , 3 . (8.5)
2 Forapplications of the Young tableaux to physics we refer the reader to [Chen et al.
(2002)].
The first and the last are made in one way and the other two have been
made in two arrangements. For each Young tableaux [f ] we can associate
a Young operator Y [f ]. For r = 2 we have the following:
• The symmetric case.

Y 1 2 = 1 + P12 ⇒ T i1 i2 = Y 1 2 F i1 ,i2
= F i1 ,i2 + F i2 ,i1 .
Since i1 ≤ i2 for three objects we have the following tensor possi-
bilities:
i) Those with identical indices F i1 i1 , F i2 i2 , F i3 i3 which are already
symmetric.
ii) Three tensors with different indices:

T i1 i2 = Y 1 2 F i1 i2 = F i1 i2 + F i2 i1 , T i1 i3

=Y 1 3 F i1 i3 = F i1 i3 + F i3 i1

T i2 i3 =Y 2 3 F i2 i3 = F i2 i3 + F i3 i2 .
In general for n objects we have

n 1
N (n, [2]) = n + = n + n(n − 1) = n(n + 1).
2 2
• The antisymmetric case:
!
1
Y = 1 − P12 .
2
We normally write for i1 < i2
! ! !
1 i1 1
Y = 1 − (12) ⇒ T =Y F i1 i2 = F i1 ,i2 − F i2 ,i1 ,
2 i2 2
i.e. the usual antisymmetric tensor normally written as xi1 ⊗ xi2 .
For 3 objects we have
! ! !
1 1 2
Y , Y , Y .
2 3 3
In general for n objects we have

n 1
N n, 12 =

= n(n − 1)
2 2
possibilities. Let us now consider the antisymmetric tensors of rank r = 3,

corresponding to the [f ] = [13 ], i.e. the last diagram of Eq. (8.5). For this
take three objects i1 , i2 , i3 . We have
 
1
Y  2  = 1 − (12) − (13) − (23) + (123) + (132)
3
   
i1 1
⇒ T  i2  =  2  F i1 i2 i3
i3 3
= F i1 i2 i3 − F i2 i1 i3 − F i3 i2 i1 − F i1 i3 i2 + F i2 i3 i1 F i3 i1 i2 .
There exist

n 1
N n, 13 =

= n(n − 1)(n − 2)
3 6
possibilities.
For the symmetric case we similarly find

Y 1 2 3 = 1 + (12) + (13) + (23) + (123) + (132)

⇒ T i1 i2 i3 = Y 1 2 3 F i1 i2 i3
= F i1 i2 i3 + F i2 i1 i3 + F i3 i2 i1 + F i1 i3 i2 + F i2 i3 i1 F i3 i1 i2 .
For i1 ≤ i2 ≤ i3 , there exist

n+2 (n + 2)! 1
N (n, [3]) = = = n(n + 1)(n + 2)
3 3!(n − 1)! 6
possibilities.
To proceed further we need a recipe on how to deal with diagrams with
more than one row and one column. Let us suppose that we have k rows
and s columns. Then construct the operator
YS = YSk YSk−1 · · · YS2 , YS1 ,
where YSi is the symmetric Young operator corresponding to row i. Next
we construct a similar operator corresponding to the columns
YA = YAs YAs−1 · · · YA2 , YA1
where YAi the antisymmetric young operator corresponding to column i.
The Young operator corresponding to the diagram [f ] is defined to be:
Y [f ] = YA YS .
For example for r = 3, k = 2 and s = 2, i.e. corresponding to the symmetry

[2, 1], we have:
! !
Y 1 2 = ((1 − P13 )) (1 + P12 ) , Y 1 3 = ((1 − P12 ) (1 + P13 )
3 2
! !
i1 i2 1 2
⇒T =Y F i1 i2 i3 = (1 − P13 ) (1 + P12 ) F i1 i2 i3
i3 3
= (1 − P13 ) F i1 i2 i3 + F i2 i1 i3 = F i1 i2 i3 + F i2 i1 i3 − F i3 i2 i1 + F i2 i3 i1 .

Similarly
! !
T i1 i3 =Y 1 3 F i1 i2 i3 = (1 − P12 ) (1 + P13 ) F i1 i2 i3
i2 2
= (1 − P13 ) F i1 i2 i3 + F i3 i2 i1 = F i1 i2 i3 + F i3 i2 i1 − F i2 i1 i3 + F i3 i1 i2 .

Thus for n = 3 we have the following tensor possibilities:

! ! ! !
T 1 1 ,T 1 2 ,T 1 3 ,T 1 1 ,
2 2 2 3
! ! ! !
T 1 2 ,T 1 3 ,T 2 2 ,T 2 3 .
3 3 3 3
For arbitrary n we find:
1
n(n + 1)(n − 1)
N ([2, 1], n) =
3
(see next section). This gives N [3] = 8 as in the above set. Note, however,
that the second, sixth and eighth diagrams give a vanishing result acting
on any tensor. Some of the Young operators may be not useful!
8.4 Kroneker products [f ] ⊗ [f 0 ]
Suppose we are given two tensor representations T ([f ]) and T (f 0 ]). The
product T ([f ]) ⊗ T ([f 0 ]) is in general a reducible tensor representation, but
it can be expressed as a linear combination of irreducible tensors.
X
T ([f ]) ⊗ T ([f 0 )] = α[f ],[f 0 ],[f 00 ] T [(f 00 )].
[f 00 ]
The question of evaluating the coefficients α[f ],[f 0 ],[f 00 ] is complicated and
it will be addressed later. At this point we would like to know how to find
the possible Young tableaux [f 00 ] corresponding to the “product” [f ] ⊗ [f 0 ].
We will assume that the first tableaux corresponds to the symmetry group
Sr and the second to the symmetry group Sr0 , while the product to the
group Sr+r0 . This product will be indicated as “external product”. We will
not prove the relevant theorems but we will only state the rules and apply
them in some simple cases of practical interest.
(1) We select the most complicated symmetry [f ], usually containing
the largest number of boxes, and write the corresponding Young
tableaux.
(2) in the Young tableaux corresponding to the symmetry [f 0 ] we put
some numbers, e.g. number 1 in the first row, number 2 in the
second row. We add the boxes of [f 0 ] one by one on [f ] in all
possible ways to yield an acceptable Young tableaux but with the
following restrictions:
(3) the number of boxes in [f 00 ] must be equal to the sum of the number
of boxes of [f ] and [f 0 ].
(4) The boxes with the same number cannot belong to the same col-
umn.
(5) In the resulting Young tableaux when reading the elements of a
row from right to left every number 2 must be preceded by at least
one number 1, every number 3 must be preceded by at least one
number 2 etc.
Let us begin with the very simple cases:
i) One of the Young tableaux has only one box. Let us consider
the two simple cases ⊗ and ⊗ . Since the second
tableaux in both cases has only one box there is no need to put
any numbers in the second box. Thus:
⊗ → +
From this reduction we can find the dimension of [2, 1] in the case
of n objects. All we need to do is to equate the dimensions of the
left and right of the above equation:
N ([12 , n]) × N ([1, n]) = N ([[1, 1, 1], n]) + N ([2, 1], n)
1 1
⇒ n(n − 1)n = n(n − 1)(n − 2) + N ([2, 1], n)
2 3
1
⇒ N ([2, 1], n) = n(n + 1)(n − 1).
3
Similarly we find
⊗ → +
The reductions
⊗ → + ,
⊗ → + ,
⊗ → + ,
can be obtained equally simply. Also by the rule of dimen-

sions we can find the dimensions of N ([3, 1], n), N ([2, 1, 1], n) and
N ([2, 2], n) from N ([2, ], n) found above the known dimensions of
N ([4], n) and N ([1, 1, 1, 1], n).
ii) Let us consider the case ⊗ . We write it as ⊗ 1 1 .
Then
1
1 1 1
⊗ 1 1 → + 1 + 1
The middle diagram is not consistent with the above rules and it
is omitted. As a result:
⊗ → + (8.6)
All representations that appear in the product space are single.

iii) Let us now consider a more complicated case ⊗ .
1 1
We write it as ⊗
. Then we proceed successively for
2
each row of the second tableaux.
As a first step we have:
1
1 1 1
⊗ 1 1 → 1 + 1 + 1
1 1
+ 1 + 1
The last Young tableaux does not satisfy the above rules and is
omitted. Thus the correct expression is:
1
1 1 1 1
⊗ 1 1 → 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
(8.7)
We now continue with the second step:
1 1
1 1 1 1
⊗ 2 → 2 + 2
1
1 1 1
1 ⊗ 2 → 1 2 + 2
The diagram
1 2
1 ,
does not satisfy the above rules and has been omitted.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 ⊗ 2 → 1 + 2
1
1 1 1
1 ⊗ 2 → 1 2 + 2
As a result:
⊗ → + +
+2 + + + (8.8)
Note that the above rules yield the multiplicities, if any. E.g. [3,
2, 1] can be obtained in two different ways:
1 1
1 1 2
2 , 1
8.5 The algebra Ln
The irreducible representations of Ln can be described in terms of tensors of

rank r with definite symmetry under Sr , as there exists no other symmetry
below that of Sr . In other words there is no subset of these tensors invariant
under another group Gn higher than Ln . In constructing these tensors3 of
a given symmetry we note that the highest symmetry is Sr . Antisymmetry
in the rows implies that the admissible Young diagrams have at most n
rows, that is they are of the form [f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ] where
f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ fn , f1 + f2 + · · · + fn = r.
Since the weight of the fundamental representation is (1, 0, · · · , 0) the max-

imum weight that can exist in the representation of r products of the fun-
damental representation, can be obtained by putting in the Young tableau
containing number 1 in the first row, number 2 in the second row etc., that
3 The results obtained here are also valid for the algebra associated with the unitary
symmetry.
is:
1 1 1 1 ············ 1
2 2 2 ········· 2
3 3 ······ 3
···············
n ······ n
Recalling now that hi xj = δij xj we get
h1 |u = f1 |u , h2 |u = f2 |u , · · · , hn |u = fn |u .
Hence the maximum weight is:
Λ = (f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ).
This is an integral representation since the components of the weight are
all integers. Its dimension is
`
Y fi − fj + j − i
dim([f ]) = ,l=n (8.9)
i<j
j−i
(see Eq. (7.21)). Starting from the highest weight and acting with the
operators Eαi as we described in the previous chapter we obtain all the
weights of the representation.
The representation [1n ] is 1-dimensional with weight Λ = (1, 1, · · · , 1).
On the other hand, the representation [1r ] has dimension and weight given
by:

n 1 1 ··· 1 0··· 0
N [1r , n] = ,Λ= . (8.10)
r r n
As an application we consider the reduction of Ln if we restrict ourselves
to Ln−1 . Then
X
Γ([f ], n) = Γ([f 0 ], n − 1), [f 0 ] contains at most n − 1 rows.
[f 0 ]
In order to get a standard tableaux, the index n should be in the last box
of a given column. The Young tableaux [f ] should be of the form
····················· x x
··············· x x
············ x x
············ x
···············
x x x x x
where at least one of the x and everything to its right should be n. The
diagrams [f 0 ] should satisfy the conditions:
f1 ≥ f10 ≥ f2 ≥ f20 ≥, · · · fn−1 ≥ fn−1
0
≥ fn .
For example in the case of [f ] = [6, 4, 2] and n ≥ 3 we have
6 ≥ f10 ≥ 4 ≥ f20 ≥ 2 ≥ f30 > 0.
The possible solutions are
 0 0
 f2 = 4 f3 = 2, 1, 0
0 0 0
f1 = 6 → f2 = 3 f3 = 2, 1, 0
 0
f2 = 2 f30 = 2, 1, 0.
For f10 = 5 we get f20 and f30 as above. Similarly for f10 = 4. Thus the
solutions are:
[f 0 ]=[6, 4, 2], [6, 4, 1], [6, 4, 0], [6, 3, 2], [6, 3, 1], [6, 3, 0], [6, 2, 2], [6, 2, 1], [6, 2, 0],
[5, 4, 2], [5, 4, 1], [5, 4, 0], [5, 3, 2], [5, 3, 1], [5, 3, 0], [5, 2, 2], [5, 2, 1], [5, 2, 0],
[4, 4, 2], [4, 4, 1], [4, 4, 0], [4, 3, 2], [4, 3, 1], [4, 3, 0], [4, 2, 2], [4, 2, 1], [4, 2, 0].
In the special case of n = 3, [f 0 ] must have at most two rows, i.e. 6 ≥ f10 ≥
4 ≥ f20 ≥ 2,
[f 0 ] = [6, 4], [6, 3], [6, 2], [5, 4], [5, 3], [5, 2], [4, 4], [4, 3], [4, 2].
The reader should check that dim[f ] = [f ]0 dim[f 0 ].
P
It can be shown that the irreducible representations of Ln remain so

under U(n), SU(n) and under other special cases (GL(n, R), SL(n, R),
SL(n, c), S(L, nR)), but it may happen that nonequivalent representations
under Ln may become equivalent under the rest. Anyway this is adequate
for the study of those groups and, in particular, the study of A` . We can
also study this way the algebras B` , C` and C` , after we examine the con-
cept of tensor contractions.
8.6 Young tableaux for A`
It is convenient to begin by considering the antisymmetric representation

[1r ] given by Eq. (8.10) and more specifically the [1n ] with weight
Λ = (1, 1, · · · , 1).
We have seen that
T (1n ) = i1 i2 ···in F i1 i2 ···in ,
where i1 i2 ···in is the completely antisymmetric symbol of i1 , i2 , · · · , in with

i1 , i2 , · · · , in , a permutation of the indices 1, 2, · · · , n.
Under the group G we have
T 0 (1n ) = i1 i2 ···in αji11 αji22 · · · αjinn F j1 j2 ···jn .
For fixed j1 , j2 , · · · , jn we have
i1 i2 ···in αji11 αji22 · · · αjinn = det(α)j1 j2 ···jn ,
which implies
T 0 (1n ) = det(α)j1 j2 ···jn F j1 j2 ···jn = det(α)T (1n ).
In other words
det(α) = 1 ⇒ T 0 (1n ) = T (1n ),
i.e. the completely antisymmetric representation remains invariant in the
case of the special groups SU(n) etc. Thus Young tableaux with columns
of n boxes become equivalent to those with these columns stripped. This
means that the diagram [f ] = [f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ] can be replaced by [f 0 ] =
[f1 − fn , f2 − fn , · · · , fn−1 − fn , 0], which corresponds to Young diagrams
with at most ` = n − 1 rows, i.e. it is of the form:
[f ] = [f1 , f2 , · · · , f` ], f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ f` , f1 + f2 + · · · + f` = r,
with fi = integers. Thus the U(3) diagrams
, , - ,
in the case of A2 (SU(3)) are all equivalent to the last one [f ] = [4, 2], which
is the simplest.
8.6.1 Some examples of reduction

As we have seen above in the case of U(3) symmetry the allowed tableaux’s
are of the form [f1 , f2 , f3 ]. Then (8.9) becomes:
f1 − f2 + 1 f1 − f3 + 2 f2 − f3 + 1
dimΓ[f ] = .
1 2 1
This representation is reduced to an SU(3) representation by stripping any
column with more than two rows with maximum weight (λ, µ) = (f1 −
f2 , f2 − f3 ). Then we get:
1
dim(λ, µ) = (λ + 1)(µ + 1)(λ + µ + 2). (8.11)
2
Let us discuss the reductions considered in (8.4) in the special case of SU(3).
i) Consider the reduction
× → +
So we take the product of the fundamental representation with
highest weight (1, 0) with itself. On the right-hand side the first
is the symmetric representation with highest weight (2, 0) and the
second is the antisymmetric with highest weight (0, 1). We know
that their dimensions are 6 and 3, i.e. 3 × 3 = 6 + 3. We write
(1, 0) × (1, 0) → (2, 0) + (0, 1)
3 × 3 → 6 + 3
ii) Consider the reduction
× → +
i.e we take the product of the antisymmetric representation [1, 1]
with highest weight (0, 1) found above with fundamental represen-
tation with highest weight (1, 0). On the right-hand side the first
is the antisymmetric representation with highest weight (1, 1, 1) of
U(3), which, restricted to SU(3), becomes (0, 0) and the second is
the mixed symmetry with highest weight (1, 1). We know that the
dimension of (0, 0) is 1. So the dimension of (1, 1) = 3 × 3 − 1 = 8,
which can of course be obtained from Weyl’s formula. We thus
write
(0, 1) × (1, 0) → (0, 0) + (1, 1)
3∗ × 3 → 1 + 8
iii) Consider the reduction
× → +
i.e we take the product of the symmetric representation with
highest weight (2, 0) with fundamental representation with high-
est weight (1, 0). On the right-hand side the first is the mixed
symmetry representation with highest weight (1, 1) and the sec-
ond is the symmetric representation with highest weight (3, 0).
We know that the dimension of (1, 1) is 8. So the dimension of
dim(3, 0) = 6 × 3 − 8 = 10, which, of course, can be obtained from
Weyl’s formula. We thus write
(2, 0) × (1, 0) → (1, 1) + (3, 0)
6 × 3 → 8 + 10
iv) Consider the reduction
× → +
The [4], and [3, 1] have highest weight (4, 0) and (2, 1). Thus if we
know that the dimension of [4] is 15 we can obtain the dimensions
for all the rest.
(3, 0) × (1, 0) → (4, 0) + (2, 1)
10 × 3 → 15 + 15
(there exist two representations with dimension 15).
v) Consider the reduction:
× → + +
The last diagram restricted to SU(3) becomes . Furthermore the
[2, 2] has highest weight (0, 2). We know that the dimension of
(2, 1) is 15 and obtain dim(0, 2) = 6. We thus write
(1, 1) × (1, 0) → (2, 1) + (0, 2) + (1, 0)
8 × 3 → 15 + 6 + 3
8.6.2 Equivalent representations

We are now in a position to obtain the representations Γ∗ , Γc and Γ̄, dis-
cussed in chapter 1, in terms of the representation Γ obtained above. The
first indicates complex conjugation, Γc = (Γ+ )−1 and Γ̄ = (ΓT )−1 . In the
case of A` , Γc is equivalent to Γ and Γ∗ is equivalent to Γ̄. Differences
appear if they are viewed under the algebra Ln . Then
Γ, Γc : [f ] = [f1 , f2 , · · · , f`+1 ], Γ̄, Γ∗ : [f¯] = [−f1 , −f2 , · · · , −f`+1 ].
From the viewpoint of A` the last weight is equivalent to
Γ̄, Γ∗ : [f¯] = [k − f`+1 , k − f` , · · · , k − f2 , k − f1 ], k = integer.
Choosing k = f1 and f`+1 = 0 we obtain:
Γ̄, Γ∗ : [f¯] = [f1 , f1 − f` , · · · , f1 − f2 , 0].
The diagram [f¯] is the complement of [f ] in the sense that if we remove
[f ] from a diagram with f1 columns and n rows (see the examples below).
It may be necessary to turn it upside down if the result is not a standard
tableaux. If it so happens that [f¯] = [f ] the representation is self-conjugate
and it is sometimes called real.
Examples: in the case of n = 3, we have:
• [f ] = [3, 0].
[f ] = , f1 × n = , [f¯] =
⇒ [f¯] = [3, 3]
• [f ] = [4, 2].
[f ] = , f1 × n = , [f¯] =
⇒ [f¯] = [42]. In this case, [4, 2] is self-conjugate.
In the case SU(n) we find:
[f ] = [f1 , 0, 0, · · · , 0] ⇒ [f¯] = [f1 , f1 , f1 , · · · , f1 ] (n − 1 rows of f1 ),

[f ]=[f1 , f2 , 0, · · · , 0]⇒[f¯]=[f1 , f1 , f1 , · · · , f1 , f1 − f2 ] (n − 2 rows of f1 ),
[f ] = [1r ] ⇒ [f¯] = [1n−r ].
Before concluding this section we remind the reader that the Dynkin
representation is often more convenient. From the Young diagram we can
obtain the Dynkin weight:
[f1 , f2 , · · · , f` ] ⇔ Λ = (Λα1 , Λα2 , · · · , Λα` ),
Λαi = fi − fi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, Λα` = f` .
More specifically for SU(2) : [f ] = [2] ⇒ Λ = (2) and for SU(n):
[f ] = [1, 0, 0, · · · , 0] ⇒ Λ = (1, 0, 0, · · · , 0),
[f ] = [1, 1, 1, · · · , 1, 1] ⇒ Λ = (1, 0, 0, · · · , 0, 1).
Also for SU(3) instead (Λα1 , Λα2 ) we write (λ, µ).

The weight Λ of Γ∗ or Γ̄ is obtained from that of Γ:
Γ : Λ = (Λα1 , Λα2 , · · · , Λα` ) ⇒ Γ∗ , Γ̄ : Λ̄ = (Λα` , Λα`−1 , · · · , Λα2 , Λα1 ).
We will now make a detour before we consider the algebras B` , C` and D` .

8.7 Contraction of tensors
Recall the assertion that the Young tableaux completely specifies the rep-
resentations of Gn , U (n ) etc. was based on the assumption that there is no
other symmetry except the symmetry Sr , in other words there is no subset
of the tensors associated with a given Young tableaux left invariant under
the group G. This, however, does not hold in the case of the symmetries
O(n) and Sp(n). Indeed consider a tensor of rank r ≥ 2, e.g. F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir ,
and the quantity:
(r) i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir
X
G12 ≡ F12 ≡ δi1 , i2 F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir (8.12)
i1 ,i2
is a tensor of rank r − 2 left invariant under O(n).
8.7.1 The case of orthogonal transformations O(n)

Consider an orthogonal transformation (α)T (α) = 1. Then
i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir 0
X
G012 = (F12 ) = δi1 , i2 F 0i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir
i1 ,i2
X
= δi1 , i2 αji11 αji22 , αji33 · · · αjirr F 0j1 ,j2 ,j3 ,··· ,jr ,
i1 ,i2
but
X X
δi1 , i2 αji11 αji22 = αji 1 αji 2 = δj1 , j2 ,
i1 ,i2 i
j3 ,j4 ,··· ,ir 0

X
(F12 ) = δj1 ,j2 αji33 · · · αjirr F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir ,
j1 ,j2
j3 ,j4 ,··· ,ir 0 i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir

(F12 ) = αji33 · · · αjirr F12 .
i3 ,i4 ··· ,ir
In other words the quantity F12 transforms like a tensor of rank
r − 2 under the orthogonal transformations. Clearly this can be done
in (1/2)r(r − 1) ways in selecting the pair of indices. Furthermore, the thus
constructed tensors r − 2 can be further used to construct tensors of r − 4
rank for r ≥ 4 etc. The conclusion is that, so long as there exists combi-
nation of tensors of rank r, as given by Eq. (8.12), which transform among
themselves, T ([f ]) does not define irreducible representations of O(n).
In order to find a suitable basis we note that any tensor F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir
can be written as:
X (r)
F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir = Gα,β + F0i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir
α,β
such that
X
δα,β F0i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,··· ,ir = 0, (traceless tensor) (8.13)
α,β
such traceless tensors under the orthogonal group transform as tensors of

rank r, without r − 2 etc. components. The familiar antisymmetric tensor
of rank 2 is one such example.
As an example let us consider the tensors of rank r = 2. Then
n
(2)
X Fkk
G12 = F kk ≡ F kk ≡ F 11 + F 22 + · · · + F nn ⇒ F0ij = F ij − δij .
n
k=1
As a further example consider the case of rank r = 3. Then
F0i1 ,i2 ,i3 = F i1 ,i2 ,i3 − δi1 , i2 |H i3 − δi1 , i3 |H i2 − δi3 , i2 |H i1

(3) (3)
G12 = nH i3 + K i3 + Li3 G12 = nH α + K α + Lα
(2) (2)
G13 = H i2 + nK i2 + Li2 ⇒ G13 = H α + nK α + Lα
(1) (1)
G23 = H i1 + K i1 + nLi2 G23 = H α + K α + nLα
where
1
(3) (2) (3)

Hα = (n + 1) G12 − G13 − G23 ,
(n − 1)(n − 2)
1
(3) (2) (3)

Kα = −G12 + (n + 1)G13 − G23 ,
(n − 1)(n − 2)
1
(3) (2) (3)

Lα = −G12 − G13 + (n + 1)G23 .
(n − 1)(n − 2)
Finally, we have
1
F0i1 ,i2 ,i3 = F i1 ,i2 ,i3 + (n + 1)
(n − 1)(n − 2)
"
X
× ((n + 1)F i,i,i3 − F i,i3 ,i − F i3 ,i,i )
i
X
+ (−F i,i,i2 + (n + 1)F i,i2 ,i − F i2 ,i,i )
i
#
X
−F i,i,i1 − F i,i2 ,i + (n + 1)F i1 ,i,i

+ . (8.14)
i
8.7.2 The case of symplectic transformations Sp(2n)

We proceed as above except that, as we have seen in the previous chapters,
now the scalar product is defined differently
X
xi y −i − x−i y i

≺ x|y =
i
which leads to the basis

≺ ξ i |ξ j = sign(i)δi,−j .
Thus the contraction is now defined as:
i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir
Gr(12) = F12 = sign(i1 )δi1 ,−i2 F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir .
The symplectic transformations α preserve the above scalar product:
X
≺ αξ i |αξ j =≺ ξ i |ξ j ⇒ αki α`j ≺ ξ ` |ξ k =≺ ξ i |ξ j .
k,`
Thus
X X
αki α`j sign(`)δ`,−k = δi,−j sign(i) ⇒ j
αki α−k sign(k) = sign(i)δi,−j
k,` k
0 X 0
i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir
(G(r) )012 = F12 = δi1 ,−i2 F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir
i1 ,i2
XX
= αji33 αji44 · · · αjirr αji11 αji22 sign(i2 )
i1 ,i2
X
⇒ G0r i3 i4 ir
12 = αj3 αj4 · · · αjr δj1 ,−j2 sign(j1 )F j1 ,j2 ,j3 ,j4 ,··· ,ir
j1 ,j2
0
i3 ,i4 ,··· ,ir j3 ,j4 ,··· ,ir
⇒ F12 = αji44 · · · αjirr F12 . (8.15)
The last equation defines a rank r − 2 . Thus proceeding as above we define

traceless tensors F0i1 ,i2 ,··· ,ir as follows:
i ,i ,··· ,iα ,··· ,iβ ,··· ,ir
X
δα,−β F01 2 = 0. (8.16)
α,β
8.8 The integral representations of O(n) and Sp(2n)
With the aid of traceless tensors defined above we are going to find the
representations of the algebras B` , D` and C` from the Young diagrams of
U(n).
8.8.1 The integral representations of On

The integral irreducible representations are obtained by applying the oper-
ator Young on the traceless tensors
i ,i ,··· ,iα ,··· ,iβ ,··· ,ir
X
T ([f ]) = Y ([f ])F0i1 ,i2 ,··· ,ir , δα,β F01 2 = 0. (8.17)
α,β
The traceless condition implies the acceptable [f ] = [f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ] must

obey:
T ([f ]) = Y ([f ])F0i1 ,i2 ,··· ,ir , f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ fn > 0,
fi = integer, i = 1, 2, · · · , n, f1 + f2 + · + fn = r. (8.18)
As an example we mention that for SO(3):
1) the symmetry [f ] =! [12 ]. The antisymmetric tensor is automatically
1
traceless. Thus T (xi1 y i2 − xi2 y i1 ) = 2(xi1 y i2 − xi2 y i1 ) ⇔ x × y.
2
2) the symmetry [f ] = [2]. We have seen above that the traceless tensor is
1
F01,2 = xi1 y i2 − x.yδ(i1 , i2 )
3
2
⇒ T 1 2 F01,2 = xi1 y i2 + xi2 y i1 − x.yδ(i1 , i2 ).
3
Since any antisymmetric tensor is traceless we find proceeding as in the
case of U(n) that the maximum weight associated with [1r ] is

1 1 ··· 1 0 ··· 0
Λ= (8.19)
r
which is simple. So this representation is irreducible. Similarly the weight
of [1`+k ], k a positive integer, is (−1, −2, · · · , −`, −` + 1 · · · , −` + k), but,
as we have seen in section 7.2, this is equivalent to the weight given by
Eq. (8.19). So the two representations are equivalent. This is particularly
true for k = ` − r, which means that:
[f ] = [1` ] and [f 0 ] = [12`−r ] are equivalent
T ([µ]) = Y ([µ])F0 i1 , i2 , · · · , ir , µ1 ≥ µ2 ≥ · · · ≥ µ` ,
µi = integer ≥ 0, i = 1, 2, · · · , `; µ1 + µ2 + · · · + µ` = r. (8.20)
This representation has maximum weight
[n]
Λ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µ` ), ` = , [n] = integral part of n. (8.21)
2
At this point we should be careful. This conclusion was reached considering

the algebra, not the group O(n), which we know has two sheets, only one
of which can be reached continuously from the identity. So from the point
of view of O(n) the representations [1] and [12 ] of O(3) are not equivalent.
x × y is a pseudovector, not a vector. One can, however, show the following
theorem:
Theorem: The tensors defined by Eq. (8.18) are zero, if the total number
of boxes of the first two columns of the Young tableaux is greater than n.
As a result of this theorem only one column can have length greater than `.
Furthermore if there exists a diagram with length of the first column k < `,
there exists another diagram differing from the previous in the sense that
the length of the first column will have length 2`−k. Two such diagrams are
not equivalent under the group O(n) and are called connected diagrams.
For O(2` + 1) we simply have to adjoin to each diagram of the form of
Eq. (8.20), its connected diagram. There is a slight technical problem in
the case O(2`) since now it is possible for the connected diagrams to look
the same, but they may correspond to nonequivalent representations, but
we will not elaborate on this further.
Examples:
• The group O(3). Here ` = 1 two diagrams µ = (µ1 ) and µ = (µ1 , 1)
as follows:
[f ]1 = [µ1 ] ,
[f ]2 = [µ1 + 1, 1]
The diagram [f ]2 is connected to [f ]1 . These are equivalent as
diagrams of SO(3), but not as diagrams of O(3).
• The group O(5). Here ` = 2 and we have two diagrams µ = (µ1 , µ2 )
and µ = (µ1 , µ2 , 1) as follows:
[f ]1 = ,
[f ]2 =
The diagram [f ]2 is connected to [f ]1 . These are equivalent as
diagrams of SO(5), but not as diagrams of O(5).
Let us now consider a representation with weight µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µ` )

of D` or B` . Its conjugate representation corresponds to weight µ =
(−µ1 , −µ2 , · · · , −µ` ). Using the results of section 7.2 we can show that
the two weights are equivalent in the following cases:
i) Always in the case of B` .
ii) In the case of D` whenever ` is even.
iii) In the case of D` for representations with Λ`−1 = Λ` .
Thus in the case of SO(10) we can have complex representations, this is
important in the applications of particle physics.
Proceeding as in the case of L` we can use the Young diagrams to find
the branching rules.
I n = 2`
X
Γ([µ], 2`) = Γ([µ0 ], 2` − 1), ` > 1, µ0 = (µ01 , µ02 , · · · , µ0`−1 ),
µ0
µ1 ≥ µ01 ≥ µ2 ≥ µ02 · · · ≥ µ0`−1 ≥ µ` > 0 (8.22)

II n = 2` + 1
X
Γ([µ], 2` + 1) = Γ([µ0 ], 2`), ` > 1, µ0 = (µ01 , µ02 , · · · , µ0` ),
µ0
µ1 ≥ µ01 ≥ µ2 ≥ µ02 · · · ≥ µ` ≥ µ0` > 0. (8.23)

The dimension of the representations, using Eqs. (7.23) and (7.22), can
be conveniently rewritten as follows:
` `
Y µi + µj + 2` − (i + j) Y µi − µj + j − i
dim(µ, n) = , n = 2`. (8.24)
i<j
2` − i − j i<j
j−i
` `
Y µi + µj + 2` + 1 − (i + j) Y µi − µj + j − i
dim(µ, n) =
i<j
2` + 1 − i − j i<j
j−i
`
Y 2(µi + ` − i) + 1
× , n = 2` + 1. (8.25)
i=1
2(` − i) + 1
8.8.2 The case of the transformations Sp(2`)

We proceed in analogous fashion with the orthogonal groups. The irre-
ducible representations are now completely specified starting from the ap-
propriate traceless tensors, i.e.
i ,i ,··· ,iα ,··· ,iβ ,··· ,ir
X
T [f ] = Y ([f ])F0 i1 , i2 , · · · , ir , δα,−β F01 2 =0
α,β
where the Young operators have at most ` rows (Young operators with more
than ` rows give something identical to zero). Thus now [f ] → (ω):
(ω) = ω1 , ω2 , · · · , ω` , ω1 ≥ ω2 ≥ · · · ≥ ω` , ωi = integer, i = 1, 2 · · · , `,
ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ω` = r.
All representations are now integral and proceeding as in the case of the
orthogonal groups, it can be shown that they are real. The branching rules,
however, are a bit complicated4 and they will not be given here. Rewriting
Eq. (7.22) the dimensions of the irreducible representations read:
` `
Y ωi + ωj + 2(` + 1) − (i + j) Y ωi − ωj + j − i
dim((ω), `) =
i<j
2(` + 1) − i − j i<j
j−i
`
Y ωi + ` + 1 − i
× . (8.26)
i=1
`+1−i
8.9 Reduction of irreducible representations of U(n) under

SO(n) and Sp(n)
In many applications of physics the highest symmetry considered is uni-

tary, but lower symmetries like those imposed by orthogonal and symplectic
transformations may enter. In such cases a given irreducible representation
in the unitary symmetry may contain a number of irreducible representa-
tions of the lower symmetry groups. The Young tableaux is the neatest
way to find which ones5 .
8.9.1 The reduction U(n) ⊃ SO(n)

We have seen that any tensor of rank r can be written as:
(i)r (i)r−2
X
F (i)r = F0 + δ iα ,iβ F0 (iα , iβ )
α,β
(i)r−4
X
+ δ iα ,iβ δ iλ ,iµ F0 (iα , iβ , iλ , iµ ) + · · · ,
α,β,λ,µ
4 The first was given not very long time ago, G.C. Hergenfeldt, JMP, 8 (1967) 1185.
5 The problem of reduction of an irreducible representation of a given high symmetry,
by lower ones contained in it, is not a trivial one. For references see, e.g.:
R. Slansky, Phys. Rep. 79 (1981) 1.
J. Patera and D. Sankoff, Tables of branching Rules for Representations of Semisimple
Lie Algebras, Universite’ de Momtreal, 1973.
M. McKay and J. Patera, Tables of Dimension, Indices and Branching Rules for Semisim-
ple Lie Algebras (Dekker, NY 1981).
(i)r−2
where F0 (iα , iβ ) is a traceless tensor of rank r − 2 obtained from F (i)r
(i)r−4
after contraction of the indices iα , iβ . Similarly F0 (iα , iβ , iλ , iµ ) is a
traceless tensor of rank r − 4, after contraction of the 4 indices iα , iβ , iλ , iµ
etc.
We note that δ iα ,iβ is itself a symmetric second rank tensor, δ iβ ,iα , which
under O(n) transforms like .
This observation suggests an algorithm for the reduction of symmetry [f ].
One gets:
i) The symmetry [f ] itself.
ii) What remains after removing two boxes .
iii) What remains after removing two more boxes .
iv) We continue till all boxes are removed or stop only when one box
or two boxes remain.
The only restriction imposed in each step is that the two removed
boxes cannot be in the same column. In addition, if the two boxes
do not come from a symmetric pair, the remainder cannot be fur-
ther contracted.
We should check the results by the dimensionality criterion.
As an example let us consider the reduction A4 ⊃ B2 or better, U(5) ⊃
SO(5). We will consider the following simple cases:
[2, 0, 0, 0, 0] → (2, 0) + (0, 0)
→ or
15 14 1
The dimensionality is checked by applying Eqs. (8.9) and (8.25).
[1, 1, 0, 0, 0] → (1, 1)
→ or
10 10
[2, 1, 0, 0, 0] → (2, 1) + (1, 0)

→ or
40 35 5
[3, 1, 0, 0, 0] → (3, 1) + (1, 1) + (2, 0)

→ + + or
105 81 10 14
Note that the [2, 0] cannot be further contracted to a (0, 0).

[2, 2, 0, 0, 0] → (2, 2) + (2, 0) + (0, 0)
→ + + [0] or
50 35 14 1
[4, 0, 0, 0, 0]→ (4, 0)+(2, 0)+(0, 0)

→ + +[0] or
70 55 14 1
The above result can be used to reduce the representation [f ] = [4, 2]. The
first step is
→ + + + .
Note however that the [3, 1] cannot be further contacted to (2, 0), (0, 0) and
(1, 1), since it was obtained from boxes not belonging to a . Then
using the above results for the last three cases we get:
[4, 2, 0, 0, 0]→ (4, 2)+(2, 2)+(4, 0)+(3, 1)+2(2, 0)+(0, 0)
→
420 220 35 55 81 2 × 14 1
Note the representation (2, 0) appears twice, since it has been produced in
two independent ways, from [f ] = [2, 2] and [4, 0]. The one produced from
[3, 1] was removed according to the above criterion. For the same reason
the (1, 1) and the would be (0, 0) were removed from the final result.
As we have seen in section 8.8 in the case of B` and C` Young tableaux
with more than two rows do not give us anything new, since the diagram
with a column [1p ] gives the same SO(n) with the one with [1n−p ]. Thus
[2, 12 ] gives the same reduction as [2, 1], i.e. [2, 12 ] → (2, 1) + (1, 0). For
more examples see Tables B.14 and B.15 in appendix B.
8.9.2 The reduction U(2n) ⊃ Sp(2n)

We proceed as in the previous section except that now
(i)r (i)r−2
X
F (i)r = F0 + δ iα ,−iβ sign(iα )F0 (iα , iβ )
α,β
X
+ δ iα ,−iβ δ iλ ,−iµ sign(iα )sign(iλ )
α,β,λ,µ
(i)r−4
× F0 (iα , iβ , iλ , iµ ) + · · · ,
(i)r−2
where F0 is a traceless tensor of rank r − 2 obtained from F (i)r
(iα , iβ )
(i)r−4
after contraction of the indices iα , iβ . Similarly F0 (iα , iβ , iλ , iµ ) is a
traceless tensor of rank r − 4, with the 4 indices iα , iβ , iλ , iµ contracted.
We note that sign(iα )δ iα ,−iβ is itself an antisymmetric second rank ten-
sor, normally written as iα ,iβ , which under Sp(2n) transforms like .
This suggests an algorithm for the reduction of symmetry [f ], which is

analogous to the one above, namely:
i) The symmetry [f ] itself.

ii) What remains after removing two anti-symmetrically coupled boxes
.
iii) What remains after removing two more anti-symmetrically coupled

boxes .
iv) We continue till all boxes are removed or stop only when one box
or two boxes remain.
The only restriction imposed in each step is that the two removed
boxes cannot be in the same row.
Let us consider SU(4) ⊃ Sp(4). We know that Young tableaux’s with at
most two rows are admissible. Thus for r ≤ 4 we have:
• r=2
[2, 0, 0, 0] → (2, 0)
→ or
10 10
[1, 1, 0, 0] → (1, 1) + (0, 0)

→ + [0] or
6 5 1
The dimensionality is checked by applying Eqs. (8.9) and (8.26).

• r = 3. For SU(4) [1, 1, 1, 0] is equivalent to [1, 0, 0, 0]. Thus
[1, 1, 1, 0] → (1, 0) = 4.
[3, 0, 0, 0] → (3, 0)
→ or
20 20
[2100] → (2, 1) + (1, 0)

→ + or
20 16 4
• r=4
[4, 0, 0, 0] → (4, 0)
→ or
35 35
[2200] → (2, 2) + (1, 1) + (0, 0)

→ + + [0] or
20 14 5 1
[3100] → (3, 1) + (2, 0)

→ + or
45 35 10
[2110] → (x) + (2, 0)

→ + or
15 ? 10
Again we have seen in section 8.8 in the case of C` Young tableaux

with more than two rows are not needed. So we find (x) = (1, 1)
which checks with the dimensionality criterion. Thus
[2110] → (1, 1) + (2, 0)
→ + or
15 5 10
For more reductions see Table B.16 in appendix B.
8.10 Connection of Young tableaux and the Dynkin weights
We have seen that from a Young tableaux [f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ] of U(n) we have

obtained the integral weights [f1 − fn , f2 − fn , · · · , fn−1 − fn , 0] of A` or
SU(n). We also obtained the integral weights µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µ` of B` and D`
as well as the weights ω1 , ω2 , · · · , ω` of C` . From these we can obtain the
Dynkin weights (see section 7.3.1) as follows:
• For the algebra A` :

Λαi = fi − fi+1 , i = 1, · · · , ` − 1, Λα` = f` . (8.27)
• For the algebra B` :
Λαi = µi − µi+1 , i = 1, · · · , ` − 1, Λα` = 2µ` . (8.28)
• For the algebra D` :
Λαi = µi − µi+1 , i = 1, · · · , ` − 1, Λα` = µ`−1 + µ` . (8.29)
• For the algebra C` :
Λαi = ωi − ωi+1 , i = 1, · · · , ` − 1, Λα` = ω` . (8.30)
So having obtained the maximum weights with the tableaux technique we

can apply the Dynkin algorithm discussed in the previous chapter to obtain
all weights. This is perhaps adequate for the applications in particle physics.
We can now do better. We can choose a chain of subgroups (subalgebras)
dictated by the problem at hand. Then we can diagonalize not only the
Abelian elements of the algebra, but also the Casimir operators of the
algebra as well as those subalgebras chosen. This in most cases provides a

complete set of commuting operators6 . Some examples are:
i) The symmetry A2 ⊃ A1 = SU(3) ⊃ SU(2).
In this case a convenient set of operators [Elliott (1958)], [Hecht
(1965)] is:
1
K 2 , (Axx − Ayy ) , 2Azz − Axx − Ayy , Λ2
2
where Λ2 is the Casimir operator of SU(2) (operators with the z-
index not considered). These form a complete set specifying the
states of the representation, specified by (λ, µ), with eigenvalues
2
gλ,µ = (λ + 1)(µ + 1)(λ + µ + 2), Λ0 , , Λ(Λ + 1)
3
in the order of the above four operators.
ii) The symmetry A2 ⊃ B1 = SU(3) ⊃ SO(3).
In this case a convenient set of operators [Vergados (1968)] is:
K 2 , Ω, L2 , Lz
2
where L and Lz are the familiar angular momentum operators of
SO(3). In this case the operator Ω is cumbersome to use and an
extra label K was introduced, which resulted in a tedious orthog-
onalization procedure but not nearly as bad as that considered in
the previous chapter to deal with degeneracies.
iii) The symmetry B2 ⊃ A1 = SO(5) ⊃ SU(2).
In this case a convenient set of operators [Hecht and Pang (1969)],
[Hecht (1989)], [Hemenger and Hecht (1970)] is:
K 2 , Ω, n, T 2 , T0
where T 2 and T0 are the familiar isospin operators of SU(2) and
n is the number of particles involved. In this case we have “a
missing operator” in the sense that it has not been possible to
construct an operator Ω. Thus again an extra label was introduced.
This resulted in a tedious procedure but not nearly as bad as that
considered in the previous chapter.
iv) The symmetry D4 ⊃ A3 ⇔ SO(8) ⊃ SU(4), see e.g. the work
[Hecht (1985)].
v) The symmetries C2 ⊃ A1 Sp(4, R) ⊃ [U(l) × SU(3)].
C3 ⊃ A2 or Sp(6, R) ⊃ U(3) (see e.g. the review [Rosensteel and
Rowe (1977)].
6 A very useful approach to group representation theory has been developed by the
Nanjing University group [Chen et al. (2002)] in the ’70s and ’80s in accordance with
the concepts and methods used in quantum mechanics along the lines, but going much
further than the pioneering work of E. Wigner.
8.11 The reduction U(n) ⊃ SO(3)
This problem is of interest to many-body systems, in particular atomic and

nuclear physics. Let us begin with two particles. We encounter two sym-
metries [2] = and [12 ] = . Suppose that each particle has angular
momentum j, while the total angular momentum of the two particles is J.

Then we know that
X
|[f ]JM = ≺ jM − m, jm|JM |jM − m |jm
m
where the C-G coefficients satisfy the symmetry property given by

Eq. (2.66), i.e.
≺ j1 m1 , j2 m2 |JM = (−1)j1 +j2 −J ≺ j2 m2 , j1 m1 |JM .
Thus
i) The symmetric state P12 [2] = [2] ⇒ 2j − J = even

J = 0, 2, 4, · · · , 2j if j = integer
⇒ ⇒
J = 1, 3, 5, · · · , 2j if j = half integer.
ii) The symmetric state P12 [12 ] = −[12 ] ⇒ 2j − J = odd

J = 1, 3, 5, · · · , 2j if j = integer
⇒ ⇒
J = 0, 2, 4, · · · , 2j if j = half integer.
Proceeding further we recall that for fermions, j = half integral, the wave
function must be antsymmetric with at most 2j + 1 particles.
Thus for j = 3/2 the symmetry is U(4) and
• The [14 ] is 1-dimensional with J = 0

• The [13 ] is conjugate to [1] with J = j
• The [12 ] was discussed above and is characterized by J = 0, 2.
In the case of j = 5/2 the symmetry is U(6) and
• The [16 ] is 1-dimensional with J = 0

• The [15 ] is conjugate to [1] with J = 5/2
• The [14 ] is conjugate to [12 ] is characterized by J = 0, 2, 4
• The [13 ] is really new and it will be evaluated in the m-scheme,
(m1 , m2 , m3 ) as indicated below.
We put the state m1 in the first box, m2 in the second box and m3 in
the third box. These must be all different, since they belong to the same
column, and their sum must be fixed by the desired angular momentum
M -quantum number, m1 + m2 + m3 = M . It is adequate to consider only
positive values of M . Thus we have the following possibilities:
m1 = 25 , m2 = 3
2, m3 = 1
2, M= 9
2
m1 = 25 , m2 = 3
2, m3 = − 12 , M= 7
2
5 3
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 32 , M= 5
2
5 3
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 52 , M= 3
2
5 1
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 12 , M= 5
2
5 1
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 32 , M= 3
2
5 1
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 52 , M= 1
2
5
m1 = 2, m2 = − 21 , m3 = − 32 , M= 1
2
3 1
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 12 , M= 3
2
3 1
m1 = 2, m2 = 2, m3 = − 32 , M= 1
2.
We thus find that the maximum value of J = 9/2, which takes off the
values M = 9/2, 7/2, 5/2, 3/2 and 1/2. Then we know that the next
possible value of J, J = 7/2, but no M = 7/2 is left. The next allowed
value of J is J = 5/2 which removes the M values of 5/2, 3/2 and 1/2.
So only the values of M = 3/2 and 1/2 are left, which are absorbed by
j = 3/2. So we summarize
5 9 5 3
j= , [f ] = ⇒J = , ,
2 2 2 2
We check the dimensionality criterion. We know N [13 , 6] = (1/6) × 6 × 5 ×

4 = 20 and (2 × 9/2) + (2 × 5/2) + (2 × 3/2) = 10 + 6 + 4 = 20. So it is
correct.
In the case of j = 3 the symmetry is U(7). We essentially need to
construct [f ] = [16 ], [15 ], [14 ], and [13 ]:
• The [16 ] is [1] with J = 3

• The [15 ] is conjugate to [12 ] with J = 1, 3, 5
• The [14 ] is conjugate to [13 ]
• The [13 ] is really new and it will be evaluated in the m-scheme,
(m1 , m2 , m3 ) as above.
Then one finds that [13 ] contains the values J = 0, 2, 3, 4 and 6.

One can continue as above and obtain all possible representations of
SO(3), which exist in a given representation of SU(n). These need not be
antisymmetric if the system is characterized by additional quantum num-
bers. We will focus here on the following simple cases:
i) n = 2, i.e. j = 1/2. We now have,
[f ] = [f1 , f2 ] = · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
···············
Since the columns have angular momentum zero, it is adequate to
consider:
[f ] = [f1 − f2 ] = · · · · · · · · · · · ·
We know that N [f − 1 − f2 ] = f1 − f2 + 1 and the highest of
angular momentum value is M = (1/2)(f − 1 − f2 ). Thus the value
of J = (1/2)(f − 1 − f2 ) yields (2J + 1) = f1 − f2 + 1, and thus it
is the only allowed value of J.
ii) n = 3, i.e. j = 1. We now have
[1] ⇒ J = 1, [12 ] ⇔ [1] ⇒ J = 1, [13 ] ⇔ 1 ⇒ J = 0.
Consider now:
× = +
.
J= 1 1 1 0, 2
In finding the angular momenta in [2] we notice that the possible
angular momenta are 0, 1 and 2, but the value J = 1 has already
been taken by the antisymmetric [1, 1].
To get the reduction of we note that it can be determined
via the relation:

× = +
.
J= 1 1 1, 2 0
Similarly for in the relation:
× = +
J = 0, 2 1 1, 2 1, 3
(note that (0 + 2) × 1 = 0 ⊗ 1 + 2 ⊗ 1 = 1, 1, 2, 3). Similarly:

× = +
J= 1 0, 2 1 1, 2, 3
(1 × (0 + 2) = 1, 1, 2, 3).
× = +
J = 1, 2 1 1 1, 2, 3
((0 + 2) × 1 = 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3).
× = +
J= 1, 3 1 1, 2, 3 0, 2, 4
((1 + 2) × 1 = 0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4) etc.
iii) n = 4, i.e. j = 3/2. We now easily see that:
[1] [12 ] [13 ] [14 ]
J = 3/2 J = 0, 2 J = 3/2 J = 0
Proceeding as above:
× = +
J = 3/2 3/2 0, 2 1, 3
× = +
J = 0, 2 3/2 3/2 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2

((0 + 2) × 3/2 = 3/2, 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2).
× = +
J = 1, 3 3/2 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2 3/2, 5/2, 9/2

((1 + 3) × 3/2 = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2/9/2).
× = +
J = 3/2 3/2 0 1, 2, 3
(3/2 × 3/2 = 0, 1, 2, 3). Next

× = +
J = 1, 3 0, 2 1, 2, 3 12 , 2, 32 , 4, 5
((1 + 3) × (0, 2) = (1, 3) ⊗ 0 + (1 + 3) × 2 = 1, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5).
Note that J = 1 and 3 appear twice in [f ] = [3, 1]. This means
that the quantum numbers J and M do not suffice to completely
specify the state. Furthermore
× = +
J = 3/2, 5/2 3/2 12 , 2, 32 , 4, 5 0, 2, 3, 4, 6
× = + +
J = 1/2, 5/2, 7/2, 9/2 3/2 12 , 2, 32 , 4, 5 1, 2, 3 0, 22 , 4

Proceeding as above one can construct more complicated reductions (see
Tables B.17–B.22 in appendix B).
8.12 Kronecker products for integral representations
The Young tableaux are also useful in reducing the product of integral
representations of the classical groups. We obtain in the product the irre-
ducible representations of U(n). Then in the product space:
• For the algebra A` , ` = n − 1 remove all columns with n boxes.
• For B` and D` remove all symmetrically coupled pairs (only trace-
less tensors need to be considered). Only ` = [n]/2 is relevant.
[f ] → (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µ` ),
e.g.
[2, 14 ] → (2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, · · · , 0) + (1, 1, 1, 1, 0, · · · , 0).
• For C` remove all anti-symmetrically coupled pairs (only traceless
tensors need to be considered). Only n = 2` is relevant.
[f ] → (ω1 , ω2 , · · · , ω` ),
e.g.
[2, 14 ] → (2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, · · · , 0) + (2, 1, 1, 0, · · · , 0) + (2, 0, · · · , 0).
Before proceeding to the study of the examples below, the reader is urged
to study the examples discussed in section 8.9.1. These results can also be
used to check whether the dimensionality criterion is fulfilled.
Example 1:
U (n) ⊗ = +
A` (1, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (1, 1) (2, 0) (8.31)

B` , D` (1, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (1, 1) (2, 0) + (0, 0)
C` (1, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (0, 1) + (0, 0) (2, 0)
Example 2:
U (n) ⊗ = +
A` (1, 1) ⊗ (1, 0) (1, 1, 1) (2, 1)

B` , D` (1, 1) ⊗ (1, 0) (1, 1, 1)
(2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
C` (1, 1) + (0, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (1, 1, 1) + (1, 0, 0)
(2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
(8.32)
7
Thus for C` since the (1, 0, 0) comes from (0, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) we get:
(1, 1) × (1, 0) = (1, 1, 1) + (2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 0). (8.33)
Example 3:
U (n) ⊗ = +
A` (2, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (3, 0) (2, 1)

B` , D` (2, 0) + (0, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (3, 0, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
(2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
C` (2, 0) ⊗ (1, 0) (3, 0, 0)
(2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
(8.34)
For B` and D` , since we have seen that the (1, 0, 0) comes from (0, 0)⊗(1, 0),
we get:
(2, 0) × (1, 0) = (3, 0, 0) + (2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 0). (8.35)
Let us now analyze Eq. (8.35) in the case of n = 5, i.e. SO(5). In this case
it is written as (2, 0) × (1, 0) = (3, 0) + (2, 1) + (1, 0). We can verify that
14 ⊗ 5 = 30 + 35 + 5,
7 In labeling the B` , D` and C` representations the extra zeros are understood for large
n.
i.e. the dimension criterion is satisfied. Let us do the same for Eq. (8.32).
Since [13 ] is the same with [12 ] in the case of B2 it is written as (1, 1) ×
(1, 0) = (1, 1) + (2, 0) + (1, 0). Again
10 ⊗ 5 = 10 + 35 + 5.
Let us also look at Eq. (8.32) in the case n = 4, i.e. SU(4) ⊃ Sp(4). In
this case [13 ] is equivalent to [1] and it yields only (µ) = (1, 0), i.e. no
contraction is needed. Thus instead of Eq. (8.33) we have in this case
(1, 1) × (1, 0) = (2, 1) + (1, 0). Thus
5 ⊗ 4 = 16 + 4.
The situation is often tricky and one must always employ the dimensionality
check!
One can proceed further this way starting with the simplest representa-
tions so that on the right-hand side only one Young tableaux is really new.
The process seems straightforward, but it becomes a bit tedious for B` , D`
and C` , even with the aid of modern computers. We will return to this
problem in the next chapter using the Dynkin weights, a method which is
less elegant, but easier to code with computers.
For A2 (SU(3)) one can find general formulas. Thus using now the
standard notation, namely λ = f1 − f2 and µ = f2 − f3 , we find:
(λ, µ) ⊗ (1, 0) = (λ + 1, µ) + (λ − 1, µ) + (λ, µ − 1),
(λ, µ) ⊗ (2, 0) = (λ + 2, µ) + (λ − 2, µ + 2) + (λ − 1, µ) + (λ + 1, µ − 1)
+ (λ, µ + 1) + (λ, µ − 2),
(λ, µ) ⊗ (1, 1) = (λ + 1, µ + 1) + (λ − 1, µ + 2) + (λ − 2, µ + 1) + 2(λ, µ)

+ (λ − 1, µ − 1) + (λ + 1, µ − 2) + (λ + 2, µ − 1).
Needless to say that at some point we can get more reductions by taking
the conjugate of the expressions found. For example in the case of A2
(λ, µ)∗ = (µ, λ). Thus
(λ, µ) ⊗ (0, 1) = ((µ, λ) ⊗ (1, 0))∗ = ((µ + 1, λ) + (µ − 1, λ) + (µ, λ − 1))∗
= (λ, µ + 1) + (λ, µ − 1) + (λ − 1, µ)
by first exchanging λ and µ and then conjugating. We proceed similarly for
(λ, µ) ⊗ (0, 2) = ((µ, λ) ⊗ (2, 0))∗ and (λ, µ) ⊗ (1, 1) = ((µ, λ) ⊗ (1, 1))∗ ((1, 1)
is self conjugate).
8.13 Application of tensor products in obtaining maximal

subalgebras
The question of finding maximal subalgebras of a given algebra, see section

7.10, is important in particle physics. The Dynkin diagrams do not suffice
in this regard and special constructions are needed. We recall that, if G0 is
a maximal subalgebra of G, the following are true:
rank of G0 ≤ rank of G, order of G0 < order of G.
Let us now consider a simple representation of G, e.g. the fundamental and

for B` and D` the spinorial, indicated by ΓΛ . Such a simple representation
is irreducible, even if it is viewed as a representation of G0 . Then8 :
X X
ΓΛ ⊗ ΓΛ = ⊕Γi ⇒ ΓΛ0 ⊗ ΓΛ0 = ⊕Γ0i .
i i
0
Then G of G if and only if in the product the regular representation of
G0 appears. In the product many subalgebras may appear. We select the
maximal among them.
As an example let us consider the algebra B3 (SO(7)), which has rank
` = 3 and order r = 21. Possible subalgebras, which do not belong in the
class discussed in section 7.10, are the A1 and G2 . One simple representa-
tion for G is the fundamental [1] = (1, 0, 0) = 7. We have:
⊗ = + = 28 + 21
The reductions are = (2, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 0) and = (1, 1, 0) ≡ (0, 1, 0).
The regular representations of G2 and A1 are contained in the product and

in fact they are found in the antisymmetric representation. One finds that
→ (1, 0) + (0, 1) = 14 + 7 for G2 , → ` = 1, 3, 5 = 3 + 7 + 11 for A1 ,
i.e. (1, 0) is the regular representation of G2 and it contains the regular

representation 3 of A1 . Thus
B3 ⊃ G2 ⊃ A1 ,
i.e. G2 is a maximal subalgbra of B3 , which is not evident from the corre-

sponding Dynkin diagrams.
8 See: E. B. Dynkin, Am. Math. Soc. Trans. Ser. 2, 6 (1945) 111 and 245.
8.14 The elementary weights — The spinorial

representations of SO(n) and the special algebras
So far in this chapter we considered only the integral representations of

the classical groups. We have seen, however, that the algebras D` and B`
admit weights such that all components can be half integral (see Eqs. (7.9)
and (7.10)). In the case of B` all components can be positive, while in the
case of D` the last component can be either positive or negative.
8.14.1 The spinorial representations of SO(n)
Using the techniques of Clifford algebra it can be shown that there exist
one elementary weight of B` , Λ = (1/2, 1/2, · · · , 1/2) and two elementary
weights in the case of D` , namely Λ = (1/2, 1/2, · · · , ±1/2). Thus we
conclude that all representations of the classical algebras can be generated
from the following:
• The fundamental representation with maximum weight Λ =

(1, 0, · · · , 0) for A` and C` .
• For B` and D2k , the fundamental representation with maximum
weight Λ = (1, 0, · · · , 0) and the spinorial representation Λ =
(1/2, 1/2, · · · , 1/2).
• For D2k+1 , the fundamental representation with maximum weight
Λ = (1, 0, · · · , 0) and two spinorial representations Λ =
(1/2, 1/2, · · · , ±1/2).
Thus we have the following basic weights for the orthogonal groups:


 1 0 0 0 ··· 0 0




 1 1 0 0 ··· 0 0
1 1 1 0 ··· 0 0

B` , D2k ⇔Λ=

 1 1 1 1 ··· 1 0




 1 1 1 1 ··· 1 1
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 · · · 1/2 1/2



 1 0 0 0 ··· 0 0
1 1 0 0 ···



 0 0

 1 1 1 0 ··· 0 0


D2k+1 ⇔Λ= 1 1 1 1 ··· 1 0 (8.36)
1 1 1 1 ···



 1 1




 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 · · · 1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 · · · 1/2 −1/2

The weight of the fundamental representation can be obtained from the

general formulas we have obtained in section 7.3.1. They can also be derived
independently in a way which may be applied in the case of the special
algebras as well.
Recall that the simple roots a(k) in the Dynkin representation can be
written as a linear combination of the weights of the fundamental repre-
sentation. Hence every weight of an integral representation can be ex-
pressed as a superposition of weights λi of the fundamental representation
λ1 = (1, 0, 0, · · · , 0). Thus we can get all weights by subtracting the
Dynkin roots:
• The algebra A` . The fundamental representation has dimension
`+1
λi+1 = λi − a(i) ⇒ a(i) = λi − λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , `.
• The algebra B` . The fundamental representation has dimension
2` + 1. We notice that:
λ1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0) = a(1) + a(2) + · · · + a(`) .
Thus
λi+1 = λi − a(i) , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1,
λ` = a(`) ⇒ a(i) = λi − λi+1 , a(`) = λ` .

• The algebra C` . The fundamental representation has dimension 2`
λi+1 = λi − a(i) ⇒ a(i) = λi − λi+1 .
We have seen that
1
λ1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0) = a(1) + a(2) + · · · + a(`−1) + a(`)
2
1
⇒ λi+1 = λi − a(i) , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, λ` = a(`)
2
(i) (`)
⇒ a = λi − λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, a = 2λ` .
• The algebra D` . The fundamental representation has dimension

2`. We have seen that
1 (`)
λ1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0) = a(1) + a(2) + · · · + a + a(`−1)
2
(i) 1 (`−1)
⇒ λi+1 = λi − a , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 2, λ`−1 = a + (`) ,
2
1 (`−1)
λ` = a + (`)
2
we obtain
a(i) =λi −λi+1 , i=1, 2, · · · , `−2, a(`−1) =λ`−1 −λ` , a(`) = λ`−1 +λ` .
From the formulas we have obtained in section 7.3.1, we find for the spinorial
representations:
Λ = (1/2, 1/2, · · · , 1/2) ⇔ Λ(D+) = a(+) = (0, 0, · · · , 0 0, 1),
Λ = (1/2, 1/2, · · · , −1/2) ⇔ Λ(D−) = a(−) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1 0).

The above representations are called elementary. We observe that all the
above Dynkin weights are obtained by putting the number 1 just above the
ends of the standard Dynkin diagram. Thus we get the Dynkin diagrams
shown in Fig. 8.1. In order to understand Fig. 8.1 better note the following:
Fig. 8.1: The extended Dynkin diagrams containing all the elementary
representations, including the spinorial ones.
• The representation on the right of A` and C` , i.e. the (0, 0, 0, · · · ,

0, 1) is redundant, because it can be obtained from the fundamental
(1, 0, 0, · · · , 0) ⊗ (1, 0, 0, · · · , 0).
• The same is true for the representation (0, 0, 0, · · · , 0, 1). So the
fundamental and one spinorial representation are adequate for B`
and D` .
It is amusing to know that for D4 all the basic representations are 8 and
the two spinorial representations of D` , ` > 4 are connected via an inter
automorphism G → G,
b → b0 = aba−1 , b ∈ G, given a.
8.14.2 The special algebras

The simplest is G2 , which has already bean discussed in section 7.5. We
studied two of its representations, the regular representation with weight
(1, 0), which is 14 and the fundamental (0, 1), which is 7. Consider now the
(0, 1) ⊗ (0, 1). Since the lowest dimensional representations are 1, 7, 14, 27,
64 and 77 corresponding to the weights (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (2, 0), (1, 1) and
(0, 3), there is only one solution, namely:
(0, 1) ⊗ (0, 1) = (0, 0) + (0, 1) + (1, 0) + (2, 0).
Thus the basic weights can be the positive weights of (0, 1), which are
λ1 = (1, 0), λ2 = (1, −1), λ3 = (−1, 2),
i.e. more than the rank of the algebra. So we have a choice. We have seen
that the two simple Dynkin roots are a(1) = (2, −3) and a(2) = (−1, 2). We
choose as basic weights λ2 and λ3 :
a(1) = λ2 − λ3 , a(2) = λ3 .
In the literature it is often written as
a(1) = λ1 − λ2 , a(2) = λ2 , λ1 = (1, −1), λ2 = (−1, 2), λ3 = (1, 0).
The situation with the other special algebras is slightly more complicated.
Dynkin chose to do this using the chains with the maximal subalgebras of
the same rank:
F4 ⊃ B4 , E6 ⊃ A5 ⊗ U(1), E7 ⊃ A7 , E8 ⊃ A8 .
The Dynkin roots can be obtained from their Cartan matrix (see section
6.3.5).
i) The algebra F4 . The weights of B4 are:
λ1 = (0, 0, 1, −1), λ2 = (1, 0, 0, −1),
λ3 = (−1, 1, 0, −1), λ4 = (0, 1, 2, −1)
1
⇒ a(1) =λ2 −λ3 , a(2) =λ3 −λ4 , a(3) =λ4 , a(4) = (λ1 − λ2 − λ3 − λ4 ) .
2
ii) The algebra E6 . The weights are (the extended) weights λi , i =
1, 2, · · · , 5 of A5 and λ of A1 , i.e.
λ1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), λ2 = (−1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0), λ3 = (0, −1, 1, 0, 0, 0),
λ4 =(0, 0, −1, 1, 0, 0), λ5 =(0, 0, 0, −1, 1, 0), λ6 =(0, 1, −1, 0, −1, 2).
The result is:
a(i) = λi − λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , 5, a(6) = λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + λ.
iii) The algebra E7 . The weights are λi , i = 1, 2, · · · , 7 of A7 ,
(1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), (−1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) · · · .
The result is:
a(i) = λi − λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , 6, a(7) = λ4 + λ5 + λ6 + λ7 .
iv) The algebra E8 . The weights are λi , i = 1, 2, · · · , 7 of A8 ,
(1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), (−1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) · · · .
The result is:
a(i) = λi − λi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , 7, a(8) = λ6 + λ7 + λ8 .
Expressions giving the roots in terms of the elementary weights can be

found in Table A.6 of appendix A.
8.15 Dimensions of the non-integral representations and of

special algebras
We have seen that each weight can be expressed in terms of the simple roots
and root can be expressed in terms of the elementary weights the weights
can be a linear combination of the elementary weights.
8.15.1 Expressing weights in terms of the elementary

weights
We write:
X
Λ= ì λi , ì , i = 1, 2, · · · , n are numbers.
i
The quantity ì can be determined from the maximum weight. From the
discussion in the previous chapter we find:
`−1
1 X
B` : ì = Λα` + Λαk
2
k=i
`
X
C` : ì = Λαk
k=i
`−2
1 X
D` : ì = (Λα`−1 − Λα` ) + Λαk .
2
k=i
For F4 we find
3 1
`1 = Λα1 + 2Λα2 + Λα3 + Λα4 , `2 = Λα1 + Λα2 + Λα3 ,
2 2
1 1
`3 = Λα1 + Λα3 , `4 = Λα3 .
2 2
For the remaining algebras we do not have a unique solution so we impose
P
the condition i ì = 0. Thus we get:
` `
1 X X
A` : ì = iΛαì + Λαk ,
`+1 i
k=i
1 1 2
G2 : `1 = Λα1 + Λα2 , `2 = Λα2 , `3 = −Λα1 + Λα2 , (8.37)
3 3 3
5 5
X X k
E6 : ì = `6 + Λαk , i = 1, 2, · · · , 5, `6 = − Λαk ,
6
k=i k=1
`˜ = Λα1 + 3Λα2 + 5(Λα3 + Λα4 + Λα5 ) + 2Λα6 ,

6
X 1
E7 : ì = `7 + Λαk , i = 1, 2, · · · , 6, `7 = (Λα7 − Λα4 − 2Λα5 − 3Λα6 ),
4
k=i
1
`8 = −(Λα1 + 2Λα2 + 3Λα3 ) − (9Λα4 + 6Λα5 + 3Λα6 + 7Λα7 ),
4
7
X 1
E8 : ì = `8 + Λαk , i = 1, 2, · · · , 7, `8 = (Λα8 − 2Λα2 − Λα6 ),
3
k=i
1
`9 = − (3Λα1 − 10Λα2 + 9Λα3 + 12Λα4 + 15Λα5 + 10Λα6 + 21Λα7 + 8Λα8 ).
3
In some cases the ì have simple interpretation, e.g. in the case of D5
1 1 1 1 1 1
Λ = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0) ⇒ ì = ⇔ ` = ( , , , , )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Λ=(0, 0, 0, 0, 1) ⇒ ì =− ⇔ `=−( , , , , ) ⇔ `=( , , , , − ),
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
i.e. we get the spinorial representations.
8.15.2 Expressing the Weyl formula in terms of the

elementary weights
Recall Weyl’s formula:
Q
≺ Λ + δ|α 1X 2 ≺ δ|αi
dimΓΛ = α>0 Q ,δ= α, δαi = = 1.
α>0 ≺ δ|α 2 α>0
≺ α| αi
Before proceeding further we must know the scalar products of the elemen-
tary weights. We know that
≺ λi |λj = (λi )k Gkn (λj )n
with (λi )k the projection of λi on the root a(k) . They can be obtained from
the expressions giving λi in terms of a(k) given in section 8.14. Thus:

1 B ,D ,F
≺ λi |λj = kδij , k = 1 ` ` 4
2 C`
 1
 `+1 A`
2
≺ λi |λj = `k, i = j; −k, i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , ` + 1, k = E7
 71
2 E8.
For E6 we get
2
≺ λi |λi = ;
3
1 1
≺ λ|λi = 0, ≺ λi |λj = − , i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , 5, ≺ λ|λ = .
3 2
Finally for G2 we get

λ1 λ2 λ3
λ1 3 32 0
λ2 32 1 − 12
λ3 0 − 12 1
The next step is to determine the quantities δi . The hardest cases are A` ,
G2 and E6 . In the case of A` we have:
`
X `+1
X `
X `
X `
X
λi+1 =− λi ⇒ δ = δi λ i = δi λi −δ`+1 δi λi = δ̃i λi , δ˜i =δi −δ`+1 .
i i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
We find that
δ̃i − δ̃i+1 = 1, i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, δ̃` = 1 ⇒ δ̃i = ` + 1 − i
P
(see section 8.14). Imposing now the constraint: δi = 0, we find:
` `
δ`+1 = −
⇒ δi = + 1 − i.
2 2
Proceeding this way we summarize our results as follows:
A` : δi = 2` + 1 − i;
G : δ = 34 , δ2 = 13 , δ3 = − 35
B` : δi = ` + 21 − i; 2 1 11
F4 : δ 1 = 2 , δ2 = 25 , δ3 = 32 , δ4 = 12
C` : δi = ` + 1 − i;
E6 : δi = 72 − i, i = 1, 2, · · · , 5, δ6 = − 25 , δ = 11
D` : δi = ` − i;
E7 : δi = 23 49
4 − i, i = 1, 2, · · · , 7, δ8 = − 4
22 68
E8 : δi = 3 − i, i = 1, 2, · · · , 8, δ9 = − 3 .
Now we must evaluate
Y YX YX
≺ δ|α = δi ≺ λi |α = δi Cjα ≺ λi |λj .
α>0 α> i α> i
The coefficients Cjα

have been obtained in section 8.14 and the overlaps are
given above. In the case of A` , e.g., we get
YX Y
δi ≺ λi |α = − (δp − δq ).
α> i p>q
Similarly we have
Y YX Y
≺ Λ + δ|α = mi ≺ λi |α = (mp − mq ).
α>0 α>0 i p>q
In all cases the needed expressions are obtained in terms of the quantities
δi given above and mi given by:
mi = ì + δi . (8.38)
Thus we get:
Y mp − mq
A` : dimΓΛ = (8.39)
δp − δq
Y mp
Y
mp − mq
Y
mp + mq

B` , C` : dimΓΛ = (8.40)
δp δp − δq δp + δq

Y mp − mq Y mp + mq
D` : dimΓΛ = (8.41)
δp − δq δp + δq

Y mp Y mp − mq
G2 : dimΓΛ = (8.42)
δp δp − δq

Y mp Y mp − mq Y mp + mq
F4 : dimΓΛ =
Y m1 ± m2 ± m3 ± m4
(8.43)
δ1 ± δ2 ± δ3 ± δ4

m Y mp − mq Y mp + mq + mr + m/2
E6 : dimΓΛ = (8.44)
δ δp − δq δp + δq + δr + δ/2
(here m and δ correspond to the weight λ)
Y mp − mq Y mp + mq + mr + ms
E7 : dimΓΛ = (8.45)
δp − δq δp + δq + δr + δs
Y mp − mq Y mp + mq + mr
E8 : dimΓΛ = . (8.46)
δp − δq δp + δq + δr
The above formulas are relatively neat. Note, however, that there are many
definitions hidden behind them. Let us apply this in the case of G2 . For
the representation (1, 0) (see Eq. (8.37)) we have
`1 = 1 `2 = 0 `3 = −1
4 1
δ1 = 3 δ2 = 3 δ3 = − 53 ,
7 1
m1 = 3 m2 = 3 m3 = − 38
7 1 −8 7
− 13 7
+ 83 1
+ 83

3 3 3 3 3 3 7 × 1 × 8 6 × 15 × 9
dim(1, 0)= 4 1 −4 4
= = 14.
− 13 4
+ 53 1
+ 53

3 3 3 3 3 3
4× 3×9×6
For (0, 1) we have

1 1
`1 = 3 `2 = 3 `3 = − 23
⇒ dim(0, 1) = 7,
5 2
m1 = 3 m2 = 3 m3 = − 73
while for (0, 2) we have

2 2
`1 = 3 `2 = 3 `3 = − 43
⇒ dim(0, 2) = 27.
m1 = 2 m2 = 1 m3 = −3
The dimensions of the special algebras can also be obtained rather quickly.
Here are some special cases of low dimensional representations:
algebra Λ(Dynkin) dimΛ
F4 (0, 0, 0, 1) 26
F4 (1, 0, 0, 0) 52
F4 (0, 0, 1, 0) 273
F4 (0, 0, 0, 2) 324
E6 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) 27
E6 (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) 78
E6 (0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0) 351
E6 (0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0) 351
(8.47)
E6 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) 1728
E7 (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0) 56
E7 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) 133
E7 (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) 912
E7 (0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0) 1463
E8 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) 248
E8 (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0) 3875
E8 (2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) 27000
E8 (0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) 30180
The dimensions of some representations of various orthogonal and symplec-
tic groups are given in Tables B.11–B.13 of appendix B.
8.16 The quadratic Casimir operator
The Casimir operators were defined in section 1.4.2. They commute with all
the elements of a semisimple Lie algebra and their eigenvalues completely
specify the representation. The most useful is the quadratic one whose
eigenvalues C(Λ) in terms of the maximum weight Λ of the representation
were given by Weyl
C(Λ) =≺ Λ|Λ + δ . (8.48)
A related expression is the index of the representation defined relative to
the regular representation:
dim(Γ(Λ))
`(Λ) = C(Λ). (8.49)
dim(Γ(Λreg ))
(see Tables B.6–B.8). We can proceed as above and write these expressions
in terms of the elementary weights
X
C(Λ) = ì (`j + δj ) ≺ λi |λj . (8.50)
i,j
Proceeding as above one can show that:

`+1
X
A` : C(Λ) = ì (ì − 2i). (8.51)
i=1
`+1
X
B` : C(Λ) = ì (ì + 2` − 2i + 1). (8.52)
i=1
`+1
1X
C` : C(Λ) = ì (ì + 2` − 2i + 2). (8.53)
2 i=1
`+1
X
D` : C(Λ) = ì (ì + 2` − 2i). (8.54)
i=1
G2 : C(Λ) = 3`1 (`1 + 3) + `2 (`2 + 4) + `3 (`3 + 1) + 3`1 `2 − `2 `3 . (8.55)
F4 : C(Λ) = `1 (`1 + 11) + `2 (`2 + 5) + `3 (`3 + 3) + `4 (`4 + 1). (8.56)
6
1 X
E6 : C(Λ) = `(` + 22) + 2 ì (ì − 2i). (8.57)
2 i=1
8
!
X 17
E7 : C(Λ) = 8k ì (ì − 2i) − `8 . (8.58)
i=1
2
9
!
X 82
E8 : C(Λ) = 9k ì (ì − 2i) − `9 . (8.59)
i=1
3
The quantity k has been defined in section 8.15.2.

The dimensions of some representations of various algebras can be found
in Tables B.6–B.8 of appendix B. In addition some indices of the special
algebras are given in Tables B.11, B.12, B.31, B.32, B.36 and B.38 of the
same appendix.
8.17 Problems
(1) Show that any tensor of rank r under G can be expressed as a

product of r vectors from an n-dimensional vector space where n
is the dimension of the fundamental representation of the group G,
provided r ≤ n.
(2) Consider the representation [4, 23 ] of L5 . Find the representations
[f ] of the chain L5 ⊃ L4 ⊃ L3 ⊃ L2 contained in [4, 23 ].
(3) Consider the representation [6, 4, 4, 2] of L4 .
i) Obtain the representations of A4 contained in it. Then
ii) find the representations of Ai , i = 1, 2, 3 contained in A4 .
(4) Find
i) the conjugate representation of [4, 2, 2] of A4 .
ii) The conjugate representations of [2, 14 ], [4, 24 ], [15 ], [25 ] and
[23 ] of A5 .
(5) Find an expression which gives the traceless part of a r = 4 tensor
F i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,i4 of O(n) in terms of the components of the tensor.
(6) Show that the traceless symmetric tensors of O(n) with r = 3 can
be cast in the form:
X
F0 ( i j k )=(n+2)Ai Aj Ak − Am Am Ai δ jk +Aj δ ik +Ak δ ij ,

m
with A a vector under O(n).

(7) Show similarly that
F0 ( i j k ` )=(n+2)(n+4)Ai Aj Ak A` −(n+2)A2 Ai Aj δ k` +· · ·

X
−(A2 )2 δ ij δ k` + δ ik δ j` + δ i` δ jk , A2 = Am Am , A ∈ O(n).

m
(8) Construct the traceless antisymmetric tensor of the group Sp(2n)

i) of rank r = 3 and
ii) of rank r = 4.
(9) Find the connected diagrams of SO(5) which correspond to the
Young tableaux:
,
(10) Find the connected diagrams of SO(4) which correspond to the

Young tableaux:
,
Do the same for SO(6).

(11) Find the representations of the group O(n) which are contained in
the regular representation of SO(7).
(12) Find the representations of the group O(n) which are contained in
the regular representation of SO(10).
(13) Investigate whether the representations i) µ = (1, 1) of (SO(5)) ii)
µ = (1, 1, 0, 0) of (SO(8)) and iii) µ = (1, 1, 0, 0, 0) of (SO(10)) are
self-adjoined.
(14) Find the representations of Sp(6) contained in the regular repre-
sentation of SU(6).
(15) Find the representations of Sp(8) contained in the regular repre-
sentation of SU(8).
(16) Investigate whether in the representation [2, 2, 2, 1] of SU(7) the
representations of SO(7)
µ = (2, 2, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0)
are contained. Are there any others?
(17) Obtain the representations of SO(7) contained in the representa-
tions [2, 2, 1, 1, 1] and [2, 2, 2] of SU(7).
(18) Find the irreducible representations of Sp(6) which are contained
in the representation
i) [2, 2, 1] of SU(6) and
ii) [2, 2, 1, 1] of SU(6).
(19) Find the representations D(J) contained in the representations [2, 2]
and [2, 1, 1] of SU(6) (j = 5/2).
(20) Find the representations D(J) contained in the representations
[2, 2, 1] and [2, 1, 1] of SU(8) (j = 7/2).
(21) Construct the irreducible representations:
i) D(1/2,1/2) of D2
ii) D(1/2,1/2,1/2) of D3 .

Chapter 9
Construction of Irreducible
Representations, Kronecker Products,
Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients
We have seen that if we have two irreducible representations ΓΛ1 and ΓΛ2
of a semisimple Lie algebra with maximum weights Λ1 and Λ2 respectively
the product ΓΛ1 ⊗ ΓΛ2 is also a representation of the algebra, which, in
general is reducible. It can however be written as
X ρ
ΓΛ1 ⊗ ΓΛ2 = ΓΛ
Λ,ρ
where ρ is an index, which is necessary whenever the representation Λ
appears more than once.
9.1 Specification of the irreducible representations
In the previous chapter we examined this problem in the case of simple

integral representations using the techniques of Young tableaux. In this
chapter we will examine the problem using the weights of the representa-
tions in terms of the basis vectors
|Λ(1) σ1 m(1) i|Λ(2) σ2 m(2) i
where m(i) are the wights appearing in the representation with highest
weight |Λ(i) and σ (i) , i = 1, 2 are indices specifying the weight m(i) , when
its multiplicity is greater than one.
The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients are generalizations of those discussed
in connection with the SU(2) (see section 2.6.1), i.e. they are matrices
describing the transformation:
hΛ(1) σ1 m(1) , Λ(2) σ2 m(2) |(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσmi,
i.e.
X
|(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσmiρ = hΛ(1) σ1 m(1) , Λ(2) σ2 m(2) |(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσmi
m1 ,m2 ,σ1 ,σ2
|hΛ(1) σ1 m(1) i|Λ(2) σ2 m(2) i (9.1)
235
X
|hΛ(1) σ1 m(1) |Λ(2) σ2 m(2) i = h(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσm|Λ(1) σ1 m(1) , Λ(2) σ2 m(2) i
Λρ
|(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσmiρ . (9.2)

The transformation matrix is specified as follows: λ and ρ, for a given m,
specify the columns. The quantum numbers σ1 , m1 and σ2 , m2 specify the
rows of the matrix, in a way consistent with σ, m, for given Λ1 , Λ2 . The
transformation is unitary. i.e. we have
X
h(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσm|Λ(1) σ1 m(1) Λ(1) σ2 m(2) i∗ρ
m1 ,σ1 ,m2 ,σ2
hΛ(1) σ1 m(1) , Λ(2) σ2 m(2) |(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λ0 σ 0 m0 iρ = δρρ0 δΛΛ0 δmm0 δσσ0
X
hΛ(1) σ1 m(1) , Λ(2) σ2 m(2) |(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσmi∗ρ
ρΛmσ
h(Λ(1) Λ(2) )Λσm|Λ0(1) σ10 m0(1) Λ0(2) σ20 m0(2) iρ

δΛ1 Λ01 δΛ2 Λ02 δm1 m01 δm2 m02 δσ1 σ10 δσ2 σ20 .
The above notation looks a bit complicated, some explanations are in order.
The quantum numbers Λ1 Λ2 Λ specify the representations, e.g. the maxi-
mum weights. m1 , m2 , m are the eigenvalues of the elements of the Abelian
algebra. These are additive quantum numbers, like the angular momentum
quantum number m of the rotation group. The quantum numbers σ1 , σ2 , σ
are additional labels needed to specify the states and are non-additive.
In the case of A1 the representation is specified by the highest weight
Λ = j and the magnetic quantum number m. No other labels are needed
to specify the (single particle) representation. The multiplicity is always
unity (ρ = 1).
In the case of A2 the representation is specified by two integers, e.g.
Λα1 , Λα2 in the Dynkin representation are often written as λ, µ. The states
are specified by the weights m1 , m2 . We have seen, however, that the states
are not uniquely specified in this way. Even in the simple regular represen-
tation (1, 1) the weight (0, 0) appears more than once. In particle physics we
have seen that an extra label σ is adequate. In other applications, e.g., this
procedure is not satisfactory. The three needed quantum numbers are cho-
sen by considering a subalgebra. The common case is to consider A2 ⊂ A1 .
Then the needed quantum numbers are selected to be the eigenvalues of
three commuting operators which are chosen to be H1 , H2 , the traceless
combination of the Abelian elements, and the Casimir operator C2 of its
subalgebra A1 , whose elements are E11 − E22 , E12 , E21 , namely:
Construction of Irreducible Representations 237
• In particle physics
1 1
C2 , H1 = (E11 − E22 ), Y = H2 = (E11 + E22 − 2E33 )
2 3
with eigenvalues I(I + 1), I3 and Y . In other words the represen-
tation is specified by the three numbers I, I0 , Y (Y is often called
hypercharge).
• In nuclear physics
1
C2 , H 1 = (E11 − E22 ), Q0 = −3H2 = 2E33 − E11 − E22
2
with eigenvalues Λ(Λ + 1), Λ0 and , i.e. the representation is spec-
ified by the three numbers Λ, Λ0 , . These are specified as follows
1
= 2λ + µ − 3(p + q), Λ = (µ + p − q), Λ3 = Λ − r,
2
p = 0, 1, · · · , λ, q = 0, 1, · · · , µ, r = 0, 1, · · · , 2Λ.
This is an interesting construction1 , using the Young tableaux discussed in
the previous chapter, but we are not going to elaborate further.
The chain A2 ⊃ B1 is also interesting, but a bit more complicated. It is
extremely hard to find an operator commuting with the angular momentum
operators L2 and m. A solution has, however, been found, using appropriate
projection techniques [Vergados (1968)]. In the rest of this chapter we will
follow the procedure usually followed in particle physics using the weights in
the Dynkin representation. Then what is needed is to evaluate the matrix
elements of the operators Ea(i) and E−a(i) associated with the simple roots
a(i) , roots of the algebra in the Dynkin representation.
9.2 Weights in the Kronecker product
The additive quantum numbers obey an equation, which is a generalization

of the known relation of angular momentum:
m1 + m2 = m
taking into account that the weights are n-tuples, i.e. we have:
(1) (2)
mi + mi = mi , i = 1, 2, · · · , `. (9.3)
Suppose that ΓΛ1 and ΓΛ2 are two representations of a semisimple Lie al-
(i) (j)
gebra with weights aα and bβ , with α, β = 1, 2, · · · , ` and i, 1, 2, dim(Γi )
1 See, e.g., [de Swart (1963)], [Elliott and Hurvey (1963)], [Hecht (1965)].
j, 1, 2, dim(Γj ). The product ΓΛ1 ⊗ ΓΛ2 is also a representation of the al-

gebra, which, in general is reducible. It can, however, be written as
X
ΓΛ1 ⊗ ΓΛ2 = ΓΛ .
Λ,ρ
(i) (j)
The weights of ΓΛ are of the form aα + bβ .
The maximum weight Λ of ΓΛ
is that which makes the (R̃.a + b ) maximum, with R̃α = 2 j (A−1 )jα
(i) (j)
P
and A the Cartan matrix (see section 7.8).

Suppose we find Λ, which we know is simple, then we find all weights
that go with this and take them out of the set of weighs. We consider now
the set of the remaining weights and repeat the procedure till no wights are
left. This procedure is straightforward with the aid of modern computers.
Some tricks are often useful. The maximum weight is simply found from
the maximum weights of Γ1 and Γ2 , Λ = Λ(1) + Λ(2) . To proceed further we
P
find the smaller number of Dynkin roots αi so that the quantity α = i αi
contains a nonzero element from Λ(1) and Λ(2) . Then the next maximum
weight is Λ0 = Λ = α.
As an illustration consider the spinorial representations of D5

1 1 1 1 1
Γ(1) = 16 = , , , , = (0, 0, 0, 0, 1),
2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1
Γ(2) = 16∗ = , , , ,− = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0).
2 2 2 2 2
Then
Λ = Λ(1) + Λ(2) = (0, 0, 0, 1, 1).
We now notice that
α = α3 + α4 + α5 = (0, −1, 0, 1, 1)
contains nonzero components of Λ(1) and Λ(2) . So the next weight is
Λ0 = Λ − α = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0).
We know that dim(ΓΛ ) = 210, dim(ΓΛ0 ) = 45. Thus
16 × 16 = 210 + 45 + N 00 ⇒ N 00 = 1 ⇒ (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) × (0, 0, 0, 1, 0)
= (0, 0, 0, 1, 1) ⊕ (0, 1, 0, 0, 0) ⊕ (0, 0, 0, 0, 0) = 210 ⊕ 45 ⊕ 1.
Let us now consider the case of Γ(1) and Γ(2) = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0) = 10. Obvi-
ously their product has to contain spinorial representations. The maximum
weight is Λ = (3/2, 1/2, 1/2, 1/2, 1/2) with dimension dim(Γ) = 144. The
only low lying spinorial representations are the 16 and 16∗ . Thus
16 ⊗ 10 = 16 ⊕ 144.
A fancier example is the reduction of the product of 27 ⇔ (1, 0, 0, 0, 0)

and 78 ⇔ (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) of E6 , namely:
X
(1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) ⊗ (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) = ΓΛ .
One representation ΓΛ corresponds to the sum of the two maximum weights
with maximum weight Λ = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) ⇔ 1728 (see section 8.15.2). One
finds:
α = α1 + α2 + α3 + α5 = (1, 0, 0, −1, 0, 1),
which contains components of each of the given weights. Thus:
Λ0 = Λ − α = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0) ⇔ 351.
00
What is left is N = 27. Thus
27 ⊗ 78 = 1728 ⊕ 351 ⊕ 27.
At this point we should summarize some important rules:
(1) Always apply the dimensional rule:
X
dim(ΓΛ1 ) × dim(ΓΛ2 ) = g(ΓΛ )dim(ΓΛ )
where g(ΓΛ ) is the multiplicity of ΓΛ .
(2) Exploit symmetries involving the adjoined, e.g.
∗
ΓΛ1 ⊗ ΓΛ ⊃ ΓΛ2
ΓΛ1 ⊗ ΓΛ2 ⊃ ΓΛ ⇒
ΓΛ∗2 ⊗ ΓΛ ⊃ ΓΛ1 .
(3) Since ΓΛ ⊗Γ∗Λ is self adjoined, the product should always contain the
1 and the regular representation. Furthermore, if a representation
appears in the product, its adjoined should also appear.
(4) The previous holds in the case ΓΛ ⊗ ΓΛ if ΓΛ is self-adjoined.
(5) For B` and D` the product of two spinorial representations contains
only integral representations and the product of one spinorial and
one integral contains only spinorial representations.
(6) If ΓΛ1 is real2 and ΓΛ2 is complex, all representations in the product
are complex.
(7) If ΓΛ1 and ΓΛ2 are real and the product contains ΓΛ it must also
contain Γ∗Λ .
The dimensionality rule is often useful not only as a check after one finishes
the reduction. Consider for example the (01) ⇔ 7 of G2 . The maximum
weight in the product is (02) ⇔ 27. Clearly N 00 = 49 − 27 = 22. Since the
lowest dimensions of G2 are dim(Γ) =14, 7 and 1 we arrive at the unique
solution:
(01) ⊗ (01) → (02) ⊕ (10) ⊕ (01) ⊕ (00)
7 7 27 14 7 1
2 In the case of B` and D` a self adjoined representation is called pseudo-real.
9.3 The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients in the Dynkin

representation
This approach has the advantage that one needs not worry about consider-
ing the chain of subalgebras. The disadvantage is that one must cope with
the problem of multiplicities. The real problem is that the transformation
matrices do not factorize and they are become quite large. Suppose that
we consider a state |mi with weight m of a representation with maximum
weight Λ. Then we consider the lowering operator E−α associated with the
positive root α. As we have seen in section 7.7
E−α |mi = N (Λ, −α, m)|mi, N (Λ, −α, m)

r
2 1
= |hm|E−α |m + αi| + hα|αiΛα . (9.4)
2
We can now construct the C-G coefficients in some simple cases:
9.3.1 Examples of C-G coefficients in A2
Example 1: The reduction of (1, 0) ⊗ (2, 0) → (3, 0) ⊕ (1, 1) of the algebra

A2 . We need the matrix elements of E−α acting on all the states involved.
Those for (1, 0), (2, 0) and (1, 1) have been obtained in section 7.3.3, while
those corresponding to (3, 0) are shown in Table 9.1. Since the maximum
weight is unique we write
|(3, 0)(3, 0)i = |(1, 0)(1, 0)i|(2, 0)(2, 0)i,
where the second set of parentheses indicates the weight and the first set
of parentheses the maximum weight, i.e. the representation. To simplify
the notation we write Ei = E−αi we omit the representation labels on the
right-hand side with the understanding that (1, 0) comes first. Thus, since
E1 |(3, 0)(3, 0)i = E1 (|(1, 0)i|(2, 0)i)

= E1 (|(1, 0)i)|(2, 0)i + |(1, 0)iE1 (|(2, 0)i),
we find
√ √
3|(3, 0)(1, 1)i = (−1, 1)i|(2, 0)i +
2(1, 0)i|(0, 1)i
√
1 2
⇒ |(3, 0)(1, 1)i = √ |(−1, 1)i|(2, 0)i + √ |(1, 0)i|(0, 1)i. (9.5)
3 3
This is the first relation. The sum of the weights on the left must also
occur in |(1, 1)(1, 1)i. Noting, however, that this state is an orthogonal
combination of the one we have obtained, we find:
√
2 1
|(1, 1)(1, 1)i = − √ |(−1, 1)i|(2, 0)i + √ |(1, 0)i|(0, 1)i (9.6)
3 3
with arbitrary choice of phase. Acting now on Eq. (9.5) we find:
1 √
2|(3, 0)(−1, 2)i = √ 0 + 2(−1, 1)i|(0, 1)i
3
√
2 √
+ √ (−1, 1)i|(2, 0) + 2(1, 0)i|(−2, 2)i
3
√
2 1
⇒ |(3, 0)(−1, 2)i = √ (−1, 1)i|(0, 1)i + √ (1, 0)i|(−2, 2)i. (9.7)
3 3
Proceeding as above we get the orthogonal combination:
√
1 2
|(1, 1)(−1, 2)i = − √ (−1, 1)i|(0, 1)i + √ (1, 0)i|(−2, 2)i. (9.8)
3 3
Acting now with the operator E2 on Eqs. (9.5) and (9.6) we find:
√
2 1
|(3, 0)(2, −1)i = √ (1, 0)i|(1, −1)i + √ (0, −1)i|(2, 0)i, (9.9)
3 3
√
1 2
|(1, 1)(2, −1)i = √ (1, 0)i|(1, −1)i − √ (0, −1)i|(2, 0)i. (9.10)
3 3
The weight (0, 0) of (3, 0) and (1, 1) can be obtained in two ways. Acting
with E1 on Eq. (9.9) we obtain:
√
√ 2
2|(3, 0)(0, 0)i1 = √ ((1, 0)i|(−1, 0)i + (−1, 1)i|(1, −1)i)
3
1 √
+√ 2(0, −1)(0, 1)
3
or
1
|(3, 0)(0, 0)i1 = √ (|(1, 0)i|(−1, −0)i + |(−1, 1)i|(1, −1)i
3
+ |(0, −1)i|(0, 1)i) , (9.11)
while acting with E2 on Eq. (9.7) we obtain:
√
√ 2
2|(3, 0)(0, 0)i2 = √ ((−1, 1)i|(1, −1)i + (0, −1)i|(0, 1)i)
3
1 √
+ √ 2(1, 0)(−1, 0)
3
1
⇒ |(3, 0)(0, 0)i2 = √ (|(1, 0)i|(−1, 0)i + |(−1, 1)i|(1, −1)i
3
+ |(0, −1)i|(0, 1)i) . (9.12)
It is not surprising that we get the same equation, since the weight (0, 0)
appears in (3, 0) only once. On the other hand, acting with E1 on Eq. (9.10)
we obtain
1
|(1, 1)(0, 0)i1 = √ (|(1, 0)i|(−1, −0)i + |(−1, 1)i|(1, −1))
6
2
− √ |(0, −1)i|(0, 1)i, (9.13)
6
while acting with E2 on Eq. (9.8) we obtain
2
|(1, 1)(0, 0)i02 = √ |(1, 0)i|(−1, −0)i
6
1
− √ (|(−1, 1)i|(1, −1)i + |(0, −1)i|(0, 1)i) . (9.14)
6
We are not surprised that the last two equations are different, since the
weight (0, 0) appears in (1, 1) twice. Unfortunately the two expressions do
not lead to orthogonal states. We can use the first to define the state with
weight (0, 0) and apply the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure to
obtain the other state. The result is quite simple:
1
|(1, 1)(0, 0)i2 = √ ((1, 0)i|(−1, −0)i − (−1, 1)i|(1, −1)) (9.15)
2
(arbitrary phase selection).
Having crossed the Rubicon of the multiplicity it is straightforward to
continue this procedure till all states are completed. We note, however, that
we have a symmetry under (m1 , m2 ) → (−m2 , m1 ) i.e. for (λ, µ) = (3, 0)
and (1, 1) we have
h(1, 0)(m1 , m2 ); (2, 0)(m01 , m02 )|(λ, µ)(m1 + m01 , m2 + m02 )i
= (−1)φ h(1, 0)(−m2 , −m1 ); (2, 0)(−m02 , −m01 )|(λ, µ)(−m2 −m02 , −m1 −m01 )i.
We thus proceed to construct the tables below.

We start with unique combinations m1 + m2 = (3, 0), maximum weight,

(0, −3), minimum weight and (3, −3) with the C-G coefficient being unity.
m1 + m2 =(3, 0) Λ m1 + m2 =(0, −3) Λ m1 + m2 =(−3, 3) Λ
m1 m2 (3, 0) m1 m2 (3, 0) m1 m2 (3, 0)
(1, 0) (2, 0) 1 (0, −1) (0, −2) 1 (−1, 1) (−2, 2) 1
(9.16)
Then construct the matrices corresponding to each of the other (m1 , m2 )
combinations:
m1 + m2 = (−1, 2) Λ Λ0 m1 + m2 = (−2, 1) Λ Λ0
q q
(1, 0) (−2, 2) √13 2
3 (0, −1) (−2, 2) √1 − 2
3 (9.17)
q q3
2 1 2 1
(−1, 1) (0, 1) 3 − 3 (−1, 1) (−1, 0) 3
√ √
3
m1 + m2 = (2, −1) Λ Λ0 m1 + m2 = (1, −2) Λ Λ0

m1 m2 (3, 0) (1, 1) m1 m2 (3, 0) (1, 1)
q q
(1, −1) 2 √1 −1) −1) 2 √1
(9.18)
(1, 0) 3 q3
(0, (1, 3 −q3
(0, −1) (2, 0) √13 − 23 (1, 0) (0, −2) √13 2
3
m1 + m2 = (1, 1) Λ Λ0 m1 + m2 = (−1, −1) Λ Λ0

m1 m2 (3, 0) (1, 1) m1 m2 (3, 0) (1, 1)
q q
2 1
−1) 2 √1
(9.19)
(1, 0) (0, 1) (0, (−1, 0) 3 −
√
3 q3 q3
(−1, 1) (2, 0) √13 − 23 (−1, 1) (0, −2) √13 2
3
m1 + m2 = (0, 0) Λ Λ0 Λ00
m1 m2 (3, 0) (1, 1)1 (1, 1)2
q
1 √1 √1
(1, 0) (−1, 0) 6 (9.20)
q6 6
(−1, 1) (1, −1) √13 − 13 √12
q
(0, −1) (0, 1) √13 − 23 0
9.3.2 Example of C-G coefficients in the case of the algebra

D5
Example 2: We have already studied the reduction of
16 ⊗ 16∗ → 210 ⊕ 45 ⊕ 1
(see section 9.2). Now we will try to evaluate the C-G involved. We must,
of course, know the matrix elements of the operators Ei = E−αi . They
can be read off from the Cartan matrix of D5 (see section 6.3.4). Since the
highest weight of 210 is simple we find that:
|(00011)i = |(00010)i|(00001)i. (9.21)
We can act on this equation with the operators E4 and E5 . Since these
operators give a non-vanishing contribution on only one of the states of the
product, after their acting on Eq. (9.21) we get the rather trivial result:
E4 : |(0, 0, 1, −1, 1)i = |(0, 0, −1m0)i|(00001)i (9.22)
E5 : |(0, 0, 1, −1, 1)i = |(00010)i|(001, 0, −1)i. (9.23)
We can now act on Eq. (9.22) with E3 and E5 to get:
E3 : |(0, 1, −1, 0, 1)i = |(0, 1, −1, 0, 0)i|(00001)i (9.24)
E5 : |(002, −10, −1)i = |(0, 0, 1, −1, 0)i|(0, 0, 1, 0, −1)i. (9.25)
We can also act on Eq. (9.23) with E3 and E4 to get:
E3 : |(0, 1, −1, 2, 0)i = |(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i (9.26)
E4 : |(0, 0, 2, −1, −1)i = |(0, 0, 1, −1, 0)i|(0, 0, 1, 0, −1)i. (9.27)
We can now act on Eq. (9.24) with E2 and E5 to get:
E2 : |(1, −1, 0, 2, 0)i = |(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)i|(1, −1, 0, 1, 0)i (9.28)
E5 : |(0, 1, 0, 0, −1)i = |(0, 1, −1, 0, 0)i|(0, 0, 1, 0, −1)i. (9.29)

√
Acting on the state shown in Eq. (9.27) with E3 we find 2|(0, 1, 0, 0, 0)i =
1|(0, 1, −1, 0, 0)i|(0, 0, 1, 0, −1)i + 1|(0, 0, 1, −1, 0)i|(0, 1, −2, 1, 0)i, i.e.
1
|(0, 1, 0, 0, 0)i = √ |(0, 1, −1, 0, 0)i|(0, 0, 1, 0, −1)i
2
1
+ √ |(0, 0, 1, −1, 0)i|(0, 1, −2, 1, 0)i. (9.30)
2
Acting once more with E3 we get:
|(0, 2, −2, 1, 1)i = |(0, 1, −1, 0, 1)i|(0, 0, 1, 0, −1)i. (9.31)
With the action of E2 on the state of Eq. (9.26) we get:
|(1, −1, 0, 2, 0)i = |(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i. (9.32)

√
Acting on the same equation with E4 we get 2|(0, 1, 0, 0, 0)i =
1 |(0, 0, −1, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i + 1 |(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, 0, −1, 0)i or
1
210 ⇔ |(0, 1, 0, 0, 0)i = √ (|(0, 0, −1, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i
2
+ |(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, 0, −1, 0)) . (9.33)
Acting on it with the same operator once more we get:
|(0, 1, 1, −2, 0)i = |(0, 0, 1, −1, 0)i|(0, 1, 0, −1, 0)i. (9.34)
The operator E3 acting on Eq. (9.27), yields nothing√new √ (yields Eq. (9.33)).
Acting, however, with E3 once more it yields 2 2|(0, 2, −2, 1, 1)i =
|(0, 1, −1, 0, 1)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i + |(0, 1, −1, 0, 1)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i or
|(0, 2, −2, 1, 1)i = |(0, 1, −1, 0, 1)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, 0, 0, 0)i (9.35)
at this point we observe that the weight (0,1,0,0,0) also appears in 210. So
we construct a state orthogonal to that of Eq. (9.33), yielding:
1
45 ⇔ |(0, 1, 0, 0, 0)i = √ (0, 0, −1, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, −1, 1, 0)i
2
1
− √ |(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)i|(0, 1, 0, −1, 0). (9.36)
2
This serves as a starting point to begin constructing C-G involving 45.
One can thus continue to complete all C-G coefficients. The algorithm
is quite simple. The hurdle occurs when we reach the weight (00000) which
appears in all three representations (10 times in 210, 5 times in 45 and
once in 1. Now we have to diagonalize a 16 × 16 matrix. The labels
of the matrix are as follows: the lines by the 16 weights of the initial
representations 16(n)16∗ (−n), n = 1, 2, · · · , 16, while the columns by the
multiplicity of occurrence of |210iρ1 , ρ1 = 1, 2, · · · , 10, the multiplicity
|45iρ2 , ρ2 = 1, 2, · · · , 5 and |1. Such a program has been published, see,
e.g., [Patera (1970)], [Koh et al. (1984)], [Horst and Reuter (2011)]. For
the case of D5 in particular see [Papantonopoulos (1984)].
The matrix can be substantially reduced if one uses the states specified
by a proper chain of subgroups. We are not going to do it here, but we will
display the method using the simpler algebra A2 .
9.4 Weights versus quantum numbers associated with a

complete chain of subgroups — The A2 ⊃ A1
example
The above algorithm is quite simple, modulo the degeneracy problem, but
the dimensions of the matrices can get quite large if more complicated rep-
resentations are needed. So as we have mentioned this problem is resolved
if the convenient chain of subgroups is used. We are not going to discuss

the general case but we will illustrate it in the case of A2 ⊃ A1 . The group
SU(2) provides the extra quantum numbers I, I3 (see section 9.1). Recalling
that in the weight (m1 , m2 ) m1 is the eigenvalue of h1 = e11 − e22 while m2
is the eigenvalue of h2 = e22 −e33 , and is the eigenvalue of 2e33 −e22 −e11 ,
we find that m1 = 2I3 and m2 = − 21 ( + 2I3 ). Thus we have
(1, 0)(1, 0) ⇔ (1, 0) = −1, I = 1/2, I3 = 1/2;
(1, 0)(−1, 1) ⇔ (1, 0) = −1, I = 1/2, I3 = −1/2;
(1, 0)(0, −1) ⇔ (1, 0) = 2, I = 0, I3 = 0.
1 1
(2, 0)(0, 2) ⇔ (2, 0)4, 0, 0; (2, 0)(1, −1) ⇔ (2, 0)1, , ;
2 2
1 1
(2, 0)(−1, 0) ⇔ (2, 0)1, , − ; (2, 0)(2, 0) ⇔ (2, 0) − 2, 1, 1;
2 2
(2, 0)(0, 1) ⇔ (2, 0) − 2, 1, 0; (2, 0)(−2, 2) ⇔ (2, 0) − 2, 1, −1.
Where the set of 3 labels outside the parenthesis corresponds to , I, I3 .
Similarly in the case of (3, 0) and (1, 1) we have
(3, 0)(0, 0)⇔(3, 0)0, 1, 0; (1, 1)(0, 0)1 ⇔(3, 0)0, 1, 0; (1, 1)(0, 0)2 ⇔(3, 0)0, 0, 0
(for the rest of the correspondence see Tables 9.1 and 9.2). Note that now
the degeneracy of (0, 0) on the case of (1, 1) has been removed. Using these
results the last matrix of the example 1 (Eq. (9.20)) can be written as:
(λ, µ)I, I3
(1, 0)I, I3 (20)I, I3 (30)1, 0 (1, 1)1, 0 (1, 1)0, 0
1 1 1 1 √1 √1 √1
2, 2 2, −2 3 6 2
1 1 1 1 √1 √1
2, −2 2, 2 3 6
− √12
√
0, 0 1, 0 √1
3
− √23 0
The SU(2) part of the last relationship is

I, I3
I, I3 I, I3 1, 0 1, 0
1 1 1 1 √1 √1
2, 2 2, −2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
2, −2 2, 2
√
2
− √12
Define now the reduced matrix element

√ √
1 1 h(10) 12 21 (20) 12 − 21 |(3, 0)1, 0i 1/ 3 2
h(10) (20) ||(30)1i = 1 1 1 1 = √ =√ .
2 2 h 2 2 2 − 2 |1, 0i 1/ 2 3
Similarly
√
1 1 h(10) 12 12 (20) 21 − 12 |(1, 1)1, 0i 1/ 6 1
h(10) (20) ||(11)1i = = √ =√
2 2 h 12 21 21 − 12 |1, 0i 1/ 2 3
11 1 1
√
1 1 h(10) 2 2 (20) 2 − 2 |(1, 1)0, 0i 1/ 2
h(10) (20) ||(11)0i = =− √ = 1.
2 2 h 12 21 12 − 21 |0, 0i −1/ 2
Thus we get the two sub-matrices
(10) ⊗ (20) (3,√0)1 (1, 1)1
1 1 √2 √1
(10) ⊗ (20) (1, 1)0
2 2 3 3
√
, 1 1
2 2 1
0 1 √1 − √2
3 3
The benefit of factorization does not look impressive for these simple rep-
resentations. It becomes, enormous, however, for complicated representa-
tions.
The reader should verify that the above transformation coefficients are a
special case, for λ = 1, µ = 0), of the general formulas [Hecht (1965)]. They
can also be obtained from the results [Vergados (1968)] exhibited in Table
9.3. From Table 9.3 we can obtain the C-G SU(3) coefficients involving the
two most important representations, namely the regular 8 = (1, 1) and the
fundamental 3 = (1, 0). Thus
1 1 1 1
h(1, 1)3, , (1, 0)2, 0|(2, 1)5, i = 1, h(1, 1)−3, , (1, 0)−1, |(0, 2)−4, 0i = 1
2 2 2 2
1 3
h(1, 1)0, 1, (1, 0) − 1, |(2, 1) − 1, i = 1, 1i = 1,
2 2
1 1
h(1, 1) − 3, , (1, 0) − 1, |(2, 1) − 4
2 2
(, Λ) = (2, 1) (, Λ) = (2, 0)
(1, 1) × (1, 0) (21) (02) (1, 1) × (1, 0) (21) (1, 0)
1 , Λ1 2 , Λ2 , 1 , Λ1 2 , Λ2 √
0, 1 2, 0 √1 − √12 0, 1 2, 0 3 1
2 2 √2
0, 21 −1, 21 √1
2
√1
2 0, 21
−1, 12 − 21 2
3
(, Λ) = (−1, 21 )
(1, 1) × (1, 0) (21) (02) (1, 0)
1 , Λ1 2 , Λ 2 √ √
−3, 21 2, 0 √3 − 21 √3
2 2 √ 2 2
0, 1 −1, 21 − 41 √3 3
2√ 2 4
0, 0 −1, 21 3 √3 − 41
4 2 2
Table 9.1: The SU(3) ⊃ SU(2) × U(1) reduction of the weights of (3, 0) and
(1, 1) representations of SU(3).
m I I3 Y = − 13 Λ
(3,0) 3/2 3/2 1 (3,0)
(1,1) 3/2 1/2 1 (3,0),(1,1)
(−1, 2) 3/2 −1/2 1 (3,0),(1,1)
(−3, 3) 3/2 −1/2 1 (3,0),(1,1)
(2, −1) 1 1 0 (3,0),(1,1)
(0, 0)1 1 0 (3,0),(1,1)
(−2, 1) 1 −1 0 (3,0),(1,1)
(0, 0)2 0 0 (1,1)
(1, −2) 1/2 1/2 −1 (3,0),(1,1)
(−1, −1) 1/2 −1/2 −1 (3,0),(1,1)
(0, −3) 0 2 (3,0)
Table 9.2: The SU(3) ⊃ SU(2) × U(1) reduction of the weights of (1, 0),
(2, 0) representations of SU(3).
m I I3 Y = − 13 Λ
(2,0) 1 1 2/3 (2,0)
(0,1) 1 0 2/3 (2,0)
(−2, 2) 1 −1 2/3 (2,0)
(1, −1) 1/2 1/2 1/3 (2,0)
(−1, 0) 1/2 −1/2 1/3 (2,0)
(0, −2) 0 0 −1/3 (2,0)
(1,0) 1/2 1/2 1/3 (1,0)
(−1, 1) 1/2 −1/2 1/3 (1,0)
(0, −1) 0 0 −1/3 (1,0)
Construction of Irreducible Representations
Table 9.3: The Clebsch-Gordan SU(3) coefficients (λ, µ) × (1, 0) → (λ0 , µ0 ). Here = 2λ0 + µ0 − 3(p + q),
Λ = 21 (µ0 + p − q).
2 , Λ2 (λ0 , µ0 ) = (λ + 1, µ) (λ0 , µ0 ) = (λ, µ − 1) (λ0 , µ0 ) = (λ − 1, µ + 1)
Λ1
q q q
(−p+λ+1)(−q+λ+µ+2) (q+1)(p+µ+1) (p+1)(−q+µ+1)
2, 0 (λ+1)(λ+µ+2) (µ+1)(λ+µ+2)
− (λ+1)(µ+1)
Λ
q q q
q(−p+λ+1)(−q+µ+1) (p+µ+1)(µ−q)(−q+λ+µ+1) (p+1)q(−q+λ+µ+2)
4 − 1, 12 − (λ+1)(p−q+µ+1)(λ+µ+2) (µ+1)(p−q+µ)(λ+µ+2) (λ+1)(µ+1)(p−q+µ+2)
Λ − 21
q q q
p(p+µ+1)(−q+λ+µ+2) p(q+1)(−p+λ+1) (λ−p)(p+µ+2)(−q+µ+1)
−1, 12 (λ+1)(p−q+µ+1)(λ+µ+2)
− (µ+1)(p−q+µ)(λ+µ+2) (λ+1)(µ+1)(p−q+µ+2)
Λ + 21
249

Chapter 10
Some Non-Compact Algebras and

Applications
In this chapter we are going to discuss briefly the three common non-
compact Lie groups, namely SO(2, 1), the special linear group SL(2, c) and
the Lorentz group SO(3, 1).
10.1 The algebra of the SO(2, 1) symmetry
Let us consider the generators of the algebra SO(2, 1):

1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
J1 ≡ J01 = x0 + x1 , J2 ≡ J02 = x0 + x2 ,
i ∂x1 ∂x0 i ∂x2 ∂x0

1 ∂ ∂
J3 ≡ J12 = x1 − x2 . (10.1)
i ∂x2 ∂x1
One can verify that these operators satisfy the commutation rules:
[J1 , J2 ] = −iJ3 , [J2 , J3 ] = iJ1 , [J3 , J1 ] = iJ2 . (10.2)
They resemble the commutations of the SO(3), except for one sign. The
corresponding group elements are:
 
  cosh η 0 sinh η  
cosh ξ sinh ξ 0  0 1 0  1 0 0
Λ01 =sinh ξ cosh ξ 0  , Λ02 =
sinh η 0 cosh η  , Λ12 = 0 cos θ sin θ .
  
0 0 1 0 − sin θ cos θ
0 0 1
(10.3)
The last is a bona fide rotation, the other two are “pseudo-rotations”.
The first two are not bounded. The above operators leave invariant the
expression:
x23 − x21 − x22 = invariant. (10.4)
251
The metric tensor is

   1 
−2 0 0 −2 0 0
gµ,ν =  0 −2 0  , g µ,ν =  0 − 12 0  .
0 0 2 0 0 21
One can show that the Casimir operator, which commutes with all three is:
J 2 ≡ J12 + J22 − J32 .
One can also define:
J+ = iJ1 − J2 , J− = iJ1 + J2 , J0 = J3 ,
with commutation rules:
[J0 , J+ ] = J+ , [J0 , J− ] = −J− , [J+ , J− ] = 2J0 . (10.5)
The same with SO(3) but for unitary representations:
J1+ = J1 , J2+ = J2 , J3+ = J3 , while (J+ )+ = −J− , (J− )+ = −J+ .
Then one can show that:
1
J+ J− = −(J12 +J22 )+J0 , J− J+ = −(J12 +J22 )−J0 , (J+ J− +J− J+ )−J02 = J 2 .
2
Since J 2 and J0 commute, they can be simultaneously diagonalized. Let
us suppose that we have a unitary representation defined by a state |α, mi
such that:
J 2 |α, mi = α|α, mi, J3 |α, mi = m|α, mi, 2m = integer. (10.6)
If, then, the representation is unitary, for the state ψ = J+ |α, mi we should
get:
0 ≤ hψ|ψi = −hα, m|JJ + |α, mi = α + m(m + 1), (10.7)
which leads to the condition:
1 1
α + m(m + 1) ≥ 0 or α − + (m + )2 ≥ 0. (10.8)
4 2
In analogous fashion, considering the state ψ = J− |α, mi, we come to the
conclusion:
1 1
α + m(m − 1) ≥ 0 or α − + (m − )2 ≥ 0. (10.9)
4 2
Thus
α ≥ −m(m ± 1) (10.10)
and
α ≥ −m(m − 1), for m > 0, α ≥ −m(m + 1), for m < 0.
We now distinguish the cases:
Some Non-Compact Algebras and Applications 253
i) α is a continuous variable. Then

1
(1) 4 < α. Then the above condition is satisfied for all m

m= 0, ±1, , ±2, · · ·
(10.11)
m = ±1/2, ±3/2, ±5/2, · · ·
(2) α = 0. Then the values |m| = 0, 1/2 are excluded.

(3) 0 < α < 41 . Then the conditions (10.8) and (10.9) impose the
constraint
1 √
|m| < 1 + 1 − 4α . (10.12)
2
ii) α is a discrete variable.
In this case, since Eqs. (10.5) are exactly the same with those of
SO(3), we find again that:
J0 |α, mi = m|α, mi ⇒ J0 J+ |α, mi = (m + 1)J+ |α, mi.
Since, however, the group is non-compact the unitary representa-

tions are not finite dimensional, i.e. there is neither a lower nor an
upper bound in the values of m. But the bound of Eq. (10.10) still
√
applies. This means that |m|min ≤ 12 (1 + 1 − 4α). The bound,
however, must be discrete, i.e.
(1 − 4α) = (2k − 1)2 , 2k = integer ⇒ α = k(1 − k) ⇒ |m| ≤ k.
From this we conclude that we have two sets of m:
m > k or m < −k.
Thus we have two classes D(−k) and D(+k) as follows:

1 3
D(+k) ⇔ k = , 1, , · · · ; m = k, k + 1, k + 2, · · · (10.13)
2 2
1 3
D(−k) ⇔ k = , 1, , · · · ; m = −k, −(k + 1), −(k + 2), · · ·
2 2
(10.14)
The unitary representations are not finite dimensional since the
group is not compact. This is indicated in Fig. 10.1.
k
4
D(–k) D(+k)
3
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 m
Fig. 10.1: The values of m are represented on the x-axis and the values of
k on the y-axis. Both half integral (large balls) and integral (small balls)
are encountered. One can see that the range of values of k associated with
a given m is increasing as the absolute value of m increases. The figure is
extended to infinity both to the left and to the right.
10.2 Solving differential equations using the SO(2, 1)

algebra
Our goal is to simply obtain solutions to the differential equation (DE):

2
d a 2
+ + bξ + c ψ(ξ) = 0 (10.15)
dξ 2 ξ2
We will rewrite this equation in terms of the above operators. To this end
a useful representation of the above operators is as follows:
∂2 a ξ2 ∂2 a ξ2

i ∂ 1 2 1 1
J1 = 2 + 2 + , J3 = 2 + 2 − , J2 = ξ + ,J = a+ .
∂ξ ξ 16 ∂ξ ξ 16 2 ∂ξ 2 4 4
The parameter a can be expressed in terms of the Casimir operator as
follows:
3
a = 4J 2 − .
4
Furthermore with the aid of the above operators the DE (10.15) can be
written as:

1 1
+ 8b J1 + − 8b J3 + c ψ = 0. (10.16)
2 2
We demand, of course, that the solution satisfies the equation:

2 1 3
J ψ= a+ ψ (10.17)
4 4
Eq. (10.16) does not have the form of an eigenvalue equation since it con-
tains more than one operator, namely J1 and J3 . Some more work is needed
to eliminate the operator J1 . To this end we consider the transformation:
ψ̃ = e−iθJ2 ψ.
Then acting on Eq. (10.16) with the operator e−iθJ2 we obtain:

1 1
+ 8b e−iθJ2 J1 eiθJ2 + − 8b e−iθJ2 J3 eiθJ2 + c ψ̃ = 0. (10.18)
2 2
After some algebraic manipulations one finds:
e−iθJ2 J1 eiθJ2 = cosh θ J1 + sinh θ J3 , e−iθJ2 J3 eiθJ2 = sinh θ J1 + cosh θ J3 .
Thus Eq. (10.18) can be rewritten as:

1 1
cosh θ + 8b + sinh θ − 8b J1
2 2

1 1
+ sinh θ + 8b + cosh θ − 8b J3 + c ψ̃ = 0. (10.19)
2 2
We now distinguish two cases:
i) b < 0.
In this case we select the angle θ such as:
1/2 + 8b 1
tanh θ = − ⇒ cosh θ = − √ ,
1/2 − 8b 1 − tan2 θ
in which case, after some algebra, we obtain:
c
J3 ψ̃ = √ ψ̃. (10.20)
4 −b
We now recall that the operator J3 is compact so that its eigenval-
ues are discrete, say m = an integer. We have seen above, however,
that its eigenvalues are:
r !
1 1
k + n, n = 0, 1, 2, · · · , k = 1+ −a .
2 4
Combining this with Eq. (10.20) we find that these are integers
only if:
r !
c 1 1
√ − 1+ − a = n non-negative integer. (10.21)
4 −b 2 4
ii) b > 0.
Now we choose:
1/2 − 8b
tanh θ = − ,
1/2 + 8b
in which case we obtain:
c
J1 ψ̃ = √ ψ̃. (10.22)
4 b
In this case the spectrum is continuous. It is not of interest to us
and we are not going to elaborate further on this case.
10.3 Application to the solution of linear second order

differential equations
We will consider a number of radial equations of quantum mechanics, i.e.

equations of the form:

1 d 2 dR 2m `(` + 10)
r + (E − V (r)) − R = 0, ` = non-negative integer.
r2 dr dr ~2 r2
(10.23)
10.3.1 The quantum harmonic oscillator

Now V (r) = kr2 . So the radial equation now takes the form:

1 d 2 dR 2m 2 `(` + 10)
r + (E−kr ) − R=0, `=non-negative integer, k > 0.
r2 dr dr ~2 r2
(10.24)
We find it convenient to go to dimensionless variables writing:
r r
k ~
~ω = , r = αξ, α = , R(r) = u(ξ)
m mω
introducing the additional transformation ξu(ξ) = ψ(ξ) we get:
d2 ψ

2E 2 `(` + 1)
+ − ξ − ψ. (10.25)
dξ 2 ~ω ξ2
This is of the desired form with a = −`(` + 1), b = −1 and 2E/(~ω). With
these values Eq. (10.21) yields:
p !
1 2E 1 1 + 4`(` + 1)
− =n (10.26)
4 ~ω 2 2
which leads to the quantization condition

3
En` = ~ω N + N = (2n + `). (10.27)
2
Had we introduced a perturbation:
a 2 V0
Vper = V0 = 2, = → a = −`(` + 1) −
r ξ ~ω
we would find:
s ! s !
1 1
En,` = 2n + ` + `+ + ~ω = N + `+ + ~ω.
2 2
(10.28)
The degeneracy is now removed by the perturbation.
10.3.2 The hydrogenic wave functions in three dimensions

Now
e2 Z ~c e2
V (r) = − = αZ , α = . (10.29)
r r ~c
In this case Eq. (10.23) yields

1 d 2 d t s
x + + + υ u(x) = 0, (10.30)
x2 dx dx x x2
with
~ 2E
x= , s = −`(` + 1), t = −2αZ, υ = .
amc mc2
Now, by setting in Eq. (10.21) the values:
3
a = 4s − , b = 4υ, c = 4t,
4
we find:
−1/2 ( 1/2 )
1 1 −8E 1 1 3
n = (−)8αZ − 1+ + 4`(` + 1) + .
4 4 mc2 2 4 4
(10.31)
Then solving this equation for E we obtain:
1 1
En,` = − (αZ)2 mc2 . (10.32)
2 (n + ` + 1)2
Observing that the energy depends on the combination ñ = n + `, we may
write:
1 mc2
Eñ = − (αZ)2 2 . (10.33)
2 ñ
10.3.3 The hydrogenic wave functions in two dimensions

The only difference with the 3-dimensional case involves the operator ∇2 .
Here
1 d d 1 d2 1 d d −m2
∇2 = r + 2 2 ⇒ ∇2 = r + 2 .
r dr dr r dφ r dr dr r
Thus proceeding as in the previous case we get

1 d d t s ~ 2E
x + + 2 + υ u(x)=0, x= , s = −m2 , t = −2αZ, υ = .
x dx dx x x amc mc2
(10.34)
Making the transformation x = ξ 2 we arrive at the equation:
2
d 4s + 1/4 2
+ + 4υ + 4t ψ(ξ) = 0, (10.35)
dx2 ξ2
i.e.
1
a = 4s + , b = 4υ, c = 4t.
4
Thus we get:
−1/2 ( 1/2 )
1 1 −8E 1 1 4
n = (−)8αZ − 1+ + 4m2 − . (10.36)
4 4 mc2 2 4 4
Thus the only difference is 2` + 1 → 2|m|. In other words, now:
1 mc2 1
Eñ = − (αZ)2 2 , ñ = n + |m| + . (10.37)
2 ñ 2
10.3.4 The Klein-Gordon equation

Now we have:
3
s = −`(` + 1) + (αZ)2 − ,
4
i.e.
 s 
E 2
1 8αZ mc 2 1 1
(−) r − 2 1+2 `+ − (αZ)2  = n.
4 E2 2
4 4 1− (mc2 )2
Thus
( −1/2 )
2 (αZ)2
En,` = mc 1+ 2 −1 ,
gK−G (n, `)
s 2
1 1
gK−G (n, `) = n + `+ − (αZ)2 . (10.38)
2 2
10.3.5 The Dirac equation

In this case:
3
a = −4Γ(Γ − 1) − ,
4
!
E
r
1 8αZ mc 2 1 1 3
4
(−) r − 2 1 + 4 + 4Γ(Γ − 1) + 4 = n.
E2
4 4 1 − (mc 2 )2
Thus
 !−1/2  s
2
2
 (αZ)  1
En,j = mc2 1+ 2 −1 , Γ= j+ − (αZ)2
 (n + Γ)  2
or finally
 −1/2 

 

 
2
 
2
 (αZ)  
En,j = mc 1 + − 1 . (10.39)
 
q 2 
1 2
   


 n+ j + 2 − (αZ)2 


 
10.3.6 Wave functions with the Morse potential

In this case:

1 1 E
a= = 2 8 2
4 τ mc
that is:
−1/2 " −1/2 #
D 8D 1 2E
4 2 − 1+2 = n.
τ τ2 2 mc2
This leads to the solution
r √ √
2E 2D 1 2D 1
= − n+ , − n+ ≥ 0.
mc2 τ 12 τ 12
Thus the energy takes values
√ !2 √
1 2 2D 1 2D 1
En = mc − n+ , n = 0, 1, · · ·, nmax , nmax = − .
2 τ 2 τ 2
(10.40)
It is clear that there are no solutions for
√
2D 1
< .
τ 2
10.4 The group SL(2, c)
This is the set of 2 × 2 matrices with determinant one defined over the field
of complex numbers:

ab
G= , ab − cd = 1. (10.41)
cd
Consider now the matrix

x0 + x3 x1 + ix2
X= , det(X) = x20 − x21 − x22 − x23 . (10.42)
x1 − ix2 x0 − x3
The group G leaves this invariant, i.e.
0
x0 + x03 x01 + ix02
∗ ∗
ab x0 + x3 x1 + ix2 a c
= (10.43)
x01 − ix02 x00 − x03 cd x1 − ix2 x0 − x3 b∗ d∗
⇒ (x00 )2 − (x01 )2 − (x02 )2 − (x03 )2 = x20 − x21 − x22 − x23 .

This is precisely what the Lorentz transformation does. In other words
solving the above equation for x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 in terms of x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 we
obtain the Lorentz transformation. This is indeed a nice property of G and
it will be exploited in constructing the irreducible representations of the
Lorentz group.
10.5 Representations of SL(2, c) and SO(3, 1) (Lorentz

group)
Consider the following special cases of G

cos θ223 i sin θ223

iθ23 σ1 /2
G23 = e =
i sin θ223 cos θ223
cos θ231 sin θ231

G31 = eiθ31 σ2 /2 =
− sin θ213 cos θ213
cos θ212 + i sin θ212

0
G12 = eiθ21 σ3 /2 =
0 cos θ212 − i sin θ212
cosh ζ201 sinh ζ201

ζ01 σ1 /2
G01 = e =
sinh ζ201 cosh ζ201
cosh ζ202 −i sinh ζ202

G02 = eζ02 σ2 /2 =
i sinh ζ202 cosh ζ202
cosh ζ203 + sinh ζ203

ζ03 σ3 /2 0
G03 = e = .
0 cosh ζ203 − sinh ζ203
In the first three the parameter space is bounded (compact elements). Then
solving Eq. (10.43) we obtain:
 0   
x0 10 0 0 x0
 x01   0 1 0 0   x1 
 
R23 =  x0  =  0 0 cos θ23 sin θ23   x2  ,
  
2
x03 0 0 − sin θ23 cos θ23 x3
x00
    
1 0 0 0 x0
 x01   0 cos θ31 0 sin θ31   x1 
 
R31 =
 x0  =  0
  ,
2 0 1 0   x2 
x03 0 − sin θ31 0 cos θ31 x3
1 0 0 0  
 
x00
 
x0
 x01  
 0 cos θ 12 sin θ12 0  x1 
R12 =  0  =  0 − sin θ12 cos θ12
   0  x2  .
 
x2 0 0 1 0 
x03 x3
0 0 0 1
These are the generators of the proper SO(3), which is a subgroup of the
Lorentz group.
The other three are non-compact and can be written as
 0   
x0 cosh ζ01 sinh ζ01 0 0 x0
 x01   sinh ζ01 cosh ζ01 0   x1 
L01 = 
 x0  = 
   ,
2 0 0 1 0   x2 
x03 0 0 01 x3
x00
    
cosh ζ02 0 sinh ζ02 0 x0
 x01   0 1 0 0  x1 
L02 =
 x0  =  sinh ζ02
   ,
2 0 cosh ζ01   x2 
x03 0 0 0 1 x3
x00
    
cosh ζ03 0 0 sinh ζ02 x0
 x01   0 10 0   x1 
L03 =
 x0  = 
   ,
2 0 01 0   x2 
x03 sinh ζ03 0 0 cosh ζ01 x3
p
with cosh ζ = 1/ 1 − (υ/c)2 , υ = the velocity. These correspond to the
boosts of the proper Lorentz transformations. These are orthogonal with
the metric diag(1, −1, −1, −1).
The above results are, of course, consistent with those obtained in sec-
tion 1.11. We thus recall that, if we make the substitution L0k → iJ0k ,
Lk` → Jk` , k, `, 6= 0, where Li,j the generators of the Lorentz and Jij those
of SO(4), the commutators are the same. We also know from section 1.9
that for SO(4) we can construct a set of operators Ai and Bi such that
[Ak , A` ] = ik`m Am , [Bk , B` ] = ik`m Bm , [Ak , B` ] = 0.
Once we have two such algebras we can construct representations of the

type
J (a) (Ai ) ⊗ E (b) , E (a) ⊗ J (a) (Bj );
E (a) , E (b) , identity (2a + 1), (2b + 1) matrices respectively,
i.e. the Kronecker product of the representations of the SO(3) groups

J (a)(Ai ) J (b) (Aj ). We can now form two representations of the SO(4) group:
Γ+(a,b) (Mi ) = J (a) (Ai ) ⊗ E (b) + E (a) ⊗ J (a) (Bi )
Γ−(a,b) (Ni ) = J (a) (Ai ) ⊗ E (b) − E (a) ⊗ J (a) (Bi )
with
M1 ⇔ J23 , M2 ⇔ J31 , M3 ⇔ J12 , N1 ⇔ J01 , N2 ⇔ J02 , N3 ⇔ J03 .
In the case of the Lorentz group to the phase i these are modified to be
Γ+(a,b) (Mi ) = J (a) (Ai ) ⊗ E (b) + E (a) ⊗ J (a) (Bi )

Γ−(a,b) (Ni ) = i J (a) (Ai ) ⊗ E (b) − E (a) ⊗ J (a) (Bi ) .
Let us now consider some simple cases:
• a = 1/2, b = 0. Then
Γ+(1/2,0) (σk ) = σk , Γ−(1/2,b) (σk ) = iσk , k = 1, 2, 3
• a = 0, b = 1/2. Then
Γ+(0,1/2) (σk ) = σk , Γ−(0,1/2) (σk ) = −iσk , k = 1, 2, 3

• a = 1/2, b = 1/2. Then

Γ+(1/2,1/2) (σk ) = σk ⊗ + ⊗ σk .
Now

σk 0
Sk = σk ⊗ =
0 σk

0 0 −i
Σ1 = ⊗ σ 1 = , Σ2 = ⊗ σ 2 = ,
0 i 0

0
Σ 3 = ⊗ σ3 = .
0 −
Thus
Γ+(1/2,1/2) (σk ) = Sk + Sk , Γ−(1/2,1/2) (σk ) = i(Sk − Sk )
or more specifically:
0 i −i 0
   
0 1 1 0
 , Γ−(1/2,1/2) =  i 0 0 −i 
+(1/2,1/2) 1 0 0 1  
Γ1 = 1
1 0 0 1   −i 0 0 i 
0 1 1 0 0 −i i 0
0 −i 0 −i 0 1 0 −1
   
+(1/2,1/2)  i 0 i 0  −(1/2,1/2)  −1 0 1 0 
Γ2 =
 0 −i 0 −i  , Γ2
 =
 0 −1 0 1 

i 0 i 0 1 0 −1 0
   
2 0 0 0 0 0 00
 , Γ−(1/2,1/2) =  0 −2i 0 0  .
+(1/2,1/2) 0 0 0 0  
Γ3 = 3
0 0 0 0   0 0 −2i 0 
0 0 0 −2 0 0 00
One proceeds analogously for more representations.
The Dirac γ matrices employed in relativistic quantum mechanics and
field theory are:
γ0 = Σ3 , γk = Σ3 Σ1 sk .

Chapter 11
Some Symmetries Involved in

Particle Physics
In appendix A we are going to present some useful tables. Since most of

these tables are intended to be used by particle physicists, it is important
to briefly present here the essential ingredients of the symmetries involved
in the Standard Model of Particle Physics and its extensions.
11.1 The essential ingredients of the Standard Model —

Symmetry and particle content
The Standard Model (SM) of elementary particles consists of the following

ingredients:
i) A symmetry.
It is not simple but of the type SUI (2) ⊗ SUc (3) × UY (1). It is a
gauge symmetry.
ii) A particle content.
All particles are initially massless. We distinguish two possibilities:
– The gauge bosons.
These are spin-one particles. They are put in the adjoined
representation of the group. Their structure and interactions
are fixed by the symmetry.
– All other particles are put in by hand in some judiciously
chosen representation of the symmetry group.
These other particles form a minimal set including:
– A scalar particle (spin-zero particle). Such an elementary par-
ticle did not exist till 2012, when a particle has been found at
LHC, CERN.
265
∗ This particle plays a crucial role since it can initiate the

Higgs mechanism.
∗ Through this mechanism is the symmetry broken sponta-
neously.
∗ This way the other particles acquire a mass. It plays an
important role.
∗ After the breakdown of symmetry some particles of the
theory attain a mass.
– Matter particles.
Leptons (charged like the electron etc. and their neutrinos)
and hadrons like the quarks. These are put ad hoc in some
representations of the symmetry.
iii) The model using field theory provides interactions consistent with
the symmetry and thus methods of calculating physical observ-
ables.
iv) The model explained all the available data at the time it was pro-
posed. It predicted new phenomena that were discovered later. It
is at present consistent with the experimental results (almost all of
them).
According to the symmetry of the SM:
SUI (2) ⊗ UY (1) ⊗ SUc (3)
we need the following set of gauge fields:
• Three fields Aiµ , i = 1, 2, 3 transforming as an I = 1 under SUI (2)

(isotriplet).
• one field Bµ associated with UY (1), which is scalar under SUI (2)
and SUc (3).
• 8 gauge fields Gaµ transforming as the regular representation of
SUc (3), which are scalars under SUI (2).
The rest of the fields are not dictated by the symmetry and were put in by
hand. The fermion fields were put in chiral multiplets:
1 1
fL = (1 − γ5 )f, fR = (1 + γ5 )f such that γ5 fL = −fL , γ5 fR = −fR .
2 2
The left-handed are put in isodoublets (I = 1/2) and the right-handed in
isosinglets (I = 0).
Some Symmetries Involved in Particle Physics 267
The Abelian operators are not normalized, but we can choose them so
that the electric charge (in units of the proton charge) is related to the
SUI (2) × UY (1) quantum numbers, |I, I3 i and Y respectively, as follows:
Y
Q = I3 + (11.1)
2
(1) Leptons.

νe νµ ντ 1
`L = , , with I = , Y = −1,
e− L
µ− L
τ− L
2
`R = e− − −

R , µR , τR with I = 0, Y = −2.
The absence of the right-handed neutrino is conspicuous. We know
now that there are three generations. The number of generations
was not important at the time.
(2) Quarks. Also in three generations, each appearing in three colors
r, g, b:
α α α
u c t 1 1
qL = α , α α with I = , Y = , α = r, g, b.
d L s L b L 2 3
αR = (uα α α
R , cR , tR ) , Y = 4/3,
κR = (dα α α
R , sR , bR ) , Y = −2/3; I = 0, α = r, g, b.
(3) Scalars.
An isodoublet of complex scalars (Higgs) and its adjoined:
0 +
φ 1 ∗ φ 1
φ= − , I = , Y = −1 and φ̄= iτ 2 φ = ∗0 , I = , Y = 1.
φ 2 −φ 2
11.2 SU(5) — An example of grand unification (GUT)
We have discussed the main theoretical deficiencies of the Standard Model

(SM), namely:
• The symmetry group GS = SUc (3) ⊗ SUI (2) ⊗ UY (1) is not
simple. So it contains three coupling constants, which can only
be determined experimentally.
• It does not lead to a unification of all possible interactions.
• It does not explain charge quantization.
• It does not provide a framework for the observed baryon asymmetry
in the Universe.
For these reasons there have been efforts to go beyond the SM. The most
attractive path was to proceed by extending the symmetry Gs to a simple
group. This way one hopes to achieve unification of all interactions. For this
reason the emerging framework is called Grand Unified Theory or simply
GUT.
In proceeding towards GUTs one notices that the group GS = SUc (3) ⊗
SUI (2) ⊗ UY (1) has rank ` = 4, which is equal to the sum of the ranks
of its individual parts, i.e. ` = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4. Thus the suitable simple
group must have at least rank equal to 4. Furthermore it is desirable that
the group admits complex representations, i.e. the conjugate T ∗ of such
a representation T should not be equivalent to it, i.e. they should not
be related via a similarity transformation [Slansky (1981)]. Under these
conditions the lowest rank groups are:
• Rank `=4 groups: A4 , B 4 , D 4 , C 4 , F 4 .
• Rank `=5 groups: A5 , B 5 , D 5 , C 5 .
• Rank `=6 groups: A6 , B 6 , D 6 , C 6 , E 6 .
• Rank `>6 groups, e.g.: D16 , E8 .
Obviously if a high rank group is considered a chain of subgroups down to
the standard model group Gs must be included.
The most popular choices are the groups SU(5), SO(10) and E6 with
ranks 4, 5 and 6 respectively. SU(5) is the simplest of these and, for this
reason, it will be selected for exhibiting the main ideas of Grand Unification
[Georgi and Georgi (1974)]-[Ellis (1980)], even though SO(10) [Fritzsch and
Minkowski (1975)] and E6 [Slansky (1981)] may possess some advantages.
11.2.1 The structure of the GUT SU(5)

The group SU(5) is characterized by n2 − 1 = 52 − 1 = 24 parameters,
i.e. by 24 generators represented by 24 × 24 traceless hermitian matrices.
A convenient basis can be obtained by extending our experience with the
simpler groups SU(3) and SU(2). We need four traceless diagonal elements.
These can be chosen to be the diagonal elements of the algebra:
1
H1 = (1, −1, 0, 0, 0), H2 = √ (1, 1, −2, 0, 0),
3
1
H3 = (0, 0, 0, 1, −1), H4 = √ (2, 2, 2, −3, −3).
15
In this fashion of writing them, we recognize the first two as the generators
of SU(3), the third as the generator of SU(2). The last one commutes
with all the generators of SU(3) and SU(2) of GS (it is proportional to the
identity in the relevant subspaces). It can be identified with the generator
of U(1). In fact we will see that it is proportional
to the hypercharge. All
these are normalized so that tr (Hi )2 = 2.
For our purposes we can take the hypercharge operator to be1
Y = (2/3, 2/3, 2/3, −1, −1), (11.4)
which is obvious from its particle content.

For the off-diagonal elements we proceed in an analogous way:
• Consider
(1)
a) the operators Tij , i < j, j ≤ 5 with zeros everywhere except
the number one in row i and column j and one in row j and column
i (the analog extension of the Pauli matrix σ1 ) and
(2)
b) the operators Tij , i < j, j ≤ 5 with −i in row i and column j
and i in row j and column i (the analog of the Pauli matrix σ2 ).
These operators are normalized so that tr (Tij )2 = 2.
• Alternatively the operators:
+
a) The step up operators Eij , i < j, j ≤ 5 with zeros everywhere
except in row i and column j, where there exists one (the analog
of the matrix σ + ) and
−
b) The step down (lowering) operators Eij , which are the hermi-
− + +

tian conjugates of the previous ones, i.e. Eij = Eij .
These
operators are normalized to unity

− 2

+ 2

tr Eij = tr Eij =1 .
1 The hypercharge operator must be diagonal. So it can be written as a linear combi-
nation of the diagonal matrices hi = ei,i − ei+1,i+1 , i = 1, · · · , 4, with ei,i is a diagonal

matrix with 1 in position i and zero elsewhere. It must commute with all the elements
of the SUc (3) (i, i) SUI (2). It can easily be shown that it can take the form:
Y = k(2h1 + 4h2 + 6h3 + 3h4 ). (11.2)
The proportionality constant can be chosen k = −1/3. A state of an SU(5) representation

can be described by the weights |mi = mα1 , mα2 , mα3 , mα4 , which are the eigenvalues
of the operators hi , i.e.
hi |mi = mαi |mi.
Thus we have:
2 4
Y |mi = − mα1 − mα2 − 2mα3 − mα4 . (11.3)
3 3
For the weights (0, 1, −1, 0), (1, −1, 0, 0), (−1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1, −1) of 5∗ (see be-
low) we obtain the eigenvalues (2/3, 2/3, 2/3, −1, −1) respectively.
11.2.2 The particle content

Like in the case of the SM the particle content, except for the gauge bosons,
is not specified by the symmetry. Before proceeding in discussing the par-
ticle content of the theory, a few facts about the structure of the group
representations are needed. The lowest dimensional representation of the
SU(5) is the fundamental or vector representation, which is five dimen-
sional2 , 5 ≡ [1] and its adjoined 5∗ ≡ [1, 1, 1, 1] ≡ [14 ].
Taking the product of two vector representations one gets a 25-
dimensional representation, which splits into an antisymmetric 10-
dimensional and a symmetric 15-dimensional one:
5 ⊗ 5 → 10 ⊕ 15 or [1] ⊗ [1] → [2] ⊕ [1, 1], (11.5)
5∗ ⊗ 5 → 24 ⊕ 1 or [14 ] ⊗ [1] → [2, 13 ] ⊕ [0]. (11.6)
Note that the 24 is the regular representations encountered in the case of
the generators. Note also that by combining the 10 and 10∗ one can also
get the 24.
11.2.3 The fermions

No new fermions were introduced. Thus the 15 per generation fermions
of the SM model were put into the two simplest multiplets, 5∗ and 10 as
follows3 :
− T
5∗ = dαc

L , (νL , eL ) , α = r, g, b color index. (11.7)
The rest were put in the 10
10 = (uαc α α c
L , (uL , dL ), eL ) , α = r, g, b color index. (11.8)
The particles are not arranged as vector, but are placed in the appropriate
positions of an antisymmetric matrix:
0 uc1 −uc2 u1 d1
 
 −uc1 0 −uc3 u1 d1 
1  
10 = √  c
u2 −uc3 0 u3 d3  . (11.9)
2

+
−u1 −u2 −u3 0e
−d1 −d2 −d3 −e+ 0
2 It is customary in particle physics to indicate a representation by its dimension. This
is not mathematically elegant and often ambiguous. It suffices, however, if only the
lowest dimension representations are used. Strictly speaking one should use the Young
tableaux specified by a set of positive integers [n1 , n2 , · · · , n` ] or the weights (Dynkin
labels) like |mi = mα1 , mα2 , · · · , mα` , with mαi integers. ` is the rank of the group.
3 It is customary to include only left-handed fermions and anti-fermions. Thus instead
of the right-handed fermions we include the left-handed anti-fermions

Note the absence of left-handed anti-neutrino. Note also that the bilinear
a
ψ̄L a
γλ ψL , with a indicating that it is a member of 5∗ or of the 10 can have
the quantum numbers of the adjoined representation of SU(5). So such a
current can couple to the gauge bosons. Note also that since quarks and
leptons co-exist in the same multiplet the gauge bosons can cause both
lepton and baryon number violation.
The GS quantum numbers (color, SU(2) and hypercharge) of the
fermions are obvious.
11.2.4 The gauge bosons
The gauge bosons transform like the adjoined representation. So they can
be decomposed in terms of the generators of the group. We will do the
ordering and classification according to the subgroup GS = SUc (3) ⊗
SUI (2) ⊗ UY (1):
(1) Gauge bosons with subgroup SU(3) quantum numbers.

+ +
The gauge bosons associated with the generators H1 , H2 , E12 , E13 ,
+
E23 and their adjoined transform like the gluons (octets under
β
SUc (3)) and will be indicated as (Gµ )α , where α and β are color
indices. They are placed in the upper left 3 × 3 segment of the
5 × 5 matrix. These gauge bosons are singlets under SU(2) and
have hypercharge Y = 0.
(2) Gauge bosons with subgroup SU(2) quantum numbers.
+ −
The gauge boson associated with H3 , E45 and E45 are identified
3 + −
with Aµ , Wµ and Wµ respectively and they occupy the lowest
right-hand 2 × 2 segment of the matrix. The Gs quantum numbers
of these gauge bosons are obvious (singlets under SU(3) triplets
under SUI (2) and have Y = −1).
(3) Gauge bosons with both SU(3) and SU(2) quantum numbers.
+
These are associated with the generators Eαr , α = 1, 2, 3; r = 4, 5.
α α
These will be indicated as (Xµ ) and (Yµ ) associated with r = 4, 5
respectively. They occupy the positions indicated by α and r. The
−
gauge bosons associated with Eαr are the adjoined of the above α and
willbe indicated as (Xµ )α and (Yµ )α or equivalently as X̄µ and
α
Ȳµ . The gauge bosons X and Y are triplets under SUc (3) and
doublets under SUI (2) and have hypercharge Y = 2/3 + 1 = 5/3.
Thus the X and Y have a charge Q = (1/2) + 5/6 = 4/3 and
Q = (−1/2) + 5/6 = 1/3 respectively.
(4) A gauge boson associated with the generator H4 sometimes

indicated as T24 . This is indicated as
1
Bµ = B √ (2, 2, 2, −3, −3). (11.10)
30
In a matrix form we have:
(G1 )11
 
2 3
√ + (G)1 (G)1 X1 Y1
(G )1 2 
 √ 1 + √2B
2 
 6 30 
 (G)1 (G1 )22 3
 
 2 − √ +
2
(G)2 X2 Y2 

24 =
 (G2 )22 2B .


√
6
+ √
30 
1 2 3
 (G)3 (G)3 √2 (G2 )3 + 2B
√ X3 Y3
 
6 30

3
 
 X̄ 1 = X A 3B
 1 X̄ 2 = X2 X̄ 3 = X3 √
2
− √
30
W+ 

3
1 − A 3B
Ȳ = Y1 Ȳ 2 = Y2 Ȳ 3 = Y3 W −√ 2
− √
30
At this point it is instructive to mention that the above colored gauge

bosons must couple to the fermion current (bilinears). These are classified
in terms of their quantum numbers as follows:
T
(1) ūcαL γλ qβL , (3∗ or 6), 2, 5/3, qL = (uL , dL ) ,
in the order dimension of color representation, of isospin representa-
tion and hypercharge Y . The color ρ component of the anti-triplet
is of the form:
αβρ ūcαL γλ qβL .
(2) d¯cαL γλ qβL , (3∗ or 6), 2, −1/3
The color anti-triplet is: αβρ d¯cαL γλ qβL .
(3) q̄αL γλ ecL , 3∗ , 2, 5/3, `L = (νL , e− T
L) .
¯ c ∗
(4) `αL γλ dβL , 3 , 2, 5/3.
(5) `¯αL γλ ucβL , 3∗ , 2, −1/3.
We will see below that only the color anti-triplets are relevant for proton
decay since one of the outgoing particles must be a lepton.
11.2.5 The Higgs content

The SU(5) gauge symmetry will be broken spontaneously. In the first step
from SU(5) to GS and in the second step from the breaking of GS as
discussed before. This scenario can be implemented in a number of ways.
The most economical way is to consider a Higgs scalar H belonging to the
regular (adjoined) 24-dimensional representation of SU(5). The second by

a Higgs Φ belonging to a quinteplet of SU(5). The Higgs H takes the form:
 
HX1 HY1

 Hαβ + υδαβ HX2 HY2 

H= 
HX3 HY3 
 (11.11)
 HX HX HX 
1 2 3 r
HY1 HY2 HY3 (H3 )s − 32 υδsr
where the upper left and the lower right segments are understood to be
3 × 3 and 2 × 2 in the SUc (3) and SUI (2) spaces. The parameter υ is
the vacuum expectation values of Φ, i.e. (0|Φ|0) = diag(υ, υ, υ, − 32 υ, − 23 υ).
The complex scalar field along the diagonal takes the form
Φ = φα , φ0∗ , φ0 , α = color index.

(11.12)

Appendix A
Summary of Useful Expressions
275
Table A.1: The Dynkin diagrams for the semisimple Lie algebras. The
length of the roots is above the corresponding knot (in arbitrary units λ).
See section 6.2.
46M
40M
4QM
40M
Summary of Useful Expressions 277
Table A.2: The associated Dynkin diagrams. See section 6.2.

46M

40M

4QM

40M

Table A.3: The Cartan matrices of the classical algebras. See section 6.3.
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . .
 
A` ⇔ (A) =  (A.1)
 . . . . . . .


 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 

 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 
0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . . .
 
B` ⇔ (A) =  . . . . . . . .  (A.2)
 
 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 0 
 
 0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2 −1 
0 0 0 · · · 0 0 −2 2
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . . .
 
C` ⇔ (A) =  . . . . . . . .  (A.3)
 
 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 0 
 
 0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2 −2 
0 0 0 · · · 0 0 −1 2
 
2 −1 0 · · · 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 · · · 0 0 0 0 
 
 . . . . . . . .
 
D` ⇔ (A) =  . . . . . . . .  . (A.4)
 
 0 0 0 · · · 2 −1 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 · · · −1 2 −1 −1 
 
 0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 0 · · · 0 −1 0 2
Table A.4: The Cartan matrices of some low rank algebras. See section 6.3.
 
2 −1 0
2 −1
A2 = , A3 =  −1 2 −1  (A.5)
−1 2
0 −1 2
 
2 −1 0
2 −1
B2 = , B3 =  −1 2 −1  (A.6)
−2 2
0 −2 2
   
2 −1 0 2 −1 −1
2 −2
C2 = , C3 =  −1 2 −2  , D3 =  −1 2 0  , (A.7)
−1 2
0 −1 2 −1 0 2
2 −1 0 0 0
 
2 −1 0 0
 
 −1 2 −1 0 0 
 −1 2 −1 0   
D4 = 
  , D5 =  0 −1 2 −1 −1 
. (A.8)
0 −1 2 −1  
 0 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 −2 2
0 0 −1 0 2
Table A.5: The Cartan matrices of special algebras. See section 6.3.5.
2 −1 0 0
 

2 −1  −1 2 −1 0 
G2 = , F4 = 
 0 −2 2 −1  ,
 (A.9)
−3 2
0 0 −1 2
 
2 −1 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 −1 0 −1 
 
E6 =  , (A.10)
 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 

 0 0 0 −1 2 0 

0 0 −1 0 0 2
 
2 −1 0 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 −1 
 
E7 =  0 0 −1 2 −1 0 0  , (A.11)
 
 0 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 −1 0 0 0 2
 
2 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 −1 
 
 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 0 
 
E8 =  . (A.12)
 0 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 0 

 0 0 0 0 −1 2 −1 0 

 
 0 0 0 0 0 −1 2 0 
0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 2
Table A.6: Expression of the roots in terms of the elementary weights. See
section 8.14.

Table A.7: The positive roots of some representations of the classical alge-
bras in the Dynkin basis (see section 7.3.2). The maximum weight is at the
top.
SU(3) Sp4 G2
(1 0) (2 0) (1 0)
(2 − 1) (−1 2) (0 1) (−1 3)
(2 − 1) (−2 2) (0 1)
(1 − 1)
(2 − 3) (−1 2)
SU4 SO7
(1 0 1) (0 1 0)
(1 1 − 1) (−1 1 1) (1 − 1 2)
(2 − 1 0) (−1 2 − 1) (0 − 1 2) (1 0 0) (−1 0 2)
(1 1 − 2) (−1 1 0)
(2 − 1 0) (−1 2 − 2) (0 − 1 2)
Sp6 SU5
(2 0 0) (1 0 0 1)
(0 1 0) (1 0 1 − 1) (−1 1 0 1)
(1 − 1 1) (−2 2 0) (1 1 − 1 0) (−1 1 1 − 1) (0 − 1 1 1)
(1 1 − 1) (−1 0 1) (2 − 1 0 0) (−1 2 − 1 0) (0 − 1 2 − 1) (0 0 − 1 2)
(2 − 1 0) (−1 2 − 1) (0 − 2 2)
SO10
(0 1 0 0 0)
(1 − 1 1 0 0)
(−1 0 1 0 0) (1 0 − 1 1 1)
(−1 1 − 1 1 1) (1 0 0 − 1 1) (1 0 0 1 − 1)
(0 − 1 0 1 1) (−1 1 0 − 1 1) (−1 1 0 1 − 1) (1 0 1 − 1 − 1)
(0 − 1 1 − 1 1) (0 − 1 1 1 − 1) (−1 1 1 − 1 − 1) (1 1 − 1 0 0)
(0 0 − 1 0 2) (0 0 − 1 2 0) (0 − 1 2 − 1 − 1) (−1 2 − 1 0 0) (2 − 1 0 0 0)
a5 a4 a3 a2 a1
Table A.8: The metric matrices of the classical algebras (see section 7.3.2).
 
1·n 1 · (n − 1) 1 · (n − 2) · · · 1·2 1·1
1 · (n − 1) 2 · (n − 1) 2 · (n − 2) · · · 2·2 2·1 
 
1 1 · (n − 2) 2 · (n − 2) 3 · (n − 2) · · · 3·2 3·1 
 
G(An )= n+1 
 ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···



 1·2 2·2 3·2 · · · (n − 1) · 2 (n − 1) · 1

 1·1 2·1 3 ·1 · · · (n − 1) · 1 (n − 1)

2 2 2 ··· 2 1
 2 4 4 ··· 4 2 
 
2 4 6 · · · 6 3
 
G(Bn )= 12 
 
· · · · · · · · · · · · ··· ··· 


 2 4 6 · · · 2(n − 1) n − 1

 1 2 3 · · · n − 1 n/2 
1 1 1 ··· 1 1
 1 2 2 ··· 2 2 
 
1  1 2 3 ··· 3 3 
 
G(Cn )= 4 
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· 


 1 2 3 · · · n − 1 n − 1

1 2 3 ··· n − 1 n
 
2 2 2 ··· 2 1 1
 2 4 4 ··· 4 2 2 
 
 2 4 6 ··· 6 3 3 
 
1 
G(Dn )= 2 · · · · · · · · · · · · ··· ··· ···


 2 4 6 · · · 2(n − 2) n − 2 n−2 
 
 
 1 2 3 · · · n − 2 (n − 2)/2 (n − 2/)/2
 1 2 3 · · · n − 2 (n − 2)/2 n − 2
4 5 6 4 23
5 10 12 8 4 6
 
1 6 12 18 12 6 9
 
G(E6 )= 3 
4 8 12 10 5 6

 
2 4 6 5 4 3
3 6 9 6 36
Table A.9: Table A.8 continued.

 
4 6 8 6 4 2 4
6 12 16 12 8 4 8 
 
8 16 24 18 12 6 12
 
G(E7 ) = 21 6 12 18 15 10 5 9 
 
 
4 8 12 10 8 4 6 
 
2 4 6 5 4 3 3 
4 8 12 9 6 3 7
 
2 3 4 5 6 4 2 3
3 6 8 10 12 8 4 6 
 
4 8 12 15 18 12 6 9 
 
5 10 15 20 24 16 8 12
 
G(E8 ) = 
6 12 18 24 30 20 10 15

 
4 8 12 16 20 14 7 10
 
2 4 6 8 10 7 4 5 
3 6 9 12 15 10 5 8

1 63
G(G2 ) = 2
32
 
232 1
3 6 4 2 
G(F4 ) =  2 4 3 3 

2
1 2 32 1
Table A.10: The dimensions of irreducible representations of classical alge-

bras (standard representation). See sections 8.9.1 and 8.9.2.
Q
α>0 hα|Λ + δi 1X
dim (ΓΛ ) = Q ,δ= α (Weyl formula). (A.13)
α>0 hα|δi 2 α>0
`
Y fi − fj + j − i
dim([f ]) = (A` ). (A.14)
i<j
j−i
` `
Y µi + µj + 2` − (i + j) Y µi − µj + j − i
dim(µ, n)= , (orthogonal), n=2`.
i<j
2` − i − j i<j
j−i
(A.15)
` `
Y µi + µj + 2` + 1 − (i + j) Y µi − µj + j − i
dim(µ, n) =
i<j
2` + 1 − i − j i<j
j−i
`
Y 2(µi + ` − i) + 1
, n = 2` + 1, (orthogonal) . (A.16)
i=1
2(` − i) + 1
` `
Y ωi + ωj + 2` − (i + j) Y ωi − ωj + j − i
dim((ω), `) =
i<j
2` − i − j i<j
j−i
`
Y ωi + ` + 1 − i
, Sp(2`). (A.17)
i=1
`+1−i
Table A.11: The dimensions of irreducible representations of semisimple

Lie algebras in terms of the elementary weights mi = ì + δi (see section
8.15.2 for the definitions).
Y mp − mq
A` : dimΓΛ = . (A.18)
δp − δq
B` , C` : dimΓΛ = . (A.19)
Y mp − mq Y mp + mq
D` : dimΓΛ = . (A.20)
δp − δq δp + δq
Y mp Y mp − mq
G2 : dimΓΛ = . (A.21)
δp δp − δq
F4 : dimΓΛ =
Y m1 ± m2 ± m3 ± m4
. (A.22)
δ1 ± δ2 ± δ3 ± δ4
Y
mY mp − mq mp + mq + mr + m/2
E6 : dimΓΛ = .
δ δp − δq δp + δq + δr + δ/2
(A.23)
(here m and δ correspond to the weight λ)
Y mp − mq Y mp + mq + mr + ms
E7 : dimΓΛ = . (A.24)
δp − δq δp + δq + δr + δs
Y mp − mq Y mp + mq + mr
E8 : dimΓΛ = . (A.25)
δp − δq δp + δq + δr
Appendix B
Some Useful Tables
Table B.1: The tree of obtaining the weights from the maximum weight
and their level in the case of the fundamental 10 of D5 .
287
Table B.2: The same as in Table B.1 but for the spinorial representations
(1/2, 1/2, 1/2, 1/2, 1/2) ⇔ 16 (left) and (1/2, 1/2, 1/2, 1/2, −1/2) ⇔ 16∗
(right) of D5 . The weights are given in the Dynkin representation.
Some Useful Tables 289
Table B.3: The same as in Table B.1 but for the 27 (left) 27∗ (right) of E6 .
Table B.4: The reduction of the fundamental representation 27 of E6 under

the chain E6 ⊃ SO(10) ⊃ SU(5) ⊃ Gs = SU(2) ⊗ SU(3) ⊗ U(1). In the
case of Gs we give the quantum numbers and the names of the fermions
carrying them. Note that the particles with capital letters do not appear
in the Standard Model.
E6 SO(10) SU(5) SUc (3) 2I3 Y Q particle

(100000) (10000) (−1000) (−10) (0) − 32 13 D1c
2 1
(−110000) (−11000) (1 − 100) (1 − 1) (0) 3 3 D2c
2 1
(0 − 11000) (0 − 1100) (01 − 10) (01) (0) 3 3 D3c
(00 − 1101) (00 − 111) (001 − 1) (00) (−1) −1 −1 H̃ = E −
−
(000 − 111) (000 − 11) (0001) (00) (1) −1 0 H̃ 0 = N

(00010 − 1) (0001 − 1) (000 − 1) (00) (−1) 1 0 H̃ 0 = N 0
(0000 − 11) (00001) (0000) (00) (0) 0 0 νLc
(001 − 11 − 1) (001 − 1 − 1) (00 − 11) (00) (1) 1 1 H̃ = E +
+
(0010 − 1 − 1) (0010 − 1) (00 − 10) (00) (0) 2 1 e+

L
(01 − 1010) (01 − 100) (0 − 110) (0 − 1) (0) − 32 1
3 D3
1
(01 − 11 − 10) (01 − 110) (0 − 11 − 1) (0 − 1) (−1) 3 − 13 d3L
(1 − 10010) (1 − 1000) (−1100) (−11) (0) − 32 − 13 D2
1 2
(010 − 100) (010 − 10) (0 − 101) (0 − 1) (1) 2 3 u3L
1
(1 − 101 − 10) (1 − 1010) (−110 − 1) (−11) (−1) 3 − 13 d2L
(−100010) (−10000) (1000) (10) (0) − 32 − 13 D1
1 2
(1 − 11 − 100) (1 − 11 − 10) (−11 − 11) (−11) (1) 3 3 u2L
1
(−1001 − 10) (−10010) (100 − 1) (10) (−1) 3 − 13 d1L
(10 − 1001) (10 − 101) (−1010) (−10) (0) − 34 − 23 uC1L
1 2
(−101 − 100) (−101 − 10) (10 − 11) (10) (1) 3 3 u1L
2 1
(10000 − 1) (1000 − 1) (−1000) (−10) (0) 3 3 dC3L
(−11 − 1001) (−11 − 101) (1 − 110) (1 − 1) (0) − 34 − 23 uC2L
2 1
(−11000 − 1) (−1100 − 1) (1 − 100) (1 − 1) (0) 3 3 dC2L
(0 − 10001) (0 − 1001) (0100) (01) (0) − 34 − 23 uC3L
2 1
(0 − 1100 − 1) (0 − 110 − 1) (01 − 10) (01) (0) 3 3 dC1L
(00 − 1100) (00 − 110) (001 − 1) (00) (−1) −1 −1 e−
L
(000 − 110) (000 − 10) (0001) (00) (1) −1 0 νL
(0000 − 10) (00000) (0000) (00) (0) 0 0 nL
Table B.5: The positive weights of the 78 representation of E6 and their reduction under the chain E6 ⊃ SO(10) ⊃
SU(5) ⊃ Gs = SU(2) ⊗ SU(3) ⊗ U(1). In the case of Gs we give the numbers Y, Q and the particle name.
SO(10) SU(5)
E6 SUc (3) 2I3 Y Q
Dynkin Dynkin
(000001) (00001) 16 (0000) 1 (00) (0) 0 0
(0100 − 10) (0100 − 10) 45 (0 − 100) 10∗ (0 − 1) (0) 4
3
2
3 xs3
(0 − 10011) (0 − 10011) 16 (0100) 10 (00) (0) − 43 − 32
(10001 − 1) (10001 − 1) 16 (−1000) 5∗ (−10) (0) 2
3
1
3
(−11001 − 1) (−11001 − 1) 45 (1 − 100) 5∗ (1 − 1) (0) 2 1
Some Useful Tables

3 3
(−210000) (−21000) 45 (2 − 100) 24 (2 − 1) (0) 0 0 g
5 1
(0 − 111 − 1 − 1) (0 − 111 − 1) 45 (01 − 1 − 1) 24 (01) (−1) 3 3 Y1
(00 − 12 − 10) (00 − 120) 45 (001 − 2) 24 (00) (−2) 0 −1 W−
5 4
(0 − 12 − 10 − 1) (0 − 12 − 1 − 1) 45 (01 − 21) 24 (00) (1) 3 3 X1
1 2
(−11001 − 1) (−1100 − 1) 16 (1 − 100) 10 (−11) (1) 3 3
5 4
(101 − 10 − 1) (101 − 1 − 1) 45 (−10 − 11) 24 (−10) (1) 3 3 X3
(1 − 11 − 11 − 1) (1 − 11 − 1 − 1) 45 (−11 − 11) 24 (−11) (1) 1
3
2
3 X30
(0 − 11 − 101) (0 − 11 − 11) 45 (01 − 11) 10∗ (01) (1) − 13 1
3 Y3
(001 − 1 − 10) (001 − 10) 16∗ (00 − 11) 5 (00) (1) 1 1
(0 − 11 − 100) (0 − 11 − 10) 16∗ (01 − 11) 10∗ (01) (1) − 13 1
3
(00100 − 1) (00100 − 1) 16 (00 − 10) 10 (00) (0) 2 1
(0 − 1101 − 1) (0 − 1101 − 1) 16 (01 − 10) 5∗ (01) (0) 2
3
1
3
(00100 − 2) (00100 − 2) 45 (00 − 10) 10 (00) (0) 2 1
(001 − 1 − 10) (001 − 1 − 10) 45 (00 − 11) 10∗ (10) (0) 4
3
2
3 X1s
291
292
Table B.5 Continued.
SO(10) SU(5)
E6 SUc (3) 2I3 Y Q
Dynkin Dynkin
(0 − 11 − 100) (0 − 11 − 100) 45 (01 − 11) 24 (11) (0) 0 0 g
(−1010 − 1 − 1) (−1010 − 1) 16 (10 − 10) 10∗ (10) (0) 4
3
2
3
1 2
(−100100) (−10010) 16 (100 − 1) 10 (10) (1) 3 3
5 1
(−1101 − 1 − 1) (−1101 − 1) 45 (1 − 10 − 1) 24 (1 − 1) (−1) Y2

3 3
(−10010 − 1) (−1001 − 1) 45 (100 − 1) 10 (10) (−1) 1
3 − 13 Y10
1 2
(010 − 110) (010 − 10) 16 (0 − 101) 10 (0 − 1) (1) 3 3
(000 − 120) (000 − 10) 16 (0001) 5∗ (00) (1) −1 0
(010 − 11 − 1) (010 − 1 − 1) 45 (0 − 101) 10 (0 − 1) (−1) 1
3 − 13 Y30
(−110 − 101) (−110 − 11) 45 (1 − 101) 10 (1 − 1) (1) 1
3
2
3 X20
(−110 − 101) (−110 − 11) 45 (1 − 101) 10∗ (1 − 1) (1) − 31 1
3 Ȳ20
(−100 − 111) (−100 − 11) 45 (1001) 24 (10) (1) − 35 − 13 Ȳ30
(−110 − 100) (−110 − 10) 16 (1 − 101) 10∗ (1 − 1) (1) − 31 1
3
1
(−101 − 110) (−101 − 10) 16 (10 − 11) 10 (10) (−1) 3 − 13
5 4
(−111 − 10 − 1) (−111 − 1 − 1) 45 (1 − 1 − 11) 24 (1 − 1) (1) 3 3 X2
(−101 − 11 − 1) (−101 − 1 − 1) 45 (10 − 11) 10 (10) (1) 1
3
2
3 X10
(−11 − 1011) (−11 − 101) 16 (1 − 110 − 1) 10 (1 − 1) (0) − 34 − 23
(−12 − 1000) (−12 − 1000) 45 (1 − 210) 24 (1 − 2) (0) 0 0 g
(−11 − 1010) (−11 − 1010) 45 (1 − 110) 10 (1 − 1) (0) − 34 − 23 X̄2
Table B.6: The Dynkin weight (first row), the dimension (second row)
and the index (third row) of some SU(3) representations (top) and SU(4)
(bottom).
Dynkin dim ` Dynkin dim `
(10) 3 1 (41) 35 105
(20) 6 5 (70) 36 210
(11) 8 6 (32) 42 119
(30) 10 15 (08) 45 330
(21) 15 20 (51) 48 196
(40) 150 35 (90) 55 495
(05) 21 70 (24) 60 230
(13) 24 50 (16) 63 336
(22) 27 54 (33) 64 240
(60) 28 126

(100) 4 1 (301) 70 98
(010) 6 2 (202) 84 112
(200) 10 6 (310) 840 133
(101) 15 8 (600) 8400 252
(011) 20 13 (040) 105 105
(020) 200 16 (104) 120 210
(003) 2000 21 (007) 1200 119
(400) 35 56 (220) 126 330
(201) 36 33 (112) 140 203
(210) 45 48 (031) 1400 259
(030) 50 70 (410) 14000 308
(500) 56 126 (302) 160 296
(120) 60 71 (800) 165 792
(111) 64 64 (121) 175 280
Table B.7: The same as in Table B.6 but for SU(5).

(1000) 5 1 (0210) 315 357
(0100) 10 3 (1004) 315 462
(2000) 15 7 (7000) 330 924
(1001) 24 10 (2200) 420 574
(0003) 35 28 (4100) 4200 714
(0011) 40 22 (1012) 450 510
(0101) 45 24 (3002) 4500 615
(0020) 50 35 (1102) 480 536
(2001) 70 49 (0040) 490 882
(0004) 700 84 (0008) 495 1716
(0110) 75 50 (4010) 540 882
(0012) 105 91 (0202) 560 728
(2010) 126 105 (1300) 5600 868
(5000) 126 210 (1005) 56000 1092
(3001) 160 168 (2110) 700 910
(1101) 175 140 (1030) 7000 1050
(1200) 1750 175 (0090) 715 3003
(0300) 17500 210 (1021) 720 924
(2002) 200 200 (5100) 7200 1596
(1020) 210 203 (0130) 980 1666
(6000) 2100 462 (1111) 1024 1280
(3100) 224 280 (0121) 1050 1540
(1110) 280 266 (0211) 1120 1624
(3010) 280 336 (0220) 1176 1960
Table B.8: The same as in Table B.6 but for SU(6).

(10000) 6 1 (21001) 1134 1053
(01000) 15 4 (22000) 11340 1296
(00100) 20 6 (02010) 1176 1120
(20000) 21 8 (02100) 1170 1204
(10001) 35 12 (11002) 1260 1146
(30000) 56 36 (01200) 1470 1536
(11000) 70 33 (10102) 1701 1620
(01001) 84 38 (13000) 1764 2310
(00101) 105 52 (04000) 17640 2688
(00020) 1050 64 (02002) 1800 1920
(20001) 120 68 (01110) 1960 1932
(00004) 126 120 (10021) 2205 2352
(00200) 175 120 (21010) 2430 2592
(01010) 189 108 (21100) 2520 2868
(00110) 210 131 (20200) 25200 2976
(00012) 2100 152 (10030) 252000 3156
(00005) 252 330 (01102) 3240 3564
(20010) 280 192 (11011) 3675 3780
(30001) 315 264 (10201) 3969 4536
(00102) 336 248 (00400) 4116 7056
(11001) 384 256 (10111) 4410 4767
(20002) 405 324 (12100) 44100 5712
(00021) 420 358 (00301) 441000 6216
(00006) 462 792 (01021) 4536 5508
(00030) 490 504 (00130) 4704 7056
(00013) 504 516 (02011) 5040 6024
(10101) 540 378 (01030) 50400 7104
(02001) 560 456 (02101) 5670 7128
(40001) 700 810 (00211) 5880 7812
(30010) 720 696 (02020) 6720 9216
(70000) 792 1716 (01201) 6804 8910
(11010) 840 668 (00220) 7056 10752
(10200) 8400 764 (00310) 70560 11256
(30100) 84000 864 (01111) 8064 9984
(11100) 896 768 (01120) 10080 14352
(00300) 980 1134 (01210) 11340 16848
(10110) 1050 880
Table B.9: The maximal subalgebras of the classical algebras with rank
` ≤ 8.
`=1
SU2 ⊃ U1
(SU2 , SO3 , Sp2 )
`=2
SU3 ⊃ SU2 × U1
⊃ SU2
Sp4 ⊃ SU2 × SU2 ; SU2 × U1
⊃ SU2
(SO5 Sp4 , SO4 = SU2 × SU2 )
`=3
SU4 ⊃ SU3 × U1 ; SU2 × SU2 × U1
⊃ Sp4 ; SU2 × SU2
SO7 ⊃ SO6 ; SU2 × SU2 × SU2 ; Sp4 × U1
⊃ G2
Sp6 ⊃ SU3 × U1 ; SU2 × Sp4
⊃ SU2 ; SU2 × SU2
(SO6 isomorphic SU4 )
`=4
SU5 ⊃ SU4 × U1 ; SU2 × SU3 × U1
⊃ Sp4
SO9 ⊃ SO8 ; SU2 × SU2 × Sp4 ; SU2 × SU4 ; SO7 × U1
⊃ SU2 ; SU2 × SU2
Sp8 ⊃ SU4 × U1 ; SU2 × Sp6 ; Sp4 × Sp4
⊃ SU2 ; SU2 × SU2 × SU2
SO8 ⊃ SU2 × SU2 × SU2 × SU2 ; SU4 × U1
⊃ SU3 ; SO7 ; SU2 × Sp4
`=5
SU6 ⊃ SU5 × U1 ; SU2 × SU4 × U1 ; SU3 × SU3 × SU3 × U1
⊃ SU3 ; SU4 ; Sp6 ; SU2 × SU3
SO11 ⊃ SO10 ; SU2 × SO8 ; Sp4 × SU4 ; SU2 × SU2 × SO7 ; SO9 × U1
⊃ SU2
Sp10 ⊃ SU3 × U1 ; SU2 × Sp8 ; Sp4 × Sp6
⊃ SU2 ; SU2 × Sp4
SO10 ⊃ SU5 × U1 ; SU2 × SU2 × SU4 ; SO8 × U1
⊃ Sp4 ; SO9 ; SU2 × SO7 ; Sp4 × Sp4
`=6
SU7 ⊃ SU6 × U1 ; SU2 × SU5 × U1
⊃ SO7
SO13 ⊃ SO12 ; SU2 × SO1 0; Sp4 × SO8 ; SU4 × SO7 ; SU2 × SU2 × SO9 ; SO11 × U1
⊃ SU2
Sp12 ⊃ SU6 × U1 ; SU2 × Sp1 0; Sp4 × Sp8 ; Sp6 × Sp6
Some Useful Tables

⊃ SU2 ; SU2 × SU4 ; SU2 × Sp4
SO12 ⊃ SU6 × U1 ; SU2 × SU2 × SO8 ; SU4 × SU4 ; SO10 × U1
⊃ SU2 × Sp6 ; SU2 × SU2 × SU2 ; SO11 ; SU2 × SO9 ; Sp4 × SO7
`=7
SU8 ⊃ SU7 × U1 ; SU2 × SU6 × U1 ; SU3 × SU5 × U1 ; SU4 × SU4 × U1 ;
⊃ SO8 ; Sp8 ; SU2 × SU4
SO15 ⊃ SO14 ; SU2 × SO12 ; Sp4 × SO1 0; SO7 × SO8 ; SU4 × SO9 ; SU2 × SU2 × SO11 ; SO13 × U1
⊃ SU2 ; SU4 ; SU2 × Sp4
Sp14 ⊃ SU2 × U1 ; SU2 × Sp12 ; Sp4 × Sp10 ; Sp6 × Sp8
⊃ SU2 ; SU2 × SO2
SO14 ⊃ SU7 × U1 ; SU2 × SU2 × SO10 ; SU4 × SO8 ; SO12 × U1
⊃ Sp4 ; Sp6 ; G2 ; SU2 × SO11 ; Sp4 × SO9 ; SO13 ; SO2 × SO2 ;
297
298

`=8
SU9 ⊃ SU8 × U1 ; SU2 × SU2 × U1 ; SU3 × SU6 × U1 ; SU4 × SU5 × U1 ;
⊃ SO9 ; SU3 × SU3
SO17 ⊃ SO16 ; SU2 × SO14 ; Sp4 × SO12 ; SO7 × SO10 ; SU4 × SO11 ; SO8 × SO9
SU2 × SU2 × SO13 ; SO15 × U1
⊃ SU2
Sp16 ⊃ SU8 × U1 ; SU2 × Sp14 ; Sp4 × Sp12 ; Sp6 × Sp10 ; Sp8 × Sp8
⊃ SU2 ; Sp4 ; SU2 × SO8
SO16 ⊃ SU8 × U1 ; SU2 × SU2 × SO12 ; SU4 × SO10 ; SO14 × U1 ; SO8 × SO8
⊃ SO9 ; SU2 × Sp8 ; Sp4 × Sp4 ; SO15 ; SU2 × SO13 ; Sp4 × SO11 ; SO7 × SO9
Table B.10: The maximal subalgebras of the special algebras.
G2 ⊃ SU3 7 = 1 + 3 + 3∗
⊃ SU2 × SU2 7 = (2, 2) + (1, 3)
⊃ SU2 7 =7
F4 ⊃ SO4 26 = 1 + 9 + 16
⊃ SU3 × SU3 26 = (8, 1) + (3, 3) + (3∗ , 3∗ )
⊃ SU2 × Sp6 26 = (2, 6) + (1, 14)
⊃ SU2 26 = 17 + 9
⊃ SU2 × G2 26 = (5, 1) + (3, 7)
E6 ⊃ SO10 × U1 27 = 1 + 16 + 16
⊃ SU2 × SU6 27 = (2, 6∗ ) + (1, 15)
⊃ SU3 × SU3 × SU3 27 = (3∗ , 3, 1c ) + (3, 1, 3) + (1, 3∗ , 3∗ )
⊃ SU3 27 = 27
⊃ G2 27 = 27
⊃ Sp8 27 = 27
⊃ F4 27 = 1 + 26
⊃ SU3 × O2 27 = (1, 6∗ ) + (3, 7)
E7 ⊃ E 6 × U1 56 = 1 + 1 + 27 + 27∗
⊃ SU8 56 = 28 + 28∗
⊃ SU2 × SO12 56 = (2, 12) + (1, 32)
⊃ SU3 × SU6 56 = (3, 6) + (3∗ , 6∗ ) + (1, 20)
⊃ SU2 56 = 10 + 18 + 28
⊃ SU2 56 = 6 + 12 + 16 + 22
⊃ SU2 56 = 28∗ + 28
⊃ SU2 × SU2 56 = (5, 2) + (3, 6) + (7, 4)
⊃ SU2 × O2 56 = (4, 7) + (2, 14)
⊃ SU2 × F4 56 = (4, 1) + (2, 26)
⊃ G2 × Sp6 56 = (1, 14) + (7, 6)

E8 ⊃ SO16 248 = 120 + 128
⊃ SU5 × SU5 248 = (24, 1) + (1, 24) + (10, 5∗ ) + (10∗ , 5)
+(5∗ , 10) + (5, 10∗ )
⊃ SU3 × E6 248 = (8, 1) + (1, 78) + (3, 27) + (3∗ , 27∗ )
⊃ SU2 × E7 248 = (3 + 1) + (1 + 133) + (2 + 56)
⊃ SU9 248 = 80 + 84 + 84∗
⊃ SU2 248 = 3 + 15 + 23 + 27 + 35 + 39 + 47 + 59
⊃ SU2 248 = 3 + 11 + 15 + 19 + 23 + 230 + 27 + 29 + 35 + 39 + 47
⊃ SU2 248 = 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19 + 23 + 27 + 29 + 35 + 39 + 23
⊃ SU2 × SU3 248 = (3 + 1) + (1 + 8) + (7 + 8) + (5 + 10) + (5 + 10∗ )
⊃ G2 × F4 248 = (14 + 1) + (1 + 52) + (7 + 26)
⊃ Sp4 248 = 10 + 84 + 154
Table B.11: The dimensions of some irreducible representations of

B2 ,(SO(5)). Recall Γαi = µi − µi+1 , i = 1, 2, ..., ` − 1, Γα` = 2µ` .
SO(5)
(µ1 , µ2 ) Dynkin N(µ) (µ1 , µ2 ) Dynkin N(µ)
(Λ1 Λ2 ) (Λ1 Λ2 )
(00) (00) 1 (22) (04) 35
(10) (10) 5 (41) (32) 154
(20) (20) 14 (32) (14) 105
(11) (02) 10 (42) (24) 220
(30) (30) 30 (33) (06) 84
(21) (12) 35 (43) (16) 231
(40) (40) 55 (44) (08) 165
(31) (22) 81
( 12 , 21 ) (01) 4
( 32 , 21 ) (11) 16
( 32 , 23 ) (03) 20
Table B.12: The same as in Table B.11 but for B3 or (SO(7)).

SO(7) SO(7)
(µ1 , µ2 , µ3 ) Dynkin N (µ1 , µ2 , µ3 ) Dynkin N
(Λ1 Λ2 Λ3 ) (Λ1 Λ2 Λ3 )
(000) (000) 1 (112) (321) 1617
(100) (100) 7 (004) (222) 294
(200) (200) 27 (130) (430) 3003
(110) (010) 21 (212) (421) 4550
(300) (300) 77 (022) (331) 2079
(210) (110) 105 (104) (322) 1386
(111) (002) 35 (040) (440) 3003
(400) (400) 182 (114) (432) 7722
(310) (210) 330 (204) (422) 4095
(220) (020) 168 (014) (332) 2310
(211) (102) 189 (032) (441) 8008
(410) (310) 819 (114) (432) 9009
(320) (120) 693 (006) (333) 1386
(311) (202) 616 (024) (442) 10296
(221) (012) 378 (106) (433) 6006
(420) (220) 1911 (016) (443) 9009
(411) (302) 1560 (008) (444) 4719
(330) (030) 825 (500) (500) 378
Spinorial
( 21 , 12 , 21 ) (001) 7
( 23 , 32 , 21 ) (011) 112
( 23 , 32 , 23 ) (003) 112
Table B.13: The dimensions of some irreducible representations for

C n2 , (Sp(n)), n = 4, 6, 8.
n=4 n=6 n=8
r (ω1 ω2 ) N (ω) r (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) N (ω) r (ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ) N (ω)
0 (00) 1 0 (000) 1 0 (0000) 1
1 (10) 4 1 (100) 6 1 (1000) 8
(20) (10) (200) (21) (2000) (36)
2 2 2
(11) (5) (110) (14) (1100) 27
3 (21) 16 (210) 64 (2100) 160
3 3
4 (22) 14 (111) 14 (1110) 48
(220) 90 (2200) 308
3
(211) 70 4 (2110) 315
5 (221) 126 (1111) 42
6 (222) 84 (2210) 792
5
(2111) 288
(2220) 825
6
(2211) 792
7 (2221) 1056
8 (2222) 594
Table B.14: The reduction U(5) ⊃ SO(5) representations with rank r ≤ 10.
U(5) SO(5)
r N [f ]
[f ] (µ1 , µ2 )
0 [0] (00) 1
1 [1] (10) 5
[2] (20)(00) 15
2
[11] (11) 10
[3] (30)(10) 35
3
[21] (21) (10) 40
[4] (40)(20)(00) 70
[31] (31) (20)(11) 105
4
[22] (22)(20)(00) 50
[211] (21) (11) 45
[41] (41)(21)(30)(10) 224
[32] (32) (30)(21)(10) 175
5 [311] (31)(21)(11) 126
[221] (22)(21)(10) 75
[2111] (20) (11) 24
[42] (42)(40)(31)(22)(20)2 (00) 420
[411] (41) (31)(21)(11) 280
6 [33] (33)(31)(11) 175
[321] (32)(31)(22)(21)(20)(11) 280
[3111] (30) (21)(10) 70
[43] (43)(41)(32)(30)(21)(10) 560
[421] (42)(41)(32)(31)(22)(30) (21)2 (10) 700
[331] (33)(32)(31)(21)(11) 315
7
[4111] (40)(31)(20)(11) 160
[322] (32)(30)(22)(21)(10) 210
[3211] (31)(22)(21)(20)(11) 175
[44] (44)(42)(40)(22)(20)(00) 490
[431] (44)(42)(33)(41)(32)(31)2 (22)(21)(20)(11) 1050
8
[422] (42)(32)(40)(31)(22)2 (20)2 (00) 560
[4211] (41)(32)(31)(30) (21)2 (11) 450
[441] (44)(43)(42)(41)(32)(22)(30)(21)(10) 980
[432] (43)(42)(41)(33)(32)2 (31)(30)(22)(21)2 (10) 1120
9
[4311] (42)(40)(33),(32)(31)2 (22)(21)(20)(11) 720
[4221] (41)(32)(31)(22)(30)(21)2 (10) 480
[442] (44)(43)(42)2 (32)(40)(31)(22)2 (20)2 (00) 1176
[4411] (43)(33)(41)(32)(31)(21)(11) 700
10
[4321] (42)(41)(33)(32)2 (31)2 (30)(22)2 (21)2 (20)(11) 1024
[4222] (40)(31)(22)(20)2 (00) 200
Table B.15: The same as Table B.14 but for n = 7.

U(7) SO(7)
r N [f ]
[f ] (µ1 , µ2 , µ3 )
0 [0] (000) 1
1 [1] (100) 7
[2] (200)(000) 28
2
[11] (11) 21
[3] (300)(100) 84
3 [21] (210)(100) 112
[111] (111) 35
[4] (400)(200)(000) 210
[31] (110) (200)(310) 378
4
[22] (220)(200)(000) 196
[211] (211) (110) 210
[41] (100)(210)(300)(100) 1008
[32] (320) (300)(210)(100) 882
5 [311] (311)(210)(111) 756
[221] (221)(210)(100) 490
[2111] (211) (111) 224
[42] (400)(420)(310)(220)(200)2 (000) 2646
[411] (411) (310)(211)(110) 2100
[33] (330)(310)(110) 1176
[321] (321)(310)(220)(110)(200)(211) 2352
6
[222] (200) (220)(222)(000) 490
[3111] (111)(211)(311) 840
[2211] (110)(211)(221) 588
[21111] (111)(210) 140
Table B.16: The reduction U(n) ⊃ Sp(n), n = 4, 6, 8 with ranks r ≤ 4, r ≤ 6

and r ≤ 8 respectively.
n=4 n=6
r [f ] (ω) r [f ] (ω)
0 [0] (00) 0 [0] (000)
1 [1] (10) 1 [1] (100)
[2] (20) [2] (200)
2 2
[11] (00)(11) [11] (000)(110)
[21] (10)(21) [21] (100)(210)
3 3
[111] (100)(111)
[22] (00)(11)(22) [22] (100)(110)(220)
4 4
[211] (20)(11) [211] (200)(110)(211)
[221] (100)(210)(111)(221)
5
[2111] (100)(210)(111)
[222] (200) (211)(222)
6 [2211] (000) (110)2 (211)(220)
[21111] (110) (200)
n=8
r [f ] (ω)
0 [0] (0000)
1 [1] (1000)
[2] (2000)
2
[11] (0000)(1100)
[21] (1000)(2100)
3
[111] (1000)(1110)
[22] (0000) (1100)(2200)
4 [211] (2000)(1100)(2110)
[1111] (0000)(1100) (1111)
[221] (1000)(2100)(1110)(2220)
5
[2111] (1000)(2100)(1110)(2111)
[222] (2220) (2110)(2000)
6 [2211] (0000) (1000)2 (2200)(2110)(1111)(2211)
[21111] (2000)(1100)(2110) (1111)
[2221] (2210) (1110)(2111)(1000)(2100)(2221)
7 [22111] (1000) (1110)2 (2100)(2210)(2111)
[211111] (1000)(2100) (1110)
[2222] (0000) (1100)(2200)(1111)(2211)(2222)
[22211] (2000)(1100) (2110)2 (1111)(2220)(2211)
8
[221111] (0000) (1100)2 (2200)(2110)(1111)
[2111111] (2000) (1100)
Table B.17: The reduction SU(2j + 1) ⊃ SO(3) for j = 1 and r ≤ 6.

r [f ] J dim[f ]
0 [0] 0=S 1
1 [1] 1=P 3
2 [2] 0,2=S, D 6
[11]≡[1] 1=P 3
3 [3] 1,3=P, F 10
[21] 1,2=P, D 8
[111]≡[0] 0=S 1
4 [4] 0,2,4=S, D, G 15
[31] 1,2,3=P, D, F 15
[22]≡[2] 0,2=S, D 6
[211]≡[1] 1=P 3
5 [41] 1,2,3,4=P, D, F, G 24
[32]≡[31] 1,2,3=P, D, F 15
[311]≡[2] 0,2=S,D 6
[211]≡[1] 1=P 3
6 [42] 0, (2)2 , 3, 4 = S, D2 , F, G 27
[411]≡[3] 1,3=P, F 10
[33]≡[3] 1,3=P, F 10
[321]≡[21] 1,2=P,D 8
[222]≡[0] 0=S 1
3
r [f ] J dim[f ]
0 [0] 0 1
3
1 [1] 2 4
[2] 1,3 10
2
[11] 0,2 6
1 3 5 7
3 [21] 2,2,2,2 20
[22] 0,(2)2 , 4 20
4
[211] 1,2 ,3 15
Table B.19: The reduction SU(2j + 1) ⊃ SO(3) for j = 2 and r ≤ 10. We

show the multiplicities of each angular momentum indicated in the first
row. A dot indicates that the corresponding angular momentum is missing.
r [f ] S E D F G H I K L M N O dim
[f ]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 [0] 1 1
1 [1] · · 1 5
2 [2] 1 · 1 · 1 15
[11] · 1 · 1 10
3 [3] 1 · 1 1 1 · 1 35
[21] 1 2 1 1 1 40
4 [4] 1 · 2 · 2 1 1 · 1 70
[31] · 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 105
[22] 2 · 2 1 2 · 1 50
[211] · 2 1 2 1 1 45
5 [41] 1 2 3 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 224
[32] 1 2 4 3 4 3 2 1 1 175
[311] · 3 2 4 2 3 1 1 126
[221] 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 75
[2111] · 1 1 1 1 24
6 [42] 3 2 7 5 8 5 6 3 3 1 1 420
[411] · 4 3 6 4 5 3 3 1 1 280
[33] · 3 1 5 2 3 2 2 · 1 175
[321] 1 4 6 6 6 5 3 2 1 280
[3111] 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 70
7 [43] 1 4 7 7 8 8 6 5 4 2 1 1 560
[421] 3 6 10 11 12 10 9 6 4 2 1 700
[331] · 5 4 7 5 6 3 3 1 1 315
[4111] · 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 160
[322] 2 2 5 4 5 3 3 1 1 210
[3211] 1 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 175
308
r [f ] S E D F G H I K L M N O Q dim
8 [44] 4 1 6 4 8 4 7 3 4 2 2 · 1 490

[432] 2 9 12 16 15 15 12 10 6 4 2 1 1050
[422] 4 3 10 7 11 7 8 4 4 1 1 560
[4211] 1 6 6 9 8 8 5 4 2 1 450
9 [441] 4 5 11 11 14 11 12 8 7 4 3 1 1 980
[432] 3 9 14 16 17 16 13 10 7 4 2 1 1120
[4311] 2 7 10 12 12 11 9 6 4 2 1 720
[4221] 2 5 8 9 9 8 6 4 2 1 480
10 [442] 6 5 15 12 18 13 15 9 9 4 4 1 1 1176
[4411] · 7 7 11 9 11 7 7 4 3 1 1 700
[4321] 4 10 14 18 18 15 13 9 5 3 1 1024
[4222] 2 1 5 3 5 3 3 1 1 200
Table B.20: The reduction SU(2j + 1) ⊃ SO(3) for j = 5/2 and r ≤ 6.

r [f ] J dim
[f ]
0 [0] 0 1
1 [1] 5/2 6
2 [2] 1,3,5 21
[11] 0,2,4 15
3 [21] 1/2, 3/2, (5/2)2 , (7/2)2 , 9/2, 11/2, 13/2 70
[111] 3/2,5/2,9/2 20
4 [22] (0)2 , (2)2 , 3, (4)2 , 5, (6)2 , 8 105
[211] (1)2 , (2)2 , (3)3 , (4)2 , (5)2 , 6, 7 105
5 [221] (1/2)2 , (3/2)3 , (5/2)4 , (7/2)4 , (9/2)4 , (11/2)3 , (13/2)2 ,
15/2,17/2 210
[2111] 1/2, (3/2)2 , (5/2)2 , (7/2)2 , (9/2)2 , 11/2, 13/2 84
6 [222] (1)3 , 2, (3)5 , (4)2 , (5)3 , (6)2 , (7)2 , 9 175
[2211] (0)2 , 1, (2)5 , (3)3 , (4)5 , (5)2 , (6)3 , 7, 8 189
[21111] 1,2,3,4,5 35
r [f ] J= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 dim
[f ]
0 [0] 1 1
1 [1] · · · 1 7
2 [2] 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 28
[11] · 1 · 1 · 1 21
3 [3] · 1 · 2 1 1 1 1 · 1 84
[21] · 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 112
[111] 1 · 1 1 1 · 1 35
4 [4] 2 · 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 · 1 210
[31] · 3 3 5 4 5 4 4 2 2 1 1 378
[22] 2 · 4 1 4 2 3 1 2 · 1 196
[211] · 3 2 4 3 4 2 2 1 1 210
Table B.22: The reduction SU(2j + 1) ⊃ SO(3) for j = 7/2 and r ≤ 4.

r [f ] J dim
[f ]
0 [0] 0 1
1 [1] 7/2 8
2 [2] 1,3,5,7 36
[11] 0,2,4,6 28
3 1/2,3/2,(5/2)2 ,(7/2)3 ,(9/2)2 ,(11/2)2 ,(13/2)2 ,15/2,17/2,
[21]
19/2 168
[111] 3/2,5/2,7/2,9/2,11/2,15/2 56
4 [22] 03 ,24 ,32 ,45 ,52 ,65 ,72 ,83 ,9,102 ,12 336
[211] 13 ,23 ,35 ,44 ,55 ,64 ,74 ,82 ,92 ,10,11 378
[1111] 0,22 ,42 ,5,6,8 70
Table B.23: The branching in the chain SU(4) ⊃ SU(3) ⊗ U(1). We show
the Dynkin labels and the dimension of the SU(4) representation (Λαi =
fi − fi+1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , ` − 1, Λ` = 2f` ). The quantum number Y (see
chapter 11) associated with U(1) is enclosed in parentheses.
(100) = 4 = 1(1) + 3(− 13 )
(010) = 6 = 3( 23 ) + 3∗ (− 23 )
(200) = 10 = 1(2) + 3( 32 ) + 6(− 23 )
(101) = 15 = 1(0) + 3(− 34 ) + 3∗ ( 34 ) + 8(0)
(011) = 20 = 3(− 31 ) + 3∗ (− 35 ) + 6∗ (− 13 ) + 8(1)
(020) = 20 = 6∗ (− 34 ) + 6( 34 ) + 8(0)
(003) = 20 = 1(−3) + 3∗ (− 53 ) + 6(− 13 ) + 10(1)
(400) = 35 = 1(4) + 3( 38 ) + 6( 34 ) + 10(0) + 150 (− 43 )
(201) = 36 = 1(1) + 3(− 31 ) + 3∗ ( 37 ) + 6(− 53 ) + 8(1) + 15(− 31 )
(210) = 45 = 3( 38 ) + 3∗ ( 34 ) + 6( 43 ) + 8(0) + 10(0) + 15(− 34 )
(030) = 50 = 10(2) + 10∗ (−2) + 15( 23 ) + 15∗ (− 32 )
0 ∗
(500) = 56 = 1(5) + 3( 11 7 1
3 ) + 6( 3 ) + 10(1) + 15 (− 3 ) + 21 (− 3 )
5
(120) = 60 = 6∗ (− 31 ) + 6( 37 ) + 8(1) + 10(1) + 15(− 31 ) + 15∗ (− 35 )

(111) = 64 = 3( 32 ) + 3∗ (− 32 ) + 6∗ ( 32 ) + 6(− 23 ) + 8(2) + 8(−2) + 15( 32 )
+15∗ (− 32 )
Table B.24: The same as in Table B.23 but for SU(6) ⊃ SU(4) ⊗ U(1) and SU(5) ⊃ SU(2) ⊗ SU(3) ⊗ U(1).
SU5 ⊃ SU4 × U1
(1000) = 5 = 1(4) + 4(−1)
(0100) = 10 = 4(3) + 6(−2)
(2000) = 15 = 1(8) + 4(3) + 10(−2)
(1001) = 24 = 1(0) + 4(−5) + 4∗ (5) + 15(0)
(0003) = 35 = 1(−12) + 4∗ (−7) + 10∗ (−2) + 2000 (3)
(0011) = 40 = 4∗ (−7) + 6(−2) + 10∗ (−2) + 20(3)
(0101) = 45 = 4(−1) + 6(−6) + 15(4) + 20(−1)
10∗ (−6) + 20(−1) + 200 (4)
Some Useful Tables

(0020) = 50 =
(2001) = 70 = 1(4) + 4(−1) + 4∗ (9) + 10(−6) + 15(4) + 36(−1)
(0004) = 700 = 1(−16) + 4∗ (−11) + 10∗ (−6) + 2000 (−1) + 35∗ (4)
(0110) = 75 = 15(0) + 20(−5) + 20∗ (5) + 200 (0)
SU5 ⊃ SU2 × SU3 × U1
5 = (2, 1)(3) + (1, 3)(−2)
10 = (1, 1)(6) + (1, 3∗ )(−4) + (2, 3)(1)
15 = (3, 1)(6) + (2, 3)(1) + (1, 6)(−4)
24 = (1, 1)(0) + (3, 1)(0) + (2, 3)(−5) + (2, 3∗ )(5) + (1, 8)(0)
35 = (4, 1)(−9) + (3, 3∗ )(−4) + (2, 6∗ )(1) + (1, 10∗ )(6)
40 = (2, 1)(−9) + (2, 3)(1) + (1, 3∗ )(−4) + (3, 3∗ )(−4) + (1, 8)(6) + (2, 6)(1)
45 = (2, 1)(3) + (1, 3)(−2) + (3, 3(−2)) + (1, 3∗ )(8) + (2, 3∗ )(−7) + (1, 6∗ )(−2) + (2, 8)(3)
50 = (1, 1)(−12) + (1, 3)(−2) + (2, 3∗ )(−7) + (3, 6∗ )(−2) + (1, 6)(8) + (2, 8)(3)
70 = (2, 1)(3) + (4, 1)(3) + (1, 3)(−2) + (3, 3)(−2) + (3, 3∗ )(8) + 2, 6(−7) + (2, 8)(3) + (1, 15)(−2)
∗
700 = (5, 1)(−12) + (4, 3)(−7) + (3, 6∗ )(−2) + (2, 10∗ )(3) + (1, 150 )(8)
311
75 = (1 1)(0) + (1 3)(10) + (2 3)( 5) + (1 3
312
Table B.25: As in Table B.23 but for SU(6) ⊃ G⊗U(1) with G = SU(4), G = SU(2)⊗SU(4) and G = SU(3)⊗SU(3).
SU6 ⊃ SU4 ⊃ U1
(10000) = 6 = 1(−5) + 5(−1)
(01000) = 15 = 5(−4) + 10(2)
(00100) = 29 = 10(−3) + 10∗ (3)
(20000) = 21 = 1(−10) + 5(−4) + 15(2)
(00001) = 35 = 1(0) + 5(6) + 5∗ (−6) + 24(0)
(30000) = 56 = 1(−15) + 5(−9) + 15(−3) + 35∗ (3)

(11000) = 70 = 5(−9) + 10(−3) + 15(−3) + 40∗ (3)
(01001) = 84 = 5(1) + 10(7) + 24(−5) + 45(1)
(00101) = 105 = 10(2) + 10∗ (8) + 40(2) + 45(−4)
(00020) = 1050 = 15∗ (8) + 40(2) + 50(−4)
U6 ⊃ SU2 × SU4 × U1
6 = (2, 1)(2) + (1, 4)(−1)
15 = (1, 1)(4) + (1, 6)(−2) + (2, 4)(1)
20 = (1, 4)(3) + (1, 4∗ )(−3) + (2, 6)(0)
21 = (3, 1)(4) + (2, 4)(1) + (1, 10)(−2)
35 = (1, 1)(0) + (3, 1)(0) + (1, 15)(0) + (3, 4)(−3) + (1, 4)(3)
56 = (4, 1)(6) + (3, 4)(3) + (2, 10)(0) + (1, 20∗00 )(−3)
70 = (2, 1)(6) + (1, 4)(3) + (3, 4)(3) + (2, 6)(0) + (2, 10)(0) + (1, 20∗ )(−3)
84 = (2, 1)(2) + (1, 4)(5) + (1, 4∗ )(−1) + (3, 4)(−1) + (2, 6)(−4) + (1, 20)(−1) + (2, 15)(2)
105 = (2, 4)(1) + (2, 4∗ )(−5) + (1, 6)(−2) + (3, 6)(−2) + (1, 10∗ )(−2) + (1, 15)(4) + (2, 20)(1)
1050 = (1, 1)(−8) + (1, 6)(−2) + (2, 4∗ )(−5) + (3, 10∗ )(−2) + (1, 200 )(4) + (2, 20)(1)
SU6 ⊃ SU3 × SU3 × U1

6 = (3, 1)(1) + (1, 3)(−1)
Some Useful Tables

15 = (3 , 1)(2) + (1, 3∗ )(−2) + (3, 3)(0)
∗
20 = (1, 1)(3) + (1, 1)(−3) + (3, 3∗ )(−1) + (3∗ , 3)(1)

21 = (6, 1)(2) + (1, 6)(−2) + (3, 3)(0)
35 = (1, 1)(0) + (8, 1)(0) + (1, 8)(0) + (3, 3∗ )(2) + (3∗ , 3)(−2)
56 = (10, 1)(3) + (1, 10)(−3) + (3, 6)(−1) + (6, 3)(1)
70 = (8, 1)(3) + (1, 8)(−3) + (3, 3∗ )(−1) + (3∗ , 3)(1) + (3, 6)(−1) + (6, 3)(1)
84 = (3, 1)(1) + (1, 3)(−1) + (6∗ , 1)(1) + (1, 6∗ )(−1) + (3∗ , 3∗ )(−3) + (3, 8)(1) + (8, 3)(−1)
105 = (3 , 1)(2)+(3∗ , 1)(−4) + (1, 3∗ )(−2) + (1, 3∗ )(4) + (3, 3)(0) + (6∗ , 3)(0) + (3, 6∗ )(0) + (8, 3∗ )(−2) + (3∗ , 8)(2)
∗
1050 = (6, 1)(−4) + (1, 6)(4) + (3, 3)(0) + (8, 3∗ )(−2) + (3∗ , 8)(2) + (6∗ , 6∗ )(0)
313
Table B.26: As in Table B.25 but for SO(9) ⊃ SO(8) and SO(9) ⊃ SU(2) ⊗
SU(4).
SO9 ⊃ SO8
9 = 1 + 8v
16 = 8 c + 8s
36 = 8v + 28
44 = 1 + 8v + 35v
84 = 28 + 56v
126 = 35c + 35s + 56v
128 = 8c + 8s + 56c + 56s
156 = 1 + 8v + 35v + 112v
231 = 8v + 28 + 35v + 160v
432 = 56c + 56s + 160c + 160s
450 = 1 + 8v + 35v + 112v + 294v
495 = 35v + 160v + 300
576 = 8c + 8s + 56c + 56s + 224vc + 224vs
594 = 28 + 56v + 160v + 350
SO9 ⊃ SU2 × SU4

9 = (3, 1) + (1, 6)
16 = (2, 4) + (2, 4∗ )
36 = (3, 1) + (1, 15) + (3, 6)
44 = (1, 1) + (5, 1) + (3, 6) + (1, 200 )
Some Useful Tables

84 = (1, 1) + (1, 10) + (1, 10∗ ) + (3, 6) + (3, 15)
126 = (1, 6) + (1, 15) + (3, 10) + (3, 10∗ ) + (3, 15)
128 = (2, 4) + (2, 4∗ ) + (4, 4) + (4, 4∗ ) + (2, 20) + (2, 20∗ )
156 = (3, 1) + (1, 6) + (7, 1) + (5, 6) + (1, 50) + (3, 200 )
231 = (3, 1) + (5, 1) + (1, 6) + (3, 6) + (5, 6) + (3, 15) + (3, 200 ) + (1, 64)
432 = (2, 4) + (2, 4∗ ) + (4, 4) + (4, 4∗ ) + (2, 20) + (2, 20∗ ) + (4, 20) + (4, 20∗ ) + (2, 36) + (2, 36∗ )
450 = (1, 1) + (5, 1) + (9, 1) + (3, 6) + (7, 6) + (1, 200 ) + (5, 200 ) + (3, 50) + (1, 105)
495 = (1, 1) + (5, 1) + (3, 6) + (5, 6) + (1, 200 ) + (5, 200 ) + (3, 15) + (3, 64) + (1, 84)
576 = (2, 4) + (2, 4 ) + (4, 4) + (4, 4∗ ) + (6, 4) + (6, 4∗ ) + (2, 20) + (2, 20∗ ) + (4, 20) + (4, 20∗ ) + (2, 60) + (2, 60∗ )
∗
+(2, 60) + (2, 60∗ )

594 = (3, 1) + (1, 6) + (3, 6) + (5, 6) + (1, 15) + (3, 15) + (5, 15) + (3, 10) + (3, 10∗ ) + (3, 200 ) + (1, 45)
+(1, 45∗ ) + (3, 64)
315
316
Table B.27: As in Table B.25 but for SO(10) ⊃ SU(5) ⊗ U(1) and SO(10) ⊃ SU(2) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ SU(4).
SO10 ⊃ SU5 × U1
(10000) = 10 = 5(2) + 5∗ (−2)
(00001) = 16 = 1(−5) + 5∗ (3) + 10(−1)
(01000) = 45 = 1(0) + 10(4) + 10∗ (−4) + 24(0)
(20000) = 54 = 15(4) + 15∗ (−4) + 24(0)
(00100) = 120 = 5(2) + 5 (−2) + 10(−6) + 10∗ (6) + 45(2) + 45∗ (−2)
∗
(00002) = 126 = 1(−10) + 5∗ (−2) + 10(−6) + 15∗ (6) + 45(2) + 50∗ (−2)
(10010) = 144 = 5∗ (3) + 5(7) + 10(−1) + 15(−1) + 24(−5) + 40(−1) + 45∗ (3)

(00011) = 210 = 1(0) + 5(−8) + 5∗ (8) + 10∗ (4) + 10∗ (−4) + 24(0) + 40(−4) + 40∗ (4) + 75(0)
(30000) = 2100 = 35(−6) + 35∗ (6) + 70(2) + 70∗ (−2)
(11000) = 320 = 5(2) + 5∗ (−2) + 40(−6) + 40∗ (6) + 45(2) + 45∗ (−2) + 70(2) + 70∗ (−2)
(01001) = 560 = 1(−5) + 5∗ (3) + 10∗ (−9) + 101 (−1) + 102 (−1) + 24(−5) + 40(−1) + 45(7)
+45(3) + 50(3) + 70(3) + 75(−5) + 175(−1)
SO10 ⊃ SU2 × SU2 × SU4
10 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 6)
16 = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 2, 4∗ )
45 = (3, 1, 1) + (1, 3, 1) + (1, 1, 15) + (2, 2, 6)
54 = (1, 1, 1) + (3, 3, 1) + (1, 1, 200 ) + (2, 2, 6)
120 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 10) + (1, 1, 10∗ ) + (3, 1, 6) + (1, 3, 6) + (2, 2, 15)
126 = (1, 1, 6) + (3, 1, 10∗ ) + (1, 3, 10) + (2, 2, 15)
144 = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 2, 4∗ ) + (3, 2, 4∗ ) + (2, 3, 4) + (2, 1, 10) + (1, 2, 20∗ )
210 = (1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 15) + (2, 2, 6) + (3, 1, 15) + (2, 2, 10) + (2, 2, 10∗ )
2100 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 6) + (4, 4, 1) + (3, 3, 6) + (2, 2, 200 ) + (1, 1, 50)
320 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 6) + (4, 2, 1) + (2, 4, 1) + (3, 1, 6) + (1, 3, 6) + (2, 2, 15) + (3, 3, 6) + (1, 1, 64) + (2, 2, 200 )
560 = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 2, 4∗ ) + (4, 1, 4) + (1, 4, 4∗ ) + (2, 3, 4) + (3, 2, 4) + (2, 1, 20) + (1, 2, 20∗ )
+(2, 1, 36) + (1, 2, 36∗ ) + (2, 3, 20) + (3, 2, 20∗ )
Table B.28: The same as in Table B.23 but for SO(10) ⊃ SO(9) (top) and
SO(10) ⊃ SO(3) ⊗ SO(7) (bottom).
SO10 ⊃ SO9
10 = 1+9
16 = 16
45 = 9 + 36
54 = 1 + 9 + 44
120 = 36 + 84
126 = 126
144 = 16 + 128
210 = 84 + 126
2100 = 1 + 9 + 44 + 156
320 = 9 + 36 + 44 + 231
560 = 128 + 432
SO(10) ⊃ SO(3) ⊗ SO(7)
10 = (3, 1) + (1, 7)
16 = (2, 8)
45 = (3, 1) + (1, 21) + (3, 7)
54 = (1, 1) + (5, 1) + (3, 7) + (1, 27)
120 = (1, 1) + (3, 7) + (1, 35) + (3, 21)
126 = (1, 21) + (3, 35)
144 = (2, 8) + (4, 8) + (2, 48)
210 = (1, 7) + (1, 35) + (3, 21) + (3, 35)
2100 = (3, 1) + (7, 1) + (1, 7) + (5, 7) + (3, 27) + (1, 77)
320 = (3, 1) + (5, 1) + (1, 7) + (3, 7) + (5, 7) + (3, 21) + (3, 27) + (1, 105)
560 = (2, 8) + (4, 8) + (2, 48) + (4, 48) + (2, 112)
318
Table B.29: The same as in Table B.25 for SO(10) ⊃ SU(5) ⊗ U(1) and SO(10) ⊃ SU(2) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ SU(4).
SO10 ⊃ SU5 × U1
(10000) = 10 = 5(2) + 5∗ (−2)
(00001) = 16 = 1(−5) + 5∗ (3) + 10(−1)
(01000) = 45 = 1(0) + 10(4) + 10∗ (−4) + 24(0)
(20000) = 54 = 15(4) + 15∗ (−4) + 24(0)
(00100) = 120 = 5(2) + 5 (−2) + 10(−6) + 10∗ (6) + 45(2) + 45∗ (−2)
∗
(00002) = 126 = 1(−10) + 5∗ (−2) + 10(−6) + 15∗ (6) + 45(2) + 50∗ (−2)
(10010) = 144 = 5∗ (3) + 5(7) + 10(−1) + 15(−1) + 24(−5) + 40(−1) + 45∗ (3)

(00011) = 210 = 1(0) + 5(−8) + 5∗ (8) + 10(4) + 10∗ (−4) + 24(0) + 40(−4) + 40∗ (4) + 75(0)
(30000) = 2100 = 35(−6) + 35∗ (6) + 70(2) + 70∗ (−2)
(11000) = 320 = 5(2) + 5∗ (−2) + 40(−6) + 40∗ (6) + 45(2) + 45∗ (−2) + 70(2) + 70∗ (−2)
(01001) = 560 = 1(−5) + 5∗ (3) + 10∗ (−9) + 10(−1)1 + 10(−1)2 + 24(−5) + 40(−1) + 45(7)
+45(3) + 50(3) + 70(3) + 75(−5) + 175(−1)
SO10 ⊃ SU2 × SU2 × SU4
10 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 6)
16 = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 2, 4∗ )
45 = (3, 1, 1) + (1, 3, 1) + (1, 1, 15) + (2, 2, 6)
54 = (1, 1, 1) + (3, 3, 1) + (1, 1, 200 ) + (2, 2, 6)
120 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 10) + (1, 1, 10∗ ) + (3, 1, 6) + (1, 3, 6) + (2, 2, 15)
126 = (1, 1, 6) + (3, 1, 10∗ ) + (1, 3, 10) + (2, 2, 15)
144 = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 2, 4∗ ) + (3, 2, 4∗ ) + (2, 3, 4) + (2, 1, 10) + (1, 2, 20∗ )
210 = (1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 15) + (2, 2, 6) + (3, 1, 15) + (2, 2, 10) + (2, 2, 10∗ )
2100 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 6) + (4, 4, 1) + (3, 3, 6) + (2, 2, 200 ) + (1, 1, 50)
320 = (2, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 6) + (4, 2, 1) + (2, 4, 1) + (3, 1, 6) + (1, 3, 6) + (2, 2, 15) + (3, 3, 6) + (1, 1, 64) + (2, 2, 200 )
560 = (2, 1, 4) + (1, 2, 4∗ ) + (4, 1, 4) + (1, 4, 4∗ ) + (2, 3, 4) + (3, 2, 4) + (2, 1, 20) + (1, 2, 20∗ )
+(2, 1, 36) + (1, 2, 36∗ ) + (2, 3, 20) + (3, 2, 20∗ )
Table B.30: The Dynkin symbol, the dimension and the index, ` of SU(8).
We also show the branching ratio SU(8) ⊃ SO(8).
Dynkin dim ` SU8 ⊃ SO8
(1000000) 8 1 8v
(0100000) 28 6 28
(2000000) 36 10 1 + 35v
(0010000) 56 15 56v
(1000001) 63 16 28 + 35v
(0001000) 70 20 35s + 35c
(3000000) 120 55 8v + 112v
(1100000) 168 61 8v + 160v
(0100001) 216 75 56v + 160v
(2000001) 280 115 8v + 112v + 160v
(4000000) 330 220 1 + 35v + 294v
(0200000) 336 160 1 + 35v + 300
(1010000) 378 156 28 + 350
(0010001) 420 170 35s + 35c + 350
(0001001) 504 215 56v + 224sv + 224cv
(2100000) 630 340 28 + 35v + 567v
(0100010) 720 320 35s + 35c + 300 + 350
(0000005) 792 715 8v + 112V + 6720v
(3000001) 924 550 28 + 35v + 294v + 567v
(2000010) 945 480 28 + 350 + 567v
(0000110) 1008 526 8v + 160v + 840v
(0000200) 1176 700 1 + 35v + 300 + 840v
Table B.31: The Dynkin representation, the dimension the index `/6 of F4 .
Dynkin dimension `/6 Dynkin dimension `/6
(0001) 26 1 (1002) 10829 1666
(1000) 52 3 (3000) 12376 2618
(0010) 273 21 (0004) 16302 3135
(0002) 324 27 (2001) 17901 3213
(1001) 1053 108 (0101) 19278 3213
(2000) 10530 135 (0020) 19448 3366
(0100) 1274 147 (1100) 29172 5610
(0003) 2652 357 (0012) 34749 6237
(0011) 4096 512 (1003) 76076 16093
(1010) 8424 1242 (0005) 81081 20790
Table B.32: The same as in Table B.31 but for E6 .

Dynkin Dimension `/6 Dynkin Dimension `/6
(100000) 27 1 (000021) 19305 2695
(000001) 78 4 (400000) 193050 3520
(000100) 351 25 (020000) 34398 5390
(000020) 3510 28 (100011) 34749 4752
(100010) 650 50 (000003) 43758 7854
(100001) 1728 160 (100002) 46332 7260
(000002) 2430 270 (101000) 51975 7700
(001000) 2925 300 (210000) 54054 8932
(300000) 3003 385 (100030) 61425 10675
(000110) 5824 672 (010100) 70070 10780
(010010) 7371 840 (010020) 78975 12825
(200010) 7722 946 (200020) 85293 14580
(000101) 17550 2300 (100110) 112320 18080
Table B.33: The branching SU(8) ⊃ SU(3) × SU(5) ⊗ U(1).

SU8 ⊃ SU3 × SU5 × U1
(1000000) = 8 = (3, 1)(−5) + (1, 5)(3)
(0100000) = 28 = (3∗ , 1)(−10) + (1, 10)(6) + (3, 5)(−2)
(2000000) = 36 = (6, 1)(−10) + (1, 15)(6) + (3, 5)(−2)
(0010000) = 56 = (1, 1)(−15) + (1, 10∗ )(9) + (3∗ , 5)(8)
+(1, 24)(0)
(1000001) = 63 = (1, 1)(0) + (8, 1)(0) + (3, 5∗ )(−8) + (3∗ , 5)(8)
+(1, 24)(0)
(0001000) = 70 = (1, 5)(−12) + (1, 5∗ )(12) + (3, 10∗ )(4)
+(3∗ , 10)(−4)
(3000000) = 120 = (10, 1)(−15) + (6, 5)(−7) + (3, 15)(1) + (1, 35∗ )(9)
+(1, 35∗ )(9)
∗
(1100000) = 168 = (8, 1)(−15) + (3 , 5)(−7) + (6, 5)(−7) + (3, 10)(1)
+(1, 40∗ )(9) + (3, 15)(1)
(0100001) = 216 = (3, 1)(−5) + (1, 5)(3) + (6∗ , 1)(−5) + (3∗ , 5∗ )(−13)
+(3∗ , 10)(11) + (8, 5)(3) + (1, 45)(3) + (3, 24)(−5)
Table B.34: The reduction F4 ⊃ SO(9) and F4 ⊃ SU(3) ⊗ SU(3).

F4 ⊃ SO9
(0001) = 26 = 1 + 9 + 16
(1000) = 52 = 16 + 36
(0010) = 273 = 9 + 16 + 36 + 84 + 128
(0002) = 324 = 1 + 9 + 16 + 44 + 126 + 128
(1001) = 1053 = 16 + 36 + 84 + 126 + 128 + 231 + 432
(2000) = 10530 = 126 + 432 + 495
(0100) = 1274 = 36 + 84 + 128 + 432 + 594
F4 ⊃ SU3 × SU3
26 = (8, 1) + (3, 3) + (3∗ , 3∗ )
52 = (8, 10) + (1, 8) + (6, 3∗ ) + (6∗ , 3)
273 = (1, 1) + (8, 1) + (3, 3) + (3∗ , 3∗ ) + (10, 1) + (10∗ , 1) + (6, 3∗ )
+(6∗ , 3) + (3, 6∗ ) + (3∗ , 6) + (15, 3)
273 = (1, 1) + (8, 1) + (3, 3) + (3∗ , 3∗ ) + (10, 1) + (10∗ , 1) + (6, 3∗ ) + (6∗ , 3)
+(3, 6∗ ) + (3∗ , 6) + (15, 3) + (15∗ , 3∗ ) + (8, 8)
324 = (1, 1) + (8, 1) + (1, 8) + (3, 3) + (3∗ , 3∗ ) + (6, 3∗ ) + (6∗ , 3) + (27, 1)
+(6, 6) + (6∗ , 6∗ ) + (15, 3)(15∗ , 3∗ ) + (8, 8)
322
Table B.35: The branching of the chains E6 ⊃ F4 , E6 ⊃ SO(10) ⊗ U(1), E6 ⊃ SU(2) ⊗ SU(6) and E6 ⊃ SUw (3) ⊗
SU(3) ⊗ SUc (3).
E6 ⊃ F4
(100000) = 27 = 1 + 26
(000001) = 78 = 26 + 52
(000100) = 351 = 26 + 52 + 273
(000020) = 3510 = 1 + 26 + 324

(100010) = 650 = 1 + 261 + 262 + 273 + 324
(100001) = 1728 = 26 + 52 + 273 + 324 + 1053
(000002) = 2430 = 324 + 1053 + 10530
(001000) = 2925 = 52 + 2731 + 2732 + 1053 + 1274
E6 ⊃ SO10 × U1
27 = 1(4) + 10(−2) + 16(1)
78 = 1(0) + 45(0) + 16(−3) + 16∗ (3)
351 = 10(−2) + 16∗ (−5) + 16(1) + 45(4) + 120(−2) + 144(1)
0
351 = 1(−8) + 10(−2) + 16∗ (−5) + 54(4) + 126∗ (−2) + 144(1)
650 = 1(0) + 10(6) + 10(−6) + 16(3) + 16∗ (3) + 45(0) + 54(0) + 144(−3) + 144∗ (3) + 210(0)
1728 = 1(4) + 10(−2) + 161 (+1) + 162 (+1) + 16∗ (+7) + 45(+4) + 120(−2) + 126(−2) + 144(1)
+144∗ (−5) + 210(4) + 320(−2) + 560(1)
2430 = 1(0) + 16(−3) + 16 (3) + 45(0) + 126(−6) + 126∗ (6) + 210(0) + 560(−3) + 560∗ (3) + 770(0)
∗
2925 = 16(−3) + 16∗ (3) + 451 (0) + 452 (0) + 1201 (6) + 1202 (−6) + 144(−3) + 144∗ (3) + 210(0)
+560(−3) + 560∗ (3) + 945(0)

E6 ⊃ SUW (3) × SU(3) × SUC (3)
27 = (3∗ , 3, 1) + (3, 1, 3) + (1, 3∗ , 3∗ )
78 = (8, 1, 1) + (1, 8, 1) + (1, 1, 8) + (3, 3, 3∗ )
+(3∗ , 3∗ , 3)
351 = (3 , 3, 1) + (3 , 6∗ , 1) + (6, 3, 1) + (3, 1, 3)
∗ ∗
+(6∗ , 1, 3) + (3, 8, 3) + (1, 3∗ , 3∗ )

+1, 6, 3∗ + (8, 3∗ , 3∗ ) + (3, 1, 6∗ ) + (1, 3∗ , 6) + (3∗ , 3, 8)
3510 = (3∗ , 3, 1) + (6, 6∗ , 1) + (3, 1, 3) + (3, 8, 3) + (1, 3∗ , 3∗ + (8, 3∗ , 3∗ )
+(8, 3∗ , 3∗ ) + (6∗ , 1, 6∗ ) + (1, 6, 6) + (3∗ , 3, 8)
650 = (1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 1) + (8, 1, 1) + (1, 8, 1) + (1, 1, 8) + (3, 3, 3∗ ) + (3, 3, 3∗ )
+(3∗ , 3∗ , 3)(3∗ , 3∗ , 3) + (6, 3∗ , 3) + (3∗ , 6, 3) + (6∗ , 3, 3∗ ) + (3, 6∗ , 3∗ )
+(3∗ , 3∗ , 6∗ ) + (3, 3, 6) + (8, 8, 1) + (8, 1, 8) + (1, 8, 8)
1728 = (3 , 3, 1) + (3∗ , 3, 1) + (3∗ , 6∗ , 1) + (6, 3, 1) + (3∗ , 15, 1) + (15∗ , 3, 1)
∗
+(3, 1, 3) + (3, 1, 3) + (6∗ , 1, 3) + (3, 8, 3) + (3, 8, 3) + (15, 1, 3)

+(6∗ , 8, 3) + (1, 3∗ , 3∗ ) + (1, 3∗ , 3∗ ) + (1, 6, 3∗ ) + (8, 3∗ , 3∗ )
+(8, 3∗ , 3∗ ) + (1, 15∗ , 3∗ ) + (8, 6, 3∗ ) + (3, 1, 6∗ ) + (3, 8, 6∗ ) + (3, 8, 6∗ )
+(1, 3∗ , 6) + (8, 3∗ , 6) + (3∗ , 3, 8) + (3∗ , 3, 8) + (3∗ , 6∗ , 8)
+(6, 3, 8) + (3, 1, 15) + (1, 3∗ , 15∗ )
Table B.36: The E7 Dynkin symbol, the dimension, the index `/12 and the
branching ratio E7 ⊃ E6 .
Dynkin Dimension `/12 E7 ⊃ E6
(0000010) 56 1 1 + 1 + 27 + 27∗
(1000000) 133 3 1 + 27 + 27∗ + 78
(0000001) 912 30 27 + 27∗ + 8 + 78 + 351
+351∗
(0000020) 1463 55 1 + 1 + 1 + 27 + 27 + 27∗ + 27∗ + 3510
∗
+3510 + 650
(0000100) 1593 54 1 + 27 + 27 + 27 + 27∗ + 78 + 351
∗
+351∗ + 650
(1000010) 6480 270
(2000000) 7271 351
(0100000) 8645 390
(0000030) 24320 1440
(0001000) 27644 1430
(0000011) 40755 2145
(0000110) 51072 2832
(1000001) 86184 4995
Table B.37: The branching E7 ⊃ G with G as indicated.

E7 ⊃ G = SU8
(0000010) = 56 = 28 + 28∗
(1000000) = 133 = 63 + 70
(0000001) = 912 = 36 + 36∗ + 420 + 420∗
(0000020) = 1463 = 1 + 70 + 336 + 336∗ + 720
(0000100) = 1539 = 63 + 378 + 378∗ + 720
E7 ⊃ G = SU2 × SO12
56 = (2, 12) + (1, 32)
133 = (3, 1) + (2, 320 ) + (1, 66)
912 = (2, 12) + (3, 32) + (1, 352) + (2, 220)
1463 = (1, 66) + (3, 77) + (1, 462) + (2, 3520 )
1539 = (1, 1) + (2, 320 ) + (1, 77) + (3, 66) + (1, 495) + (2, 3520 )
E7 ⊃ G = SU3 × SU6
56 = (3, 6) + (3∗ , 6∗ ) + (1, 20)
133 = (8, 1) + (1, 35) + (3, 15∗ ) + (3∗ , 15)
912 = (3, 6) + (3 , 6 ) + (6, 6∗ ) + (6∗ , 6) + (1, 70) + (1, 70∗ ) + (8, 20)
∗ ∗
+(3, 84) + (3∗ , 84∗ )

1463 = (1, 1) + (1, 35) + (3, 15∗ ) + (3∗ , 15) + (6, 21) + (6∗ , 21∗ )
+(1, 175) + (8, 35) + (3, 105∗ ) + (3∗ , 105)
1539 = (1, 1) + (8, 1) + (1, 35) + (3, 15∗ ) + (3∗ , 15) + (3, 21∗ ) + (3∗ , 21)
+(6, 15) + (6∗ , 15∗ ) + (1, 189) + (3, 105∗ ) + (3∗ , 105) + (8, 35)
Table B.38: The E8 Dynkin symbol, the dimension and the index, `/60.
Dynkin Dimension `/60 Dynkin Dimension `/60
(10000000) 248 1 (30000000) 1763125 22750
(00000010) 3875 25 (00100000) 2450240 29640
(20000000) 27000 225 (11000000) 4096000 51200
(01000000) 30380 245 (00000020) 4881384 65610
(00000001) 147250 1425 (00000100) 6696000 88200
(10000010) 779247 8379 (10000001) 26411008 372736
Table B.39: The branching of the chains E8 ⊃ E7 ⊗ SU(2), E8 ⊃= SU(5) ⊗ SU(5), E8 ⊃ SO(16) and E8 ⊃ SU(9).
E8 ⊃ SU2 × E7
248 = (3, 1) + (1, 133) + (2, 256)
3875 = (1, 1) + (2, 56) + (3, 133) + (1, 1539) + (2, 912)
E8 ⊃ SU3 × E6
248 = (8, 1) + (1, 78) + (3, 27) + (3∗ , 27∗ )
3875 = (1, 1) + (8, 1) + (3, 27) + (3∗ , 27∗ ) + (6∗ , 27∗ ) + (8, 78) + (1, 650)
Some Useful Tables

+(3, 351) + (3∗ , 351∗ )
E8 ⊃ SU5 × SU5
248 = (1, 24) + (24, 1) + (5, 10∗ ) + (5∗ , 10) + (10, 5) + (10∗ , 5∗ )
3875 = (1, 1) + (1, 24) + (24, 1) + (5, 10∗ ) + (5∗ , 10) + (10, 5) + (10∗ , 5∗ ) + (1, 75)
+(75, 1) + (5, 15∗ ) + (5∗ , 15) + (15, 5) + (15∗ , 5) + (5, 40∗ ) + (5∗ , 40) + (40, 5)
+(40∗ , 5∗ ) + (10, 45) + (10∗ , 45∗ ) + (45, 10∗ ) + (24, 24)
E8 ⊃ SO(16)
248 = (01000000) + (00000001) = 120 + 128
3875 = (20000000) + (00100000) + (10000001) = 135 + 1820 + 1920
E8 ⊃ SU(9)
248 = (10000000) + (00100000) + (00000100) = 80 + 84 + 84∗
3875 = (10000001) + (11000000) + (10000011) + (00010001) + (10001000) + (01000010) =
80 + 240 + 240∗ + 1050 + 1050∗ + 1215
325

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Index
Abelian, 1, 85 Cartan matrix SO(2n), 134

Abelian subalgebra, 13 Cartan matrix SO(2n + 1), 133
Abelian transformation, 45 Cartan matrix Sp(2n), 133
abstract algebra, 23 Cartan subalgebra, 95
action, 44 Cartan’s theorem, 98
adjoined, 95 Cartan-Weyl theory, 98
representation, 23 Casimir, 111
algebra, 13, 92 operator, 13
Lie, 15 chain of subalgebras, 181
SO(2n), 116 charge operator, 44
SO(n), 114 CKM matrix, 11
Sp(2n), 119 classical algebras, 109
SU(n), 111
classification of classical Lie algebras,
algorithm of reduction for O(n), 208 125
algorithm of reduction for Sp(2n), 209
Clebsch-Gordan, 80
angles, 10
co-factor, 3
angular momentum, 66
collected tables, 287
angular momentum operators, 14
color, 267
anomalies, 175
commutation rules, 22
anti-hermitian, 7
anti-symmetric, 7 commutative, 1
anti-symmetric tensors, 187 commutator, 41, 92
associated Dynkin diagrams, 275 commute, 15
compact, 90
boost, 41 complex representation, 174, 175
branching, 319, 322–325 Condon-Shortley, 81
connected, 88
C-G coefficient in Dynkin conservation law, 44
representations, 240 conserved current, 44
Cartan matrix, 131, 275 contragredient, 16, 106, 110
Cartan matrix of special algebras, 135 covering group, 68, 88
329
d-function, 74 generation, 267

determinant, 2 generator, 8, 91
differential equations-SO(2,1), 254, generator chain, 179
256 GL(n, c), 109
dimensions of Dynkin global transformations, 42, 43
representations, 164 grand unification, 267
dimensions of irreducible group, 1
representations, 160 group generator, 8
dimensions of non-integral group SL(2, c), 260
representations, 225 GUT, 267
dimensions of representations, 275 GUT SU(5), 267
dimensions of SO(2n), 162 GUT SU(5) fermions, 270
dimensions of SO(2n + 1), 163 GUT SU(5) gauge bosons, 271
dimensions of SU(n), 161 GUT SU(5) Higgs, 272
dimensions of U(n), 160
Dirac equation, 47, 259 Hermitian, 3
discrete, 2 Higgs, 267
DU(2)×U(1)×SU(3), 265 highest weight, 65
Dynkin, 293, 310, 319, 320, 323, 324 homomorphism, 88, 94
Dynkin and tableaux connection, 211 hydrogenic, 15
Dynkin diagrams, 125, 130, 275 hydrogenic atom, 39
Dynkin equivalent weights, 153 hydrogenic wave functions, 258
Dynkin representation, 136, 150 hypercharge, 269
Dynkin weights, 150
index, 293, 310, 319, 320, 323, 324
elementary weights, 221, 275 index of representation, 230
equivalent, 196 infinitesimal, 91
equivalent tableaux representations, infinitesimal operators, 42
199 integral O(n) representations, 204
equivalent weights, 147 irreducible, 69, 70, 73, 139
equivalent weights SO(n), 148 irreducible representation, 26, 141,
equivalent weights Sp(2n), 149 183
equivalent weights SU(n), 148 irreducible representations-states, 167
Euler angles, 68 irreducible tensors, 190
examples of tableaux reduction, 197 isomorphic, 88
exceptional algebra, 104 isomorphism, 94
exponential matrix, 5 isotriplet, 32
extended Dynkin diagrams, 179, 223
external product, 191 Jacobi, 74
identity, 13, 92, 93
faithful representation, 16
fermion fields, 47 Kepler problem, 38
field theories, 43 Killing form, 93
fundamental representation, 17, 183 Klein-Gordon equation, 258
Kronecker product, 25, 35, 78, 190
gauge fields, 266 Kronecker products of tableaux, 217
Index 331
Lagrangian density, 44, 45 quadratic Casimir operators, 230

level of weight, 172
Lie algebra, 15, 92, 93 raising, 96
Lie group, 85, 87 operator, 65
locally isomorphic, 42 rank, 86
Lorentz transformation, 41 recursion, 100
lowering, 96 reduction, 290, 291, 303, 305–307,
operator, 65 309, 310, 321
reduction of U(n) to SO(3), 213
Matematica, 80 regular representation, 23
maximal algebras and tableaux, 220 regular subalgebra, 178
maximal subalgebra, 131, 175, 178, representation, 16
296–299 root chain, 129
maximum weight, 139, 141, 145, 235 root diagram, 96
metric matrices, 275 root system, 96, 128
metric tensor, 13, 99 roots, 96
Morse potential-SO(2, 1), 259 rotation group, 20
multiplicity of weight, 143 rotation matrix, 75
rotations, 18
Rünge-Lenz, 36
neighborhood, 87
Noether’s theorem, 42
scalar fields, 43
non-compact algebras, 251
scalar product, 4
non-compact group, 253
Schur lemma, 72
non-connected, 89
semisimple, 1, 14, 95
normalization constants, 106
simple group, 35
simple roots, 125
orthogonal, 5
simple weight, 143
matrix, 5
simply connected, 88
orthogonality, 3 singular, 3
SL(2, c) group, 260
parameter space, 87 SO(n), 5
particle content, 270 SO(n) reduction of U(n), 207
Pauli matrices, 7 SO(2,1) symmetry, 251
phases, 10 SO(3), 63
PMNS matrix, 11 SO(5) C-G coefficients, 243
positive definite, 64 Sp(2n) reduction of U(2n), 209
positive roots, 125, 275 Sp(2n) representations, 206
positive weight, 140 special algebras, 275
product [f ] × [f ], 191 special orthogonal, 5
projection, 176 spherical harmonics, 66
projection of weight, 146, 176 spinorial representations, 238
projection operator, 176, 181 split system, 128
projection procedure, 177 Standard Model, 265
projector, 176 standard tableaux, 195
proper orthogonal, 33 step down, 65
step up, 65 group, 5

structure constants, 12, 92, 93 matrix, 4
structure of GUT SU(5), 268 unitary transformation, 4
SU(n), 5, 21 useful expressions-summary, 275
SU(2), 63 useful tables, 287
SU(3) C-G coefficients, 240
subalgebra, 95 weight degeneracy, 173
subset, 5 weight level, 172
symmetric tensors, 187 weight tree, 287
weight vector, 139
tables collected, 287
weights, 291
tensor contractions, 201
weights in terms of EW, 226
O(n), 201
weights-basis vectors, 235
Sp(2n), 203
tensor product, 190 Weyl formula-elementary weights, 227
tensors with symmetry, 187 Weyl group, 139
time reversal, 77 Weyl’s reflection group, 157
topological group, 87
topology, 87 Young operator, 188
traceless, 7 Young SU(n) tableaux, 196
transpose, 3 Young tableaux, 183
construction, 191
unimodular, 8, 21
unitary, 3 zero roots, 96

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Copyright © 2017 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

To the Graduate Students of Fall 2012 and Spring 2016 of

A guide for teachers and students

1. Elements of Group Theory 1

1.12.3 Field theories — Scalar fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2. Study of the SU(2) and SO(3) Representations and Applications 63

3. Elements of Lie Groups 85

5. The Classical Algebras L` , A` , B` , C` 109

6. The Dynkin Diagrams — Another Classification of

7. Weights of Irreducible Representations — Maximal Subalgebras 139

7.10 Maximal subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

8. Construction of Irreducible Representations — Young Tableaux 183

8.15 Dimensions of the non-integral representations and of

9. Construction of Irreducible Representations, Kronecker

10. Some Non-Compact Algebras and Applications 251

11. Some Symmetries Involved in Particle Physics 265

11.2 SU(5) — An example of grand unification (GUT) . . . . . 267

Appendix A Summary of Useful Expressions 275

Appendix B Some Useful Tables 287

Elements of Group Theory

A group is a set of elements

1.2 Matrix groups

α11 α12 · · · α1n

If the determinant ∆ of (α) is not zero ∃ (α−1 ): (αα−1 ) = I, with (α−1 )

∆11 ∆12 · · · ∆1n

∆ij = (−1)i+l Cji

for the matrix.

• For any two vectors |α  = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) and |β  =

i.e. ≺ β| is a row vector, the Hermitian conjugate of |β 

(U1 U2 )−1 = U2−1 U1−1 = U2+ U1+ ⇒ (U1 U2 )+ = (U1 U2 )−1

(3) The set of orthogonal matrices.

1.2.1 The exponential of a matrix

Theorem 1: The series converge if |αij | < ∞ (bounded).

e(α) e(β) = e(α+β) . (1.11)

This relation need not hold if [(α), (β)] 6= 0.

Theorem 4: For any n × n matrix

In other words the infinite series collapses to a finite sum.

Theorem 7: The following also hold:

(α)+ = (α) (Hermitian) ⇒ eiα is Unitary.

(α)+ = (α), (β)+ = (β) ⇒ (αβ)+ = (β)+ (α)+ = βα ⇒ αβ is Hermitian.

(α)+ = −α (anti-Hermitian matrix) ⇒ eα is unitary.

αT = −α (anti-symmetric in real apace) ⇒ eα is orthogonal.

Theorem 8: The Campbell-Hausdorff formula holds:

One sometimes writes: Tl = 12 σi with algebra:

[Tk , Tl ] = iklm Tm . (1.27)

Summation over repeated indices is understood.

α = Hermitian ⇒ U = eiα = unitary.

If the matrix α is traceless, it depends on n2 − 1 = 8 parameters and is

α = traceless → det U = eitr(α) = e0 = 1.

Proceeding as above we select basis set of traceless 3×3 Hermitian matrices:

With this selection:

Summation over repeated indices is understood. Sometimes we will use

Table 1.2: The SU(3) structure functions

1.2.2 Determination of the independent parameters

We have seen that a unitary n×n matrix is characterized by n2 parameters.

n = 3 ⇔ (1/2) · 3 · 2 = 3 angles and (n2 − 3n + 2)/2 = 1 phase eiδ

in the case of SU(n) we have n2 − 1 parameters. Thus

cos θeiα sin θeiβ

cos θeiα sin θeiβ

(2) The SU(3) case. We have:

with cij = cos(θij ), sij = sin(θij ). (1.35)

• For any two vectors |α = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) and |β =

i.e. ≺ β| is a row vector, the Hermitian conjugate of |β

[Tk , Tl ] = iklm Tm . (1.27)

A−1 = e−ik Tk ' 1 − ik Tk ,

X` = A−1 T` A ' (1 − ik Tk )T` (1 + ik Tk )

X` − T` ' ik (T` Tk − Tk T` )

where |0 is the vacuum state. Furthermore, they obey the commutation

Ajk |m = δkm |j (1.66)

|j1 , m1 ⊗|j1 , m1 = C J |J, m1 + m2 . (1.97)

[2Ii , 2Ij ] = iijk 2Ik ⇒ [Ii , Ij ] = 2i ijk Ik .