EDU 311 Research, Data Processing Statistics and Computer Usage

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
EDU 311: Research, Data Processing, Statistics &

Computer Usage (3 Units)
Course Facilitator: Hajja Kaltum Ali

EDU 311: Research, Data Processing Statistics and Computer Usage
STUDY GUIDE
Course Code/ Title: EDU 311: Research, Data Processing,
Statistics & Computer Usage
Credit Units: 3
Timing: 26hrs
Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six
hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.
You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per
course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you
have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two
hours in a week.
Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all
the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately.
All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten
minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity,
whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity.
You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the
purpose of adjustment.
Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study
session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to
add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed.
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You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment
questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one
hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for
your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success
depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do
not waste it.
Reading:
When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a
novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main
points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking
terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary.
Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those
main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the
book is not spoiled for further usage.
Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its
meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings
in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for
further explanations.
When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that
you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the
in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in
answering those activities except when the question requires you to be
detailed.
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In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer
carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main
text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of
what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-
text carefully before you provide the answer.
Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention
to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts.
But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait
until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading
activities.
Bold Terms:
These are terms that are very important towards
comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are
bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When
you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your
book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you
can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the
term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading
because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text.
Practice Exercises
a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each
activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major
informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is
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one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must
be very careful in answering these activities because they provide
you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book
for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not
forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered.
b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers
are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To
every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions
and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the
major points in your reading.
c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential
components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of
what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering
them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this
study session can be used in answering the self- assessment
question.
Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you
are expected to write down the major points related to the
particular question to be answered. Check those points you have
written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that
you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question.
When you have completed the explanation of each question, you
can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to
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the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade

your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance.
This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure
you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing.
e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide
services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected
to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students
Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student’s
processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or
more e-tutors for effective attention to student’s enquiries.
Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors
through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your
student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-
tutors when in doubt about your learning.
You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you
opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.
In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators
through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your
handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your
academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies.
Continuous assessment
The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks.
The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through
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online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to

submit your test or assignment through your email. The continuous
assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you
participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not
pass your examination, so take note and be up to date.
Examination
All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri
Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the
Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation
for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you
form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate
your better understanding of what you studied.
Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you
have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social
Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your
group.
You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must
engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies,
making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first
summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self
assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies.
When the examination week commences you can also go through your
brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main
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points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that
are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc).
You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must
also be well behaved throughout your examination period.
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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
CENTER FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
EDU 311: Research, Data Processing Statistics and
Computer Usage
3 UNITS
By
Mrs. Hajja Kaltum Ali
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
In this study manual, students would be introduced to the basic knowledge of research methods
in education. The materials through the sequential study sessions and headings will equip learner
with necessary information on how to conduct research to fill the vacuum left by other
researches. There are ten (10) different study sessions in this material that introduce the learner
to the foundation of test and measurement. Moreover, students will also be introduced to the
bottom-up information on computer usage.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, students should:
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a. learn the basic knowledge of research method
b. acquire necessary information on different types of research reports and their basic
formation
c. equip the learner with up-to-date knowledge to carry out research. Beginning from
choosing a topic to formulating objective.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
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Cover page
Introduction to the Course
Course objective
Table of content
Study Sessions: 1. Definition of Research
2. Research Design
3. Statement of a Research Problem
4. Formulating a research objective
5. Operational Definition Of Terms
6. Reviewing the Literature
7. Method of Collection in Educational Research
8. Questionnaire
9. Introduction to Computer
10. Solution to Exercise
STUDY SESSION I: DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
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As the title of this course suggests, this is an introductory course research. Our first task in this
course therefore would be to examine what we mean by research itself.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the topic, you should be able to:
i. Define Research
ii. Types of Research
1.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
A research is a systematic, organized and contoured investigation of a problem showing
relationship between variables in the process that creates a particular state of affairs.
According to Bruce and Tuckrnan (1978], research is a systematic attempt to
provide answers to questions such answers may be abstract or may be highly
concrete and specific.
Activity 1.1
What is Research?
The results of the research as opined by Wallen and Frankel (1991) could be applied
to many situations or to a specific group of people. It could be related to general
theory or general field of knowledge or not necessarily related to a broader field of
knowledge.
1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Some scholars identified three basic types of research:
1. Fundamental or Pure Research: is a type of research that is very rigorous and well-
structured types of analysis'-(e.g chi-square, t-test, Anova, etc).which lead to the
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development of theories through the discovery of broad generalizations or principles.
Very order carefully sampling techniques are employed in order to 'extend the findings
beyond the group or situation studied.Fundamental or pure research is usually the
activity of psychologists and other scientists using laboratory situation.
1. Applied research: this has the characteristics of fundamental or pure research, except the
strict laboratory ting situation. The purpose of applied research is to test theoretical
concepts in real problem situations. Most of the educational research is applied research
because it is much more concerned with developing generalizations and principles
concerning teaching-learning process and instructional materials.
Action research: the finding of action research can only be careful in terms of local
applications. It cannot be used as a basis for the development of theories and general
principles. It is a useful process in improving school practice concerning teaching-learning
process and instructional materials.
Activity 1.2
List the types of Research?
1.4 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION I
This study have been discussed the definition of research and its type, research has been
defined by Bruce and Tuckrnan (1978) as a systematic attempt to provide answers
to questions such answers may be abstract or may be highly concrete and specific.
While the types are: Fundamental, Applied and Action research.
ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt the definition of research;types of researchhence, define
research?
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ITA: A research is a systematic and organized investigation of a problem showing
relationship between variables in the process that creates a particular state of affairs.
1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION (SAQ)
1. Define Research
2. List and explain the types of Research.
REFERENCE
Seale, C. (ed.) (2004) Researching Society and Culture (second edition).
London: Sage.
SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER
https://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
STUDY SESSION II: RESEARCH DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
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A research design will typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments
will be employed, how the instrument will be used and the intended means for
analyzing data collected.
i. Define Research design
ii. Types of Research design
2.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design refers to the overall strategy that you chose to integrate the different
components in the study in a coherent and logical way. There are numerous types of research
design that are appropriate for the different types of research projects.
Activity 2.1
What is Research design?
The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the problems posed by the research
aims. Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are commonly used to
collect and analyze the type of datathat is generated by the investigations. Here is a list of some
of the more common research designs, with a short explanation of the characteristics of each.
2.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
There are different types of research design identified by researchers over the years. These
include:
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1. SURVEY RESEARCH : Is a distinctive design that owes much of
its recent development to the field of sociology. Often, surveys are
used to collect information, such as the percentage of respondents
whohold or do not certain opinion. However, surveys can also
beused to explore relationships between different variables.Specific
tools used by survey researchers in gatheringinformation are
questionnaire and interview techniques,
2. OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH: Observational research is
concerned with collectinginformation or data not b y means of
questionnaire or interviewbut through direct observation in the
process. The research isallowed to use standard observational forms
for precisequantitative data. Studies re lated to social attitude are
mostl ydone through observational method. In USA for
example,prejudice has been studied naturalistically by observing the
sitting patterns of black arid white students in college classes. There
are many types of studies which could be defined as observational research
including case studies, ethnographic studies, ethological studies, etc. The primary
characteristic of each of these types of studies is that phenomena are being
observed and recorded. Often times, the studies are qualitative in nature. For
example, a psychological case study would entail extensive notes based on
observations of and interviews with the client. A detailed report with analysis
would be written and reported constituting the study of this individual case. These
studies may also be qualitative in nature or include qualitative components in the
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research. For example, an ethological study of primate behavior in the wild may
include measures of behavior durations i.e. the amount of time an animal engaged
in a specified behavior. This measure of time would be qualitative.
3. HISTORICAL – RESEARCH: Historical research involves the s ystematic
search for documents and other sources that contain facts relating to
the historian’s about the past, Stud ying the past educationalPatterns,
historians hope to achieve better understanding of present institutions,
practices and problems in education. Historical research in education
is important also for several reasons. The findings of such research
enable educators to learn from past' discoveries and mistakes, to
perceive needs foreducational reform, and, t:o a certain extent, to
predict future trends. Historical research in education differs from
other t ypes of educational research, in that the historian discovers
datathrough a s earch of historical sou rces such as diaries, official
documents and relics.This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and
synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past
events. It uses primary historical data, such as archaeological remains as well as
documentary sources of the past. It is usually necessary to carry out tests in order
to check the authenticityof these sources.
4. CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH: The causal comparative
method is aimed at the discovery of possible causes for a behavior
pattern b y comparing subjects in whom this pattern is present to a
lesser degree, it attempts to determine the cause or consequences of
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differences, which alread y exist among groups of individuals, A
researcher might observe, for ex ample, that' two of individuals differ
on teaching, some variable (e.g treading st yle) and then attempt to
determine lire reason fur, or results of this difference. The difference -
among groups in a causal - comparative stud y is either a variable that
cannot be manipulated (e.gethnicit y)... or one that might have been
manipulated, but for one reason or another has not been (e.g teaching
styles). Causal-comparative studies have been used frequentl y to
stud y the differences between males and females.
5. CORRELATION RESEARCH: In general, correlational research examines
the variation of two or more variables. For example, the early researches on
cigarette smoking examine the variation of cigarette smoking and a variety of lung
diseases. These two variable, smoking and lung disease were found to cover
together. The correlation method is used in studies that explore
relationships between two or more variables. Through the use of
correlation coefficients, these relationships can be discovered or
clarified. The purpose of the correlation coefficient is toexpress in
mathematical term the degree of relationshipbetween an y two
variables. If the relationship is perfectl ypositive (for each increment
in one variable there is acorresponding increment in the other), the
correlation coefficient will be 1:00 If the relationship is perfectl y
negative, it will be -1:00 (minus one). If there is no relationshi p, the
coefficient will be zero. Correlational research can be accomplished by a
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variety of techniques which include the collection of empirical data. Often times,
correlational research is considered type of observational research as nothing is
manipulated by the experimenter or individual conducting the research. For
example, the early studies on cigarette smoking did not manipulate how many
cigarettes were smoked. The researcher only collected the data on the two
variables. Nothing was controlled by the researchers. It is important to know that
correlational research is not causal research. In other words, we cannot make
statements concerning cause and effect on the basis of this type of research. There
are two major reasons why we cannot make cause and effect statements. First, we
donÂ¹t know the direction of the cause. Second, a third variable may be involved
of which we are not aware. An example may help clarify these points. In major
clinical depressions, the neurotransmitters serotonin and/or norepinephrine have
been found to be depleted (Coppen, 1967; Schildkraut&Kety, 1967). In other
words, low levels of these two neurotransmitters have been found to be associated
with increased levels of clinical depression. However, while we know that the two
variables covary - a relationship exists - we do not know if a causal relationship
exists. Thus, it is unclear whether depletion in serotonin/norepinephrine cause
depression or whether depression causes depletion is neurotransmitter levels. This
demonstrates the first problem with correlational research; we don't know the
direction of the cause. Second, a third variables has been uncovered which may be
affecting both of the variables under study. The number of receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron has been found to be increased in depression (Segal,
Kuczenski, &Mandell, 1974; Ventulani, Staqarz, Dingell, &Sulser, 1976). Thus, it
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is possible that the increased number of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron is
actually responsible for the relationship between neurotransmitter levels and
depression. As you can see from the discussion above, one cannot make a simple
cause and effect statement concerning neurotransmitter levels and depression
based on correlational research. To reiterate, it is inappropriate in correlational
research to make statements concerning cause and effect. Correlational research is
often conducted as exploratory or beginning research. Once variables have been
identified and defined, experiments are conductible.
6. EXPERIMENTAL RE SEARCH: Experimental research is a powerful
research method, unlike the corre lational and causal comparative
methods, it can be used to establi sh cause-and-effect relationships
between two or more variables. All experimental researches involve
at least a treatment, an outcome measure, units of assignment, and
some comparison from which - change can be inferred and hopefull y
attributed to the trea tment. Experiment is a mode of scientific
observation characterized b y taking action and observing the
consequences of that action is relevant to the solution of practical
problems in education.
7. EVALUATION RESEARCH: The purpose of evaluation research is
to collect data that helps educators make decisions about the value
of an educational program, product or technique. Evaluation serves
two different functions i.e. formative and summative. The function of
formative evaluation is to collect data about educati onal programs
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while they are still being developed.While summative evaluation is
conducted to determine howworthwhile the final program is as compared
with othercompeting programs.This descriptive type of research is specifically
designed to deal with complex social issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting
the facts’, by trying to make sense of the myriad human, political, social, cultural
and contextual elements involved. There are a range of different approaches of
evaluation models, for example, systems analysis – which is a holistic type of
research looking at the complex interplay of many variables; and responsive
evaluation – which entails a series of investigative steps to evaluate how
responsive a programme is to all those taking part in it. A common purpose of
evaluation research is to examine the working of projects from the point of view of
levels of awareness, costs and benefits, cost-effectiveness, attainment of objectives
and quality assurance. The results are generally used to prescribe changes to
improve and develop the situation.
8. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: The question of what constitute
educational research can refer to those research activities from which
the investigator derives or hopes to derive educational benefit or to
those research activities which are focused; on the solution of an
educational problem. The first conception of educational research is broad
and generalized. In fact, it's so generalized that any research activity in
any field or discipline (such as history, religion philosoph y, maths, etc)
qualifies to be educational research -since there is hope of educational
benefit to be derived i.e. knowledge.The second conception of
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educational research is more technical. It moves away from the word
education, used to denote learning in general terms, to educational being
used to denote the processes, which are concerned with deliberate
change in the behavior of persons, through the acquisition of desirable
attitudes, interests and appreciations. Educational research is therefore
seer: as the study of problems of teaching and learning.
9. TRUE EXPERIMENTS: The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory
study. However, this is not always the case. A true experiment is defined as an
experiment conducted where an effort is made to impose control over all other
variables except the one under study. It is often easier to impose this sort of control
in a laboratory setting. Thus, true experiments have often been erroneously
identified as laboratory studies.
To understand the nature of the experiment, we must first define a few terms:
1. Experimental or treatment group - this is the group that receives
the experimental treatment, manipulation, or is different from the
control group on the variable under study.
2. Control group - this group is used to produce comparisons. The
treatment of interest is deliberately withheld or manipulated to
provide a baseline performance with which to compare the
experimental or treatment group's performance.
3. Independent variable - this is the variable that the experimenter
manipulates in a study. It can be any aspect of the environment
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that is empirically investigated for the purpose of examining its
influence on the dependent variable.
4. Dependent variable - the variable that is measured in a study.
The experimenter does not control this variable.
5. Random assignment - in a study, each subject has an equal
probability of being selected for either the treatment or control
group.
6. Double blind - neither the subject nor the experimenter knows
whether the subject is in the treatment of the control condition.
Now that we have these terms defined, we can examine further the structure of the
true experiment. First, every experiment must have at least two groups: an
experimental and a control group. Each group will receive a level of the
independent variable. The dependent variable will be measured to determine if the
independent variable has an effect. As stated previously, the control group will
provide us with a baseline for comparison. All subjects should be randomly
assigned to groups, be tested a simultaneously as possible, and the experiment
should be conducted double blind. Perhaps an example will help clarify these
points.
Wolfer and Visintainer (1975) examined the effects of systematic preparation and
support on children who were scheduled for inpatient minor surgery. The
hypothesis was that such preparation would reduce the amount of psychological
upset and increase the amount of cooperation among thee young patients. Eighty
children were selected to participate in the study. Children were randomly assigned
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to either the treatment or the control condition. During their hospitalization the
treatment group received the special program and the control group did not. Care
was taken such that kids in the treatment and the control groups were not roomed
together. Measures that were taken included heart rates before and after blood tests
ease of fluid intake, and self-report anxiety measures. The study demonstrated that
the systematic preparation and support reduced the difficulties of being in the
hospital for these kids.
Let us examine now the features of the experiment described above. First, there
was a treatment and control group. If we had had only the treatment group, we
would have no way of knowing whether the reduced anxiety was due to the
treatment or the weather, new hospital food, etc. The control group provides us
with the basis to make comparisons The independent variable in this study was the
presence or absence of the systematic preparation program. The dependent variable
consisted of the heart rates, fluid intake, and anxiety measures. The scores on these
measures were influenced by and depended on whether the child was in the
treatment or control group. The children were randomly assigned to either group.
If the "friendly" children had been placed in the treatment group we would have no
way of knowing whether they were less anxious and more cooperative because of
the treatment or because they were "friendly". In theory, the random assignment
should balance the number of "friendly" children between the two groups. The two
groups were also tested at about the same time. In other words, one group was not
measured during the summer and the other during the winter. By testing the two
groups as simultaneously as possible, we can rule out any bias due to time. Finally,
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the children were unaware that they were participants in an experiment (the parents
had agreed to their children's participation in research and the program), thus
making the study single blind. If the individuals who were responsible for the
dependent measures were also unaware of whether the child was in the treatment
or control group, then the experiment would have been double blind.
A special case of the true experiment is the clinical trial. A clinical trial is defined
as a carefully designed experiment that seeks to determine the clinical efficacy of a
new treatment or drug. The design of a clinical trial is very similar to that of a true
experiment. Once again, there are two groups: a treatment group (the group that
receives the therapeutic agent) and a control group (the group that receives the
placebo). The control group is often called the placebo group. The independent
variable in the clinical trial is the level of the therapeutic agent. Once again,
subjects are randomly assigned to groups, they are tested simultaneously, and the
experiment should be conducted double blind. In other words, neither the patient
nor the person administering the drug should know whether the patient is receiving
the drug or the placebo.
10. QUASI-EXPERIMENTS: Quasi-experiments are very similar to true
experiments but use naturally formed or pre-existing groups. For example, if we
wanted to compare young and old subjects on lung capacity, it is impossible to
randomly assign subjects to either the young or old group (naturally formed
groups). Therefore, this cannot be a true experiment. When one has naturally
formed groups, the variable under study is a subject variable (in this case - age) as
opposed to an independent variable. As such, it also limits the conclusions we can
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draw from such a research study. If we were to conduct the quasi-experiment, we
would find that the older group had less lung capacity as compared to the younger
group. We might conclude that old age thus results in less lung capacity. But other
variables might also account for this result. It might be that repeated exposure to
pollutants as opposed to age has caused the difference in lung capacity. It could
also be a generational factor. Perhaps more of the older group smoked in their
early years as compared to the younger group due to increased awareness of the
hazards of cigarettes. The point is that there are many differences between the
groups that we cannot control that could account for differences in our dependent
measures. Thus, we must be careful concerning making statement of causality with
quasi-experimental designs.Quasi-experiments may result from studying the
differences between naturally formed groups (ie. young & old; men & women).
However, there are also instances when a researcher designs a study as a
traditional experiment only to discover that random assignment to groups is
restricted by outside factors. The researcher is forced to divide groups according to
some pre-existing criteria. For example, if a corporation wanted to test the
effectiveness of a new wellness program, they might decide to implement their
program at one site and use a comparable site (no wellness program) as a control.
As the employees are not shuffled and randomly assigned to work at each site, the
study has pre-existing groups. After a few months of study, the researchers could
then see if the wellness site had less absenteeism and lower health costs than the
non-wellness site. The results are again restricted due to the quasi-correlational
nature of the study. As the study has pre-existing groups, there may be other
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differences between those groups than just the presence or absence of a wellness
program. For example, the wellness program may be in a significantly newer, more
attractive building, or the manager from hell may work at the no wellness program
site. Either way, it a difference is found between the two sites it may or may not be
due to the presence/absence of the wellness program.To summarize, quasi-
experiments may result from either studying naturally formed groups or use of pre-
existing groups. When the study includes naturally formed groups, the variable
under study is a subject variable. When a study uses pre-existing groups that are
not naturally formed, the variable that is manipulated between the two groups is an
independent variable (With the exception of no random assignment, the study
looks similar in form to a true experiment). As no random assignment exists in a
quasi-experiment, no causal statements can be made based on the results of the
study.
Activity 2.2
List the types of Research design?
2.4 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION I
Research design and its types were discussed in this study session, research design defined
as the overall strategy that you chose to integrate the different components in the study in a
coherent and logical way. And ten types of research design have been defined in this
study.
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ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt what research design is, and the types of research design.
Hence, define the method correlation research.
ITA: The correlation method is used in studies that explore relationships between two
or more variables. Through the use of correlation coefficients, these
relationships can be discovered or clarified.
1. What is research design?
2. List and explain the types of research design
REFERENCE
Allen A. M AND Yen, W.M (1979).Introduction to Research methodology, California:
Brooks/Cole publishing company

1. https://www.explorable.com/research-designs
STUDY SESSION III: STATEMENT OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
INTRODUCTION
A research problem is an interrogative statement, which asks about the presumed
relationship between two or more variables that create a particular state of affair.
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i. Define Research Problem
ii. Determining research problem
iii. Criteria for selecting a Research problem
3.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
For example,does the wealth of parents affect the performance of their children?
One variable is the wealth of parents; the other variable is the performance of
children. Is there a relationship between religious background and dropout rate? The
variables are religious background and dropout rate. What is the relation between IQ
and achievement? IQ is one variable and achievement is another?
Activity 3.1
Define Research Problem?
A research problem could also be stated in declarative form by examining the
background issues associated with the problem. Those issues to be examined may
have a direct or indirect bearing with the problem.
3.3 DETERMINING RESEARCH PROBLEM
There are several ways of determining a research problem. A problem can be
determined through an. unanswered question, which has persisted in time as; for
example, many primary and se secondary school pupils develop a poor attitude
towards mathematics and perform poorly in it. There are many unanswered
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questions of this nature. A problem can also be determined through missing links,
for example, the lack of vocational content in our school curriculum. A problem
can be determined through unsatisfactory state of affairs, for example, the growing
tendency to indiscipline in our schools, the so- called dropout in educational
standards, the poor teacher/pupil relationship, etc. A problem can also be
determined by exhibiting; itself in the form of an imbalance in the system or part
thereof, arc improperly weighted one to…
THE PROBLEMS STATED IN QUESTION FORM
The problem is best slated in the form of a question. For example:
a. What is the relationship between IQ and achievement?
b. Do students learn more from a directive teacher or a nondirective teacher?
c. Is there a - relationship between racial background and dropout rate?
d. Do student who are described unfavorably by their teachers tend to describe
themselves more unfavorable than those students described favorably?
EMPIRICAL TESTABILITY
Questions should be testable by empirical methods - that is through the collection of
data. The data should be collected through several procedures such as observation,
questionnaire, interview, self-report etc.
AVOIDANCE OF MORAL OR ETHICAL JUDGMENT
Question about ideals or values are more difficult to study than question about attitude of
performance, Examples of problems that could be difficult to test are; should people
disguise their feelings? Should students avoid cheating under all circumstances?
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3.3.1 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
To be able to justify the selection of a research thefollowing criteria should be taken
into consideration:
1. Interest
Except a, research problem is interesting, a researcher would not expect care and
well-designed procedure and effort to be put into the solution of the problem.
Sometimes interest in a research problem could be so strong that, in extreme
cases, it had led to withdrawal from human contact, it should not onl y be of
interest to the individual’ doing the research alone but also of interest to
other researchers or scientists as well.
2. Uniqueness
The idea of uniqueness assumes that a research problem has originality in eith er
purpose or method. Repetition of experiments or research problem is quite
acceptable provided the repetition was deliberately planned to test the validity of
previous research findings, at another time or place. For example, in the USA,
researchers indicate that socio-economic factors bear a strong relation to
academic achievement. It is quite acceptable to repeat the research to test the
validity of the research findings in the Nigerian situation, or repeat the research
in USA fifty years later.
3. Ability and Training
Before undertaking to investigate a research problem it is very important for a
researcher to assess his ability, experience and capacity, and clearly recognize
his own limitation with particular reference to the research problem to be
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investigated, He should know enough about the field of the research problem so
as to understand its1 significant steps and to be able to-' interpret his findings. He
should have the skill to develop, administer and interpret the necessary data gathering
devices and procedures.
4. Availability, of Data and Instrument
It is very important that satisfactory data is available and an appropriate 'instrument
exists for the collection necessary information for the research study to be
undertaken. It is usually very' difficult and sometimes impossible to collect data
from govt, classified or secret documents or on very sensitive cultural issues. There is
also the question of ethics in the collection of data, for example, if a researcher's study
involves finding the effect of drugs on student's achievement, it will be unethical to
collect his data by giving drugs to students for observation.
Activity 3.2
What are the Criteria for selecting a Research problem?
3.4 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION III
Research problem could also be stated in declarative form by examining the
background issues associated with the problem and the problem can be determined
through unsatisfactory state of affairs, for example, the growing tendency to
indiscipline in our schools, the so- called dropout in educational standards, while
these items used for selecting the problem, Interest, Uniqueness, Ability and
Training, Availability of data and instrument.
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ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt what research problem is, how research problem can be
determined and the criteria for selecting a research problem. Hence, list the criteria and
explain two?
ITA: the criteria for selecting a research problem are: interest, uniqueness, ability and
training, availability of data and instrument.
- The idea of uniqueness assumes that a research problem has originality in
either purpose or method
- It is very important that satisfactory data is available and an appropriate
'instrument exists for the collection necessary information for the research
study to be undertaken.
1. Define Research Problem
2. How would you determineresearch problem?
3. What are the criteria for selecting a Research problem?
REFERENCE
Seale, C., Gobo, G., Gubrium, J. and Silverman, D. (2004) Qualitative ResearchPractice.
London: Sage.
https://www.research-solut/edu.com/research-method
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STUDY SESSION IV: FORMULATING A RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
INTRODUCTION
i. formulate a research objective
ii. formulate a hypothesis
iii. Types of hypotheses
iv. Importance of hypotheses
4.2 FORMULATING RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This aspect of the study is not crucial as the research problem is clearly and
specifically stated in a question form, However, it has become a practice in some
institutions that formulating research objectives is considered and must be treated
separatel y as a subheadingin a given research, Procedurally, formulation of
research objectives is similar to the statement of behavioral objectives in a
lesson planning.
Activity 4.1
How will you formulate a research objective?
For example in a study on factors responsible for students’ poor performance at
SSCE, we expect to see a researcher indicating under the caption “objectives of the
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stud y” or research objectives" viz: the following objectives are formulated to
guide the research;
1. Examine whether lack of qualified teachers is related to SPP at SSCE.
2. Find out whether poor library facilities are related to SPP at SSCE.
3. Determine whether poor study habits is related to SPP at SSCE.
4. Find out whether poor laboratory facilities are related to
5. SPP at SSCE etc.
4.3 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES
After the formulation of research problem, flic next logical ’step in the research
process is the formulation of hypothesis based on the research, problem. A
hypothesis, a suggested answer to the problem, has the following characteristics:
1. It should be conjunctive upon a relationship between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously in the form of declarative senl.cn.ee,
3. It should be testable by evaluating it on the basis of .data collected.
In essence, hypothesis is a testable and tentative probable explanation of the relation
between two or more variables that create a particular state of affair or phenomenon.
Hypotheses should always be in declarative sentence form and they should relate,' either
generally or specifically variables to variables.
Thus, hypotheses that might have been derived from, theproblem statement listed
earlier in. these courses are:
1. The wealth of parents and the children performance are positively related.
2. IQ and achievement are positively related,

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3. The dropout rate is higher for black students than for white students.
4. As the teacher’s description of a student becomes increasingly unfavorable, the
student’s self-description becomes increasingly unfavorable.
4.3.1 Types of hypotheses
There are two major types of hypothesis:
1. Null hypothesis - is the hypothesis stated in a “nodifference” form, or for example,
“there will be no difference between the mean examination grades ofstudents from
rural and urban areas in the distribution of SSCE scores.
2. The alternative h yp othesis - is the h ypothesis that is proponed to be
accepted if the null h ypothesis turns outexamination than those from rural
areas’ 5 is an alternative h ypothesis,
4.3.2 Importance of hypotheses
Hypotheses are very important and indispensable research tools because they
provide the link between a research problem and the location of the empirical
evidence that may provide a solution to the problem. Some of its specific
significances arc;
1. Pin-pointing the problems
The process of hypothesis formulation and deducing their consequences involves
a careful and thorough examination of the variables that are related in a problem,
and this helps to clarify the issues of investigation.
2. Establishing. The relevance of facts
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Hypothesis helps the researcher to determine what facts to collect and enable him
to decide how many facts are required to test them adequately.
3. Determining the research design
Hypothesis may suggest that subjects tests or tools are needed, what operations
must be performed, what statistical methods are appropriate and where to locate
the events, factsor circumstances.
4. Provide explanation
Hypothesis provides the researcher with an .efficient instrument for exploring
and containing the unknown.
5. Stimulate further research
Hypothesis not only helps to explain a given stale of affairs, they also help to
point the way for further investigation. The solution to every problem arises new
problems.
Activity 2
What are the types of hypotheses?
4.4 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION IV
In this study session formulation of research objective has been discussed as in some
institution formulating a research objective said to be considered and must be treated
separatel y as a subheadingin a given resea rch, then h ypotheses was also
discussed and defined as a testable and tentative probable explanation of the
relation between two or more variables that create a particular state of affair or
phenomenon, then the hypotheses was divided into two types i.e null and alternative
hypotheses.
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ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt hypotheses was classified into two types which null and
alternative hypotheses. Hence, what is the importance of hypotheses?
ITA: Hypotheses are very significant and essential research tools because they
provide the link between a research problem and the location of the experiential
evidence that may provide a solution to the problem
1. List and explain the two types of hypotheses?
2. What is the importance of hypotheses?
REFERENCE
Silverman, D. (1993) Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for AnalysingTalk, Text and
Interaction. London: Sage.
https://www.library.cornell.edu/ng
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STUDY SESSION V: OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
INTRODUCTION
In this study session you are going to know the operational definition' is a definition
based on the observable characteristics of that, which is being defined.
i. Operational definition of terms
ii. Alternative ways of generating of operational definition of term
5.2 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
There are varieties of ways to define something. Often definitions are simpl y
s ynon ymous; at o t h e r times they may b e conceptual, providing h yp othetical
description of what or wh y something. Against this ba ckground, an operational
definition' is a definition based on the observable characteristics of that, which is
being defined. The word “observable”is the significant word in describing on
operational definition. If it is possible for a researcher to make some relativel y
stable -observations of an object or phenomenon, then these observations can
be made b y others, thus enabling then to identify that which has been so
defined. What is important the nature of these observations upon which
operationaldefinitions are based, how they are made, and of what they are made.
Conceptual definitions, on the other hand, identify something in terms of conceptual
or hypothetical criteria rather than observable ones. Defining the ego as the sense of
self or defining effective teaching as teaching which promotes learning would be
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two examples. In the conceptual definition, a concept is defined with reference to
another concept rather than with reference to observable reality characteristics, as is
the ease in an operational definition. Ultimately, for purpose of investigation,
concepts must be defined operationally.
Activity 5.1
What is operational definition of terms?
Another form of definition is definition by synonym. Being irate is defined as being made
angry. Being aggressive is defined as being forceful, pushy or demanding. Being intelligent
is defined as being smart. Such definitions do provide some information, but they cannot be
relied on (to) in linking one’s concepts to the observable world. Finally, there are dictionary
definitions, which include many kinds of definitions, in a use to everyone. Again, while
dictionary definitions are useful and informative, they are not substituted for formal
operational definitions that clearly spell out be the observable criteria uniquely with some
object or state.
The results of the research as opined by Wallen and Frankel (1991) could be applied
to many situations or to a specific group of people. It could be related to general
theory or general field of knowledge or not necessarily related to a broader field of
knowledge.
5.3 ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF GENERATING OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF
TERM
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There are three approaches to constructing operational definitions. These are types A, type
B and type C operational definitions.
TYPE A: A types A operational definition can be constructed in terms of operations that
must be performed to cause the phenomenon state being defined to occur in experiment
and research the phenomenon being studied to occur through the use of a certain
procedure. This type of operational definition is often more appropriate for defining a
phenomenon or state rather than an object or thing. For example, frustration may be
generally defined as that state which results when an individual is blocked from reaching a
lightly desired goal, which is close to attainment. Hunger may be operationally defined as
the result of being deprived of food for twenty-four hours.
TYPE B- A type B operational definition can be in terms of how the particular object or
thing being defined operates, that is what it does or what constitutes its dynamic
properties. An intelligent person can be operationally defined as a person who gets high
grades in school or a person who demonstrates a capability for solving symbolic logic
problems. A directive teacher might be operationally defined as one who gives instruction,
personalizes criticism or blame, and establishes formal relationships with students.
TYPE C- A types C operational definition can be constructed in terms of what objects or
phenomenon being defined looks like, that is what constitutes its static properties. An
intelligent student can be defined, for instance, as a person who has a good memory, a
large vocabulary, good reasoning ability, good arithmetic skills and so forth.
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Activity 5.2
What are the alternative ways of generating an operational definition of terms?
5.4 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION V
Operational definition of terms in this study was said to be a definition based on the
observable characteristics of that wordwhich is being defined and could be
applied to many situations or to a specific group of people. And there are three
ways of generating the definition of terms i.e. type A,B and C as discussed.
ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt the operational definition of terms and the alternative of
generating the definition terms. Hence, list the alternative and explain briefly?
ITA: The alternative ways of generating of operational definition of terms are as three
type as follows:
- Type A: This type of operational in terms of operations it must be achieved to
cause the phenomenon state being defined to occur in experiment and research the
phenomenon being studied to occur through the use of a certain procedure.
- Type B: Thiscan be in terms of how the particular object or thing being defined.
- Type C: Types C operational definition can be constructed in terms of what
objects or being defined looks like that is what constitutes its static properties.
1. What is operational definition of term?
2. List and explain the alternative ways of generating of operational definition.
REFERENCE
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Vithal, R. (2010) Designing Your First Research Proposal: A Manual for Researchers in
Education and the Social Sciences (second edition). CapeTown: Juta.
https://www.academicuprm.edu/-ephoebus/id98.htm
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STUDY SESSION VI: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will be introduced to two types of questions that are usually asked.
i. Reviewing the literature
ii. Guidelines for the selection of literature
6.2 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
Every serious piece of research includes review of relevant literature. The review of literature
is expected to be selective and not exhaustive. That means a researcher must disseminate in
his choice of books and articles to be included in the review.
Activity 6.1
What is the meaning of reviewing literature?
6.3 GUIDELINES FOR THE SELECTION OF LITERATURE
Some experts in the area have suggested the following guidelines in the selection of the
most appropriate and relevant sources required information, especially by new
researchers.
The number of reference to be included in a review of literature depends on whether you
are writing or a 499 project, a dissertation or a thesis or even an article for a journal.
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Many more reference can be included in thesis or dissertation than in a journal because
there is very limited space in the journal.
If you have to choose between two or more equally valuable articles on the same subject,
then choose the more recent by stating “similar conclusions or findings were made by
Ahmed (1980) Ndagi (1977) and Banjo and Nwana (1970)”. In this way you are not only
demonstrating that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field but also aware of
important recent development in addition to getting credit for citing earlier relevant
works. In a case where there are some differences of opinion or methodology on the
published literature than quote the articles in such a way that the review of literature is
representatives of the various opinions of the different techniques used.
6.3.1 ORGANIZING REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature should never be considered to be just a listing of various studies that
are remotely related to the topic to be studied. The review should be well organized by
dividing the review into major and minor headings. For example, the concept of “teaching”
could be outlined as follows:
2.1 Definition of teaching method
2.2 Types of teaching method
a. Class teaching method
b. Lecture method
c. Drama method
d. Dalton method e.t.c
2.2 Criteria for good teaching
2.3 Assessment and evaluation of good teaching
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2.4 Summary of Literature review and Uniqueness of the study
The organization of the review of literature requires observation of three principles:
1. The principles of exhaustiveness: This principle requires that the outline be complete.
For example, points 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 are the major things required in treating the
concept teaching. Similarly, items 2.2 a, b, c, d e.t.c should contain all the possible sub-
divisions of types of teaching.
2. The principle of exclusiveness: This principle requires that categories within heading do
not overlap each other. For example, dividing the teaching staff in school by salary level
01-11. Senior staff salary level 08-16 would violate this principle because there is an
overlap of junior and senior staff on salary 08-11. Dividing the staff into gradate and non-
graduate satisfies the principles of exclusiveness because no one member of staff can be
both gradate and non-gradate at the same time.
3. The principle of single classification: This principle requires that all items included in a
given unit be selected on the same basis. For example, if we classified education into
primary education, secondary education and higher education we could be violating the
principles if we included vocational education.
6.3.2LOCATION OF LITERATURE
For a successful research, on must develop the skills for locating the relevant material
that embody the work done in one’s field. Every effort must be made to important to
improve upon ones techniques in locating the best available sources with respect to a
particular problem and extracting the essential information required. One must be good at
library searching procedures and note-taking skills.

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6.4 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL IN RESEARCH
The following sources are very useful in locating references relevant to a topic:
a. Thesis and dissertations.
Each University has a list of Master’s Theses and Ph.D dissertations available in its
holdings. In addition, most university libraries have dissertations, abstracts
international published monthly. For each a candidate writes a 600 word abstract
form which researcher might collect enough information to satisfy his needs.
b. Government publications.
Books, pamphlets and other publications from various governmental and quasi-
government agencies have a rich source of information. They include statistical data
research studies, official reports, laws and other material not readily available
elsewhere.
c. Books from other libraries.
If a book is not available in a local library it may be available in another library.
Through inter-library loan scheme, a researcher could obtain copies of such materials
not available in the local library. On the other hand, a library may require a Photostat
copy of a page or of a number of pages of the desired references.
d. Newspapers.
Current newspapers could be available source of information for a research. They
often contain information on speeches, conferences, reports and other topics on
education.
e. Journals.
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Information about new ideas and developments resulting from research often appear
in journals long before they appear in books. Most journals have their titles derived
from a specific area of specialization. For example, we have their title derived from a
specific area of specialization. For example, we have series of journals under Adult
education, audiovisual education, child education e.t.c.
6.5 ADVANTAGES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. It gives the researcher some information about the present state of knowledge in the
areas he intends to study.
2. It gives the researcher some ideas of the type of design and statistical procedures that
could be used in conducting his research.
3. It helps the researcher to detect any deficiencies in the existing research and thereby
helps him to avoid the errors of previous researchers that studied the same or similar
problems.
4. It gives the researcher an idea of the relationship of his research topic to the
previously completed research.
5. It helps the researcher to select a research problem.
6. It helps the researcher to delimit the size and scope of his research problem.
Activity 6.2
Explain the location of literature review
6.6 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION VI
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The review of literature is expected to be selective and not exhaustive, while in the
guidelines was pointed that the number of reference to be included in a review of literature
depends on whether you are writing or a 499 project, a dissertation or a thesis or even an
article for a journal.
ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt what literature review is and its guidelines as far as some
useful references to the literature review concern. Hence, what are the useful references
that will be relevant to a topic?
ITA: The following sources are very useful in locating references relevant to a topic:
- Thesis and dissertations
- Government publications
- Books from other libraries
- Newspapers
- Journals
1. What is literature review?
2. What are the guidelines to the literature review?
REFERENCE
Walliman, N. (2005) Your Research Project: A Step-by-Step Guide for the First-Time
Researcher (second edition). London: Sage.

https://www.research gate.net
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STUDY SESSION VII: METHOD OF COLLECTION IN EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
An educational researcher can use one or any combination of three ways of collecting
information for research.
i. Observation
ii. Interview
iii. Advantages and disadvantages of interview
7.2 OBSERVATION
Observation is a very important primary tool of scientific research. It is a direct means of
studying the overt behavior of people, and it’s most important advantage is that it is
possible to record behavior as it happens. When we are looking as something that is
happening, what each person sees depends on his interests, which determine his pattern
of selective observation.
Activity 7.1
What is observation?
Basically, there are two types of observations controlled and controlled.
a. Uncontrolled observation
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In uncontrolled observation: there are no definite laid down rules and procedures. The
observer must be prepared to take his clue from unexpected event. There are certain
principles that guide the direction of the observation, which the observer must be adhere
to. This include: the people involved, the setting in which the people will be observed, the
behavior to be observed, and the frequency and duration of events.
b. Controlled observation
Whereas uncontrolled observation is very useful in explanatory studies controlled
observation is much more important at the stage where systematic description and test of
casual hypotheses are required. The researcher has determined what aspects of the
activities to be observed are relevant for his research problem, and he could therefore
develop a specific plan for recording his data by being able to report under what
conditions he made his observations and so on. It could be possible for other researchers
to know the limitation to his data to repeat t5he observation.
7.3 INTERVIEW
Interview in the research is a technique used for collecting information from others in a face-
to-face situation. It is used when a researcher wants to obtain reliable and valid information
in the form of verbal responses from respondents in order to confirm or reject hypotheses:
there are for types of interview
a. Structured interview: it is rigidly standardized and very formal, the same questions are
presented to various respondents in the same order and the choice of alternative responses
is restricted to a predetermined list.
b. Unstructured interview: Unstructured interview is very flexible and few restrictions are
placed on a respondents answer. Respondents are encouraged to express their thoughts
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freely, and the order of prepared questions could be altered to suit respondents or
occasion. A disadvantage of the unstructured interview is that it is difficult to quantify the
collected data. Data from various respondents cannot be compared and therefore,
generalization for wider applicability is not possible. Hence unstructured interviews are
rarely used for testing hypothesis.
c. Non-directive depth interview: in this case, instead of asking direct or prepared questions
to obtain some specific information, a respondent is allowed to talk freely and fully on a
particular topic. The interviewer serves as a good listener and use occasionally
encouraging words to keep the respondent talking.
d. Focused interview: in focused interview the respondent is asked to focus his attention on
a particular event or experience. Before the interview, the interviewer prepares the
appropriate questions to serve as the basis for the discussion, and during the interview the
discussion is limited to the predetermined relevant issues. Therespondent is allowed to
express himself completely butalong the line outlined by the interviewer.
7.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
The interview method of data collection’ has the following advantages:
1. It is flexible and is applicable to different t ypes of problems.
2. An interviewer canobserve both what the respondent says and how to say it.
3. It is, very useful in collecting personal information attitudes or beliefs,
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
The interview method has the following disadvantages:
1. It is very difficult to generalize from unstructured interview.

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2. The personal biases, values and beliefs of the interviews may affect the result of the
interviewers.
3. The technique is time consuming.
4. The race, tribe, age, sex, religion, vocabulary, accent, ethnic background or social class of the
interviewer could alter the responses of the respondents.
Activity 7.2
What is interview?
7.5 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION VII
In this study session observation and interview were discussed, and observation was
defined as a direct means of studying the overt behavior of people, and it’s most important
advantage is that it is possible to record behavior as it happens.While the interview is a
technique used for collecting information from others in a face-to-face situation.
ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt definition of observation and interview,and then u has
taught that interview has been divided into types which is “Structured, unstructured, non-
directive and focused interview. Hence, what is structured interview?
ITA: structured interview is strictly consistent and very formal, the same questions are
presented to various respondents in the same order and the choice of alternative responses
is restricted to a predetermined list.
1. What is Observation?
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2. What is interview?
REFERENCE
Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook.
London: Sage.
https://www.tm-solutions.eu/edu
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STUDY SESSION VIII: QUESTIONNAIRE
INTRODUCTION
This is advice for getting answers to questions by using aform, which the respondent fills by
himself.
i. What is questionnaire
ii. Forms of questionnaire
iii. Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire
8.2 QUESTIONNAIRE
In many ways questionnaire is similar to interviewer. Both interview and questionnaire
attempt to get the feelings, beliefs, experience, or activities of respondents. They also may
involve formats, which can be relatively structured depending on the situation.
Activity 8.1
What do you understand by observation?
8.3 FORMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
There are different forms of questionnaire:
Close form (or structured): they consist of prepared list of specific questions and a choice of
possible answers they are easy to administered and fill out. The help keep the respondents mind
fixed to the subject and facilitate the process of tabulation and analysis.
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Open form: this method gives the respondents an opportunity to reveal his motives or attitude
and to specify the background or the provisional condition upon which their answers are based.
Pictorial form: Drawing or photographs are presented instead of written statement from which
to choose answers. It is quite suitable for collecting data from children and illiterates.
8.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. For the same cost, many more respondents to questionnaire can be obtained than can
responses to interviewers.
2. It requires much less skill to administer a questionnaire than interviewers.
3. It ensures uniformity in measurement
4. It gives respondents greater confidence in expressing their views freely.
5. It places less pressure on respondents for immediate responses.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Respondents’ motivation is difficult to assess.
2. It cannot be used with illiterates.
3. There is tendency for based representation.
8.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLING
Population is defined as the entire group whose characteristics are to be estimated. In
research, it is sometimes referred to as the universe. We can have population of persons such
as students, geographic areas as schools. Residential areas, objects such as textbooks,
audiovisual aid or test items. Population could be infinitely large (such as all the students
past, present and future) or finite (such as secondary school students attending a particular
school on a given day). For example, in a study titled “perception of parents on the relevance
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of 6-3-3-4 system in the attainment or educational objectives in Borno State” population
would be all parents in Borno. It should be noted that the population to be studied be
properly defined. There are two types of population.
a. Target population: This refers to the entire universe or the entire group whose
characteristics are to be estimated.
b. Accessible population: Refers to the identified available group of individuals
or objects or items at the point of research investigation.
8.5.1 SAMPLING
Sample defined as a limited number of elements selected from a population as a
representation of that population being representative does not imply that a sample is a mini-
population rather a section of the population is selected to take part in the study.
Why sampling?
This brings us to the question of why sample. Why should we not use the population as the
focus of study. There are at least four major reasons to sample.
First, it is usually too costly to test the entire population. The United States government
spends millions of dollars to conduct the U.S. Census every ten years. While the U.S.
government may have that kind of money, most researchers do not.
The second reason to sample is that it may be impossible to test the entire population. For
example, let us say that we wanted to test the 5-HIAA (a serotonergic metabolite) levels in
the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of depressed individuals. There are far too many individuals
who do not make it into the mental health system to even be identified as depressed, let alone
to test their CSF.
Page 58 of 81
The third reason to sample is that testing the entire population often produces error. Thus,
sampling may be more accurate. Perhaps an example will help clarify this point. Say
researchers wanted to examine the effectiveness of a new drug on Alzheimer's disease. One
dependent variable that could be used is an Activities of Daily Living Checklist. In other
words, it is a measure of functioning o a day to day basis. In this experiment, it would make
sense to have as few of people rating the patients as possible. If one individual rates the
entire sample, there will be some measure of consistency from one patient to the next. If
many raters are used, this introduces a source of error. These raters may all use a slightly
different criteria for judging Activities of Daily Living. Thus, as in this example, it would be
problematic to study an entire population.
The final reason to sample is that testing may be destructive. It makes no sense to lesion the
lateral hypothalamus of all rats to determine if it has an effect on food intake. We can get that
information from operating on a small sample of rats. Also, you probably would not want to
buy a car that had the door slammed five hundred thousand time or had been crash tested.
Rather, you probably would want to purchase the car that did not make it into either of those
samples.
8.5.2 TYPE OF SAMPLING METHOD
There are many types of sampling techniques, and these include:
1. Simple Random Sampling:
In simple random sampling, every element in the population has an equal probability of
being selected. That means no element of the population should be omitted deliberately,
except by chance. Suppose a researcher want to sample 60 students out of 700 in a
Page 59 of 81
school. Each of the 700 students should be given a code number 001-700. The researcher
then goes into these numbers by choosing his eyes if he likes and pick at random the
required number.
It is also conducted by randomly selecting a first case on a list of the population and then
preceding every Nth case until your sample is selected. This is particularly useful if your
list of the population is long. For example, if your list was the phone book, it would be
easiest to start at perhaps the 17th person, and then select every 50th person from that
point on.
2. Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling is the process of dividing a population into strata or sub-
populations. After the population has been divided into strata, samples are selected at
random but independently from each stratum. Suppose a researcher wants to know what
the opinion of people in a local government area will be towards the new UBE program
UPE an economical and reliable way of going about this is to divide the population into
six residential locations variables.
However, stratified random sampling makes up the fourth sampling strategy in a
stratified sample, we sample either proportionately or equally to represent various strata
or subpopulations. For example if our strata were states we would make sure and sample
from each of the fifty states. If our strata were religious affiliation, stratified sampling
would ensure sampling from every religious block or grouping. If our strata were gender,
we would sample both men and women.
3. Proportional sampling
Page 60 of 81
This method requires the selection of units at random from each stratum in proportion to
the actual size of the group in the population.
4. Non-Proportional Sampling
Non-proportional sampling is used when it may be responsible to over sampling some
elements from one or more strata if that element occurs frequently in the population.
5. Double sampling
When marked questionnaire is used, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more
representative sample. This precaution is necessary when some randomly selected
subjects do not return their questionnaire, and instead a research will draw non-
respondents and interview those people to obtain the desired information.
Double sampling also represent the third sampling problem. These are elements who
appear more than once on the sampling frame. For example, if I am a researcher studying
patient satisfaction with emergency room care, I may potentially include the same patient
more than once in my study. If the patients are completing a patient satisfaction
questionnaire, I need to make sure that patients are aware that if they have completed the
questionnaire previously, they should not complete it again. If they complete it more that
once, their second set of data represents a duplicate.
6. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is used when a population is so structured that it is possible to select
a sample by counting every 5th, 10th or 100th person until the desired sample size is
obtained.
7. Area or Cluster Sampling
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Area of cluster sampling involves sampling cluster first, and then sampling individuals or
elements will the cluster. For example, it is possible that one can obtain number of all the
students in a state; it may be easier and it expensive to select randomly within these
school.
Moreover, area cluster sampling makes up the final sampling procedure. In cluster
sampling we take a random sample of strata and then survey every member of the group.
For example, if our strata were individuals’ schools in the St. Louis Public School
System, we would randomly select perhaps 20 schools and then test all of the students
within those schools.
Activity 8.2
What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire?
8.6 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION VIII
The questionnaire in this study was pointed as the attempt to get the feelings, beliefs,
experience, or activities of respondents. It also may involve formats, which can be
relatively structured depending on the situation and there are different forms of
questionnaire which is “Close form or structured, open form and Pictorial.
ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt what questionnaire is and its forms. Hence, list the forms
and explain one of it.
ITA: the forms of questionnaire are as follows:
- Close form or structured
- Open form
Page 62 of 81
- Pictorial form
Open form method: this method gives the respondents an opportunity to reveal his motives or
attitude and to specify the background or the provisional condition upon which their answers are
based
1. What is questionnaire?
2. What are the forms of questionnaire?
REFERENCE
Salkind, N. (2009) Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics (second edition).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
https://www.tm-solutions.eu/edu
Page 63 of 81
STUDY SESSION IX: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
INTRODUCTION
Computer is an electronic device that can accept data (input) process it and produce result
(output), with storage facilities for storing data/information for future use.
i. Define computer
ii. Types of computer
iii. Components of computer
9.2 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
Computer is an electronic device that is designed to complement human efforts to enhance
performance of 'tasks and improve productivity, unlike other electronic device, computer
operates mainly by carrying out instructions given to it by software. The instructions
determine actions and decisions taken by the computer.
Activity 9.1
What is computer?
The Computer system is divided into:
- Hardware
- Software
- Human ware / live ware
The physical parts of the computer are called Hardware while the set of instructions used for
operating the computer is called software (i.e. all programs which are used in a particular
Page 64 of 81
computer installation). Human ware refers to the different personnel involved in operating
the computer.
9.3 TYPES OF COMPUTER
The computer can be classified using the following criteria;
- Signal
- Use of purpose
- Size
- Generation
9.3.1 CLASSIFICATION BY SIGNALS
1. Digital Computer: These are computers, which operate on data presented in digital or
number form i.e. they used discrete signals. They are suitable for performing
mathematical and /or logical operations on data. E.g. IBM personal computer, calculator,
calculating machines.
2. Analogue computers: the perform operations on data presented in continuous form i.e.
they use continuous signals. They are suitable for measuring physical magnitude such as
temperature, pressure, e.t.c examples are slide rule, car speedometer, clinical
thermometer, e.t.c
3. Hybrid Computers: These perform operation on data using discrete or continuous signals
for representation e.g. pacer 600 or 700.
9.3.2 CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE
1. Special Purpose Computer: they are designed for a particular job only e.g.
computers built for road traffic control, fuel, dedicated word-process e.t.c.
Page 65 of 81
2. General Purpose: they are computer built for solving a wide variety of problems
e.g. IBM PC.
9.3.3 CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
1. Super Computer: These computers are expected to have large memory in terms of
billions of bytes (giga bytes). They are very fast and are part of the fifth generation
computers. They have a different architecture from the previous one. They make use of
strong knowledge-based and controls unit to process any given data. They are believed to
plagiaries the human mind. These sets of computers are referred to as Artificial intelligent
computer systems. Such is the like of your Robots an Expert systems.
2. Mainframe Computer: are large size computers capable of linking up with dozens or
hundreds and even small dozens for additional computing power. They serve hundreds of
user the same time e.g. BIM 3090/600, NCR 900 series, IBM 370, DEC 10 VAX etc. the
computers are disjoined. It disseminates a lot of heat. It is rather very slow. It has small
memory capacity and understands only the computer language. It occupies a lot of space.
It has a liquid state technology.
3. Mini Computer: they are middle class of comoputers in terms of size and computer
power. They can serve users or control several automated equipment. The digital
equipment corporations (DEC) VAX 8200, for example serve up 20 users. It is smaller
when compared with the mainframe computers. It dissipates lesser amount of heat. Its
components are more connected together. It is faster than the mainframe. It is less
expensive also.
4. Macro Computer: It is a small computer that uses a macro processor e.g IBM PC. It is
the cheapest and by far the most popular computer system. It has a uses at a time. It is
Page 66 of 81
common in use in form of mini tower, full tower, desktop, laptop and notebook
computers. The laptop and the notebook computer are very much, popular. They be easily
carried home or on journey for use, whileattending to some other processing needs.
9.4 COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
The computer can be classified into five parts namely:
1. Input device: The input unit or devices are devices or Means' through which
data is fed into the computer. Input unit is the channel of communication
between the users and the computer. The most: popular type of input device in
the keyboard. Others are joystick, mouse, scanners, e.t.c.
2. Output devices: A Computer will not be very useful to human. There are no
ways we can know what is doing. Hence, output .devices are devices through
which result from CPU are transmitted to the user. The major devices are the
VDC, plotter e.tc.
3. Memory unit: the memory unit is the storage device ofthe computer and its
organized in a form of cells (pigeon holes). Programs and data are stored in
sequence and the cells given addressee go that they can be easily located,
4. The Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU): The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
perform the actual processing operation involving addition, subtraction
multiplication, division and comparison of the two data values, 11," is the brain
of the computer. Processing is done in the. ALU using binarydigits.
5. The Control, unit (CU): The control unit (CU) is in charge of controlling and
coordinating the cycle of field in machine instruction and data from machinery
Page 67 of 81
and processing them. That is it contains 'circuitry for directing the operation of
the computer and all devices attached to it.
Activity 9.2
What are the uses of output and input device in computer?
9.5 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION XI
Computer is a machine that can accept and process a data, and then the computer was
classified into: Signal, Use of purpose, Size and Generation. While the components are:
Input, output, memory unit, The Arithmetic and logic unit and control unit (CU)
ITQ: in this unit, you have learnt the definitionand components of computer. Hence, what
input and output device?
ITA: The input is the channel of communication between the users and the
computer. The most: popular type of input device in the keyboard. Others are
joystick, mouse, scanners, e.t.c. while the Output devices are devices through
which result from CPU are transmitted to the user. The major devices are the
VDC, plotter e.tc.
9.6SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION (SAQ)
1. What is computer?
2. What are the components of computer?
REFERENCE
Page 68 of 81
Wright, D. B. (2009) First (and Second) Steps in Statistics. London: Sage.
https://www.techn-logy.edu/ng.html
Page 69 of 81
SOLUTION TO EXERCISE
STUDY SESSION 1
1.2 A research has been defined as a systematic, organized and contoured investigation of a
problem showing relationship between variables in the process that creates a particular
state of affairs.
1.3 The research is divided into three types as follows:
-Fundamental or Pure Research: is a type of research that is very rigorous
and well-structured types of
-Applied research: this has the characteristics of fundamental or pure
research, except the strict laboratory ting situation.
-Action research: the finding of action research can only be careful in terms
of local applications. It is a useful process in improving school practice
concerning teaching-learning process and instructional materials.
STUDY SESSION II
2.2 Research design refers to the overall strategy that you chose to integrate the different
components in the study in a coherent and logical way.
2.3 There are different types of research design identified by researchers over the years.
These include:
1. Survey research
2. Observational research:
3. Historical – research:
4. Causal comparative research:
Page 70 of 81
5. Correlation research:
6. Experimental research:
7. Evaluation research:
8. Educational research:
STUDY SESSION III
3.2 A research problem is an interrogative statement, which asks about the
presumed relationship between two or more variables that create a particular
state of affair.
3.3 There are several ways of determining a research problem. A problem can be
determined through an. unanswered question, which has persisted in time as;
for example, many primary and se secondary school pupils develop a poor
attitude towards mathematics and perform poorly in it
3.3.1 Thefollowing are the Criteria for selecting a Research problem
-Interest: Except a, research problem is interesting, a researcher
would not expect care and well-designed procedure and effort to
be put into the solution of the problem.
-Uniqueness: The idea of uniqueness assumes that a research
problem has originality in either purpose or method.
-Ability and Training: Before undertaking to investigate a research
problem it is very important for a researcher to assess his ability,
experience and capacity, and clearly recognize his own
limitation with particular reference to the research problem to be
investigated.
Page 71 of 81
-Availability, of Data and Instrument: It is very important that
satisfactory data is available and an appropriate 'instrument exists
for the collection necessary information for the research study to
be undertaken.
STUDY SESSION IV
4.2 This aspect of the study is not crucial as the research problem is clearly and
specifically stated in a question form, However, it has become a practice in
some institutions that formulating research objectives is considered.
4.3 After the formulation of research problem, flic next logical ’step in the
research process is the formulation of hypothesis based on the research,
problem. A hypothesis, a suggested answer to the problem, has the following
characteristics:
1. It should be conjunctive upon a relationship between
two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously in the form of
declarative senl.cn.ee,
3. It should be testable by evaluating it on the basis of
.data collected.
4.3.1 There are two major types of hypothesis:
-Null hypothesis - is the hypothesis stated in a “nodifference” form, or
for example, “there will be no difference between the mean
Page 72 of 81
examination grades ofstudents from rural and urban areas in
the distribution of SSCE scores.
-The alternative h ypothesis - is the h ypothesis that is proponed
to be accepted if the null h ypothesis turns outexamination
than those from rural areas’ 5 is an alternative h ypothesis,
4.3.2 Hypotheses are very important and indispensable research tools
because they provide the link between a research problem and the
location of the empirical evidence that may provide a solution to
the problem
STUDY SESSION V
5.2 Operational definitions of terms are simpl y s ynon ymous; at o t h e r
times they may b e conceptual, providing h yp othetical description of
what or wh y something.
5.3 There are three approaches to constructing operational definitions. These are types
A, type B and type C operational definitions.
1. TYPE A: A types A operational definition can be
constructed in terms of operations that must be performed to
cause the phenomenon state being defined to occur in
experiment and research the phenomenon being studied to
occur through the use of a certain procedure.
2. TYPE B- A type B operational definition can be in terms of
how the particular object or thing being defined operates, that
is what it does or what constitutes its dynamic properties.

Page 73 of 81
3. TYPE C- A types C operational definition can be
constructed in terms of what objects or phenomenon being
defined looks like, that is what constitutes its static
properties.
STUDY SESSION VI
6.2 Every serious piece of research includes review of relevant literature. The review of
literature is expected to be selective and not exhaustive.
6.3 Some experts in the area have suggested the following guidelines in the selection of
the most appropriate and relevant sources required information, especially by new
researchers.
6.3.1 The review should be well organized by dividing the review
into major and minor headings. For example, the concept of
“teaching” could be outlined as follows:
2.3 Definition of teaching method
2.4 Types of teaching method
e. Class teaching method
f. Lecture method
g. Drama method
h. Dalton method e.t.c
2.5 Criteria for good teaching
2.6 Assessment and evaluation of good teaching
2.7 Summary of Literature review and Uniqueness of the study
Page 74 of 81
6.3.2 For a successful research, on must develop the skills for
locating the relevant material that embody the work done in
one’s field. Every effort must be made to important to improve
upon ones techniques in locating the best available sources
with respect to a particular problem and extracting the essential
information required.
6.4 The following sources are very useful in locating references relevant to a topic:
f. Thesis and dissertations: Each University has a list of Master’s Theses and
Ph.D dissertations available in its holdings.
g. Government publications: Books, pamphlets and other publications from
various governmental and quasi-government agencies have a rich source of
information.
h. Books from other libraries: If a book is not available in a local library it may
be available in another library.
i. Newspapers:Current newspapers could be available source of information for
a research.
j. Journals: Information about new ideas and developments resulting from
research often appear in journals long before they appear in books.
6.5 The advantages of literature review are as follows:
1. It gives the researcher some information about the present state of
knowledge in the areas he intends to study.
2. It gives the researcher some ideas of the type of design and statistical
procedures that could be used in conducting his research.
Page 75 of 81
3. It helps the researcher to detect any deficiencies in the existing research and
thereby helps him to avoid the errors of previous researchers that studied
the same or similar problems.
STUDY SESSION VII
7.2 Observation is a very important primary tool of scientific research. It is a direct
means of studying the overt behavior of people, and it’s most important advantage
is that it is possible to record behavior as it happens. Basically, there are two types
of observations controlled and controlled.
1. Uncontrolled observation: In uncontrolled observation: there are no
definite laid down rules and procedures. The observer must be prepared to
take his clue from unexpected event.
2. Controlled observation:Whereas uncontrolled observation is very useful
in explanatory studies controlled observation is much more important at
the stage where systematic description and test of casual hypotheses are
required.
7.3 Interview in the research is a technique used for collecting information from others
in a face-to-face situation. It is used when a researcher wants to obtain reliable and
valid information in the form of verbal responses from respondents in order to
confirm or reject hypotheses: there are for types of interview:
1. Structured interview: it is rigidly standardized and very formal, the same
questions are presented to various respondents in the same order and the
choice of alternative responses is restricted to a predetermined list.
Page 76 of 81
2. Unstructured interview: Unstructured interview is very flexible and few
restrictions are placed on a respondents answer.
3. Non-directive depth interview: in this case, instead of asking direct or
prepared questions to obtain some specific information, a respondent is
allowed to talk freely and fully on a particular topic.
4. Focused interview: in focused interview the respondent is asked to focus
his attention on a particular event or experience. Before the interview, the
interviewer prepares the appropriate questions to serve as the basis for the
discussion, and during the interview the discussion is limited to the
predetermined relevant issues.
STUDY SESSION VIII
8.2 Questionnaire attempt to get the feelings, beliefs, experience, or activities of
respondents. They also may involve formats, which can be relatively structured
depending on the situation.
8.3 There are different forms of questionnaire:
1. Close form (or structured): they consist of prepared list of
specific questions and a choice of possible answers they are easy to
administered and fill out.
2. Open form: this method gives the respondents an opportunity to
reveal his motives or attitude and to specify the background or the
provisional condition upon which their answers are based.
Page 77 of 81
3. Pictorial form: Drawing or photographs are presented instead of
written statement from which to choose answers. It is quite suitable
for collecting data from children and illiterates.
8.4 Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire are
Advantages
- For the same cost, many more respondents to questionnaire can be
obtained than can responses to interviewers.
- It requires much less skill to administer a questionnaire than
interviewers.
- It ensures uniformity in measurement
Disadvantages:
- Respondents’ motivation is difficult to assess.
- It cannot be used with illiterates.
- There is tendency for based representation.
8.5 Population is defined as the entire group whose characteristics are to be estimated.
In research, it is sometimes referred to as the universe. We can have population of
persons such as students, geographic areas as schools.
8.5.1 Sample defined as a limited number of elements selected from a
population as a representation of that population being representative
does not imply that a sample is a mini-population rather a section of
the population is selected to take part in the study.
8.5.2 There are many types of sampling techniques, and these include:
- Simple Random Sampling
Page 78 of 81
- Stratified random sampling
- Proportional sampling
- Non-Proportional Sampling
- Double sampling
- Systematic Sampling
- Area or Cluster Sampling
STUDY SESSION IX
9.2 Computer is an electronic device that is designed to complement human efforts to
enhance performance of 'tasks and improve productivity, unlike other electronic
device, computer operates mainly by carrying out instructions given to it by software
9.3 Types of computer, the computer can be classified using the following criteria;
- Signal
- Use of purpose
- Size
- Generation
a. Types of Audio-visual aids
9.3.1 Classification by signal
- Digital Computer: These are computers, which operate on data presented in
digital or number form i.e. they used discrete signals
- Analogue computers: the perform operations on data presented in continuous
form i.e. they use continuous signals
- Hybrid Computers: These perform operation on data using discrete or
continuous signals for representation e.g. pacer 600 or 700

Page 79 of 81
9.3.2 Classification by purpose
- Special Purpose Computer:they are designed for a particular job only e.g.
computers built for road traffic control, fuel, dedicated word-process e.t.c.
- General Purpose: they are computer built for solving a wide variety of
problems e.g. IBM PC.
9.3.3 Classification by size
- Super Computer: These computers are expected to have large memory in
terms of billions of bytes (giga bytes). They are very fast and are part of the
fifth generation computers.
- Mainframe Computer: are large size computers capable of linking up with
dozens or hundreds and even small dozens for additional computing power.
- Mini Computer: they are middle class of computers in terms of size and
computer power. They can serve users or control several automated
equipment.
- Macro Computer: It is a small computer that uses a macro processor e.g IBM
PC. It is the cheapest and by far the most popular computer system. It has a
uses at a time.
9.4 Components of computer, the computer can be classified into five parts namely:
1. Input device: The input unit or devices are devices or Means'
through which data is fed into the computer.
2. Output devices: outputs devices are devices through which result
from CPU are transmitted to the user. The major devices are the
VDC, plotter e.tc.
Page 80 of 81
3. Memory unit: the memory unit is the storage device ofthe computer
and it’s organized in a form of cells (pigeon holes).
4. The Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): The arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU) perform the actual processing operation involving addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and comparison of the two data
values.
5. The Control, unit (CU): The control unit (CU) is in charge of
controlling and coordinating the cycle of field in machine
instruction and data from machinery and processing them.
Page 81 of 81

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EDU 311 Research, Data Processing Statistics and Computer Usage

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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

EDU 311: Research, Data Processing, Statistics &

Course Facilitator: Hajja Kaltum Ali

the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade

online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to

CENTER FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

EDU 311: Research, Data Processing Statistics and

Mrs. Hajja Kaltum Ali

INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

bottom-up information on computer usage.

a. learn the basic knowledge of research method

choosing a topic to formulating objective.

Introduction to the Course

Study Sessions: 1. Definition of Research

3. Statement of a Research Problem

4. Formulating a research objective

5. Operational Definition Of Terms

6. Reviewing the Literature

7. Method of Collection in Educational Research

10. Solution to Exercise

STUDY SESSION I: DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

course therefore would be to examine what we mean by research itself.

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

ii. Types of Research

1.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

A research is a systematic, organized and contoured investigation of a problem showing

According to Bruce and Tuckrnan (1978], research is a systematic attempt to

provide answers to questions such answers may be abstract or may be highly

concrete and specific.

to many situations or to a specific group of people. It could be related to general

theory or general field of knowledge or not necessarily related to a broader field of

1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Some scholars identified three basic types of research:

structured types of analysis'-(e.g chi-square, t-test, Anova, etc).which lead to the

development of theories through the discovery of broad generalizations or principles.

beyond the group or situation studied.Fundamental or pure research is usually the

activity of psychologists and other scientists using laboratory situation.

because it is much more concerned with developing generalizations and principles

concerning teaching-learning process and instructional materials.

principles. It is a useful process in improving school practice concerning teaching-learning

process and instructional materials.

List the types of Research?

1.4 SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION I

defined by Bruce and Tuckrnan (1978) as a systematic attempt to provide answers

While the types are: Fundamental, Applied and Action research.

ITA: A research is a systematic and organized investigation of a problem showing

1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION (SAQ)

2. List and explain the types of Research.

Seale, C. (ed.) (2004) Researching Society and Culture (second edition).

STUDY SESSION II: RESEARCH DESIGN

analyzing data collected.

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

i. Define Research design

ii. Types of Research design

2.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

What is Research design?

2.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. SURVEY RESEARCH : Is a distinctive design that owes much of

its recent development to the field of sociology. Often, surveys are

used to collect information, such as the percentage of respondents

whohold or do not certain opinion. However, surveys can also