Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

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Quaternary International
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The twilight of Paleolithic Siberia: Humans and their environments east of Lake
Baikal at the late-glacial/Holocene transition
Ian Buvit a, b, *, Karisa Terry a, b
a
Tokyo Metropolitan University, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, 1-1, Minamiosawa, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan
b
Central Washington University, Department of Anthropology and Museum, 400 E. University Way, Ellensburg, WA 98926, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Numerous archaeological sites in Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East are assigned to the Younger
Available online 18 May 2011 Dryas that testify to human occupation of the area despite a re-advance of steppe biota beginning around
11,000 14C BP (ca. 12,850 cal BP). Archaeological sites are primarily associated with low-energy alluvial
landforms where preservation is excellent, but some are heavily disturbed by cryogenic processes. Fish
bones and other direct evidence of aquatic resource exploitation appeared while terrestrial hunting
persisted. Technologically there was continuation of microblades, bifaces, and burins, but also harpoons,
composite tools, and even pottery emerged in some areas. The Younger Dryas in Eastern Siberia and the
Russian Far East was in many ways a watershed between Upper Paleolithic lifeways of the late Pleis-
tocene and more settled Mesolithic traditions of the early Holocene.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Cultural response to climate change during the late post-glacial
was remarkable, especially during the Pleistocene-Holocene tran-
sition when large-scale temperature and precipitation fluctuations
prompted shifts in human organization in some areas at a relatively
rapid pace. This paper deals with the Younger Dryas, a period of late-
glacial climatic cooling between 11,000 and 10,000 14C BP (12,850
and 11,500 cal BP) once thought to have been restricted to the North
Atlantic but now known to have occurred globally (Peteet, 1995) that
disrupted relatively steady warming (Mangerud et al.,1974; Renssen,
1997, p. 12; Alley, 2000). Worldwide, humans reacted to the Younger
Dryas in a variety of ways. In the Middle East, for example, cooler
temperatures and reduced precipitation may have led to shifts in
mobility and resource exploitation when Natufian hunter-gatherers
were forced to reduce their time spent at individual sites (Bar-Yosef,
1998; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 1999; Munro, 2003). On the North
American continent Clovis cultures flourished during a brief period
between 11,050 and 10,800 14C BP (12,980 and 12,660 cal BP) (Waters
and Stafford, 2007). Similarly, Europe witnessed the emergence of
diverse cultures adapted to meet challenges of limited precipitation
and reduced temperatures across the continent (Macintosh, 2006,
p. 24; Champion et al., 2009, p. 56).
* Corresponding author at: Tokyo Metropolitan University, Faculty of Social
Sciences and Humanities, 1-1, Minamiosawa, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan.
E-mail addresses: ibuvit@gmail.com (I. Buvit), karisaterry@hotmail.com
(K. Terry).
This paper adds to the current discourse with a review of late-
glacial to Holocene transitional environments and human cultures
in Russian Asia east of Lake Baikal (Fig. 1). The main question
addressed is: What is known about whether the Younger Dryas had
manifest effects on human adaptations in the area? The discussion is
directed by the following related questions: When did the Younger
Dryas occur? What were environments like just before, during, and
after the Younger Dryas? Was there geographical variability in the
climate signals or were they uniform across the area? What do the
late-glacial and earliest Holocene archaeological records indicate
about human response to the Younger Dryas event? What sites date
to this period? What are their contexts? What do the cultural
assemblages (artifacts, features, fauna) say specifically about human
adaptations around the Younger Dryas?
For this overview, the Younger Dryas is defined as between
11,000 and 10,000 14C BP (12,850 and 11,500 cal BP). The review also
considers in brief environmental conditions and cultures of the
Allerød (12,000e11,000 14C BP [13,850e12,850 cal BP]), and touches
on climates of the Preboreal (10,000e8500 14C BP [11,500e9510 cal
BP]). For comparison, archaeological sites with Allerød and Younger
Dryas components are discussed based on the presence of one or
more radiocarbon dates between 12,000 and 10,000 14C BP (13,850
and 11,500 cal BP). Efforts are made to present 14C dates in radio-
carbon and calendar years using Calib 6.0.
Over the last few decades a wide range of dates has been used to
define the Younger Dryas, but there seems to be some consensus
between 11,000 and 10,000 14C BP (12,850 and 11,500 cal BP) based
on data predominately from Greenland (Alley, 2000; Rasmussen

1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.05.003
380 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

Fig. 1. Map of Asiatic Russia showing the locations of sites mentioned in the text: (1) Khomustakh; (2) Ulkhan Chabada; (3) Suollakh; (4) Dyanushka; (5) Dolgoe Lake; (6) Lake
Kotokel; (7) Lake Baikal; (8) Gur; (9) Smorodinovoye Lake; (10) Wrangel Island; (11) New Siberian Islands; (12) Elikchan-2 Lake and Bakhapcha River; (13) Melkoe Lake; (14)
El’gygytgyn Lake; (15) Bol’shoi Yakor’ and Kovrizhka; (16) Kosayia Shivera; (17) Mukhor-Tala-7; (18) Oshurkovo; (19) Ust’-Kiakhta; (20) Ust’-Menza-1; (21) Studenoe-1; (22)
Ust’-Karenga-12; (23) Ust’-Timpton; (24) Berelekh; (25) Ezhantsy; (26) Zhokov; (27) Malye Kuruktachi-1; (28) Golya Mys-4; (29) Gromatukha; (30) Ustinovka-6; (31) Gasya; (32)
Khummi; (33) Goncharka; and (34) Ushki.

et al., 2006), but also from Germany (Litt and Stebich, 1999; Brauer
et al., 2000). There does not seem to be firm agreement on these
dates in northeastern Asia. Several studies, for example, cite an
ending age several centuries earlier (Velichko et al., 2002; Bazarova
et al., 2008; Watanabe et al., 2009), which may in part reflect
terminology from general Siberian climate sequences where the
closest approximation to the Younger Dryas is the Noril’sk Stade
(Kind, 1974). The age disparities also likely result from the irregular
timing of late-glacial climate change across Siberia.
Another major difficulty with a synthesis on a scale as large as
is covered here is the uneven scope of research across the region.
As a case in point, several decades of studies related to the Baikal
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400 381

Drilling Project have produced volumes of data presented in

dozens of scientific publications (Williams et al., 2001). Similarly,
northeastern Siberia has witnessed a tremendous amount of
paleoenvironmental research over the last 20 years. The coring
project at Lake El’gygytgyn, Chukotka, for example, has generated
highly detailed records back as far as 250,000 years ago (Brigham-
Grette et al., 2007). Central Siberia, on the other hand, has seen
only a handful of studies, few of which have occurred in the last
decade.
A third problem has been the language barrier and limited
access to primary Russian literature by Anglophone audiences.
This is not as significant an obstacle, however, as it was just a few
years ago. Since 1991, cooperation between Russian and foreign
scientists has increased enormously, which has produced joint
publications in easily accessed English-language journals. Another
invaluable channel to original publications has been the Internet
where users can now access many outstanding Russian-language
journals with a few mouse clicks. It is also possible to request
material from foreign colleagues through e-mail. With a little
effort, a large body of Russian scientific literature is available.
Likewise, many Russian scientists are publishing in English in
journals available through sites including ScienceDirect and
Springer-Link. What remains difficult in terms of literature
searches is accessing “gray literature” where the most up-to-date
research is often presented. This includes conference proceedings,
monographs published by local institutions, and brief annual
research summaries.

2. Regional setting

This paper covers parts of Siberia and the Russian Far East from
Lake Baikal to the Pacific Ocean. Several regions of Asiatic Russia
from Suslov’s (1961) divisions are considered including Eastern
Siberia from Lake Baikal north to the Lena River delta, northeastern
Siberia from the Verkhoyansk Range to the Bering Sea, as well as
the Russian Far East, which includes Primorye and Kamchatka. For
brevity, Sakhalin Island is excluded.
Modern environments of such a vast area expectedly reflect
a variety of biomes and climatic extremes, from tundra in the frigid
arctic north where maximum January temperatures average
from 36  C in Yakutsk, to mixed deciduous forests in the
temperate Far East with mean January maxima as warm as 6  C in
Petropavlosk, Kamchatka (Fig. 1). The most common vegetation is
taiga forest stretching from Kamchatka westward beyond Siberia,
but stands of mixed forest are prevalent in the Russian Far East.
Average precipitation ranges from 238 mm in Yakutsk and 346 mm
in Chita to 826 mm in Vladivostok and 895 mm in Petropavlovsk
(Pogoda, 2010).

3. Late-glacial environments Fig. 2. Paleoclimatic reconstructions of Asiatic Russia in the Younger Dryas in relation
to modern conditions. (a) January mean maximum temperature, (b) July mean
To answer one of the questions presented in the introduction, maximum temperature, (c) annual precipitation (after Velichko et al., 2002).

Velichko et al. (2002) were able to demonstrate that Younger Dryas

environmental conditions were not uniform across Eastern Siberia
and the Russian Far East. For example, in central Sakha at Yakutsk
mean maximum January temperatures differed as much as 8  C less
than today, but in southern Siberia they were as much as 14  C
cooler (Fig. 2, a) (Velichko et al., 2002). Likewise, average July
maximum temperatures varied least from today in the north
( 2 to 4  C) and most in the south ( 8 to 10  C) (Fig. 2, b).
Annual precipitation was up to 100 mm different above about
60 N but as much as 250 mm less below about 50 N (Fig. 2, c).
These extreme differences produced a Younger Dryas landscape
markedly different than what came immediately before (Allerød) or
after (Preboreal).
3.1. Eastern Siberia
Palynological evidence from Sakha showed a clear Younger
Dryas climatic oscillation to colder temperatures followed by
rapid, “intense” amelioration at around 10,000e10,200 14C BP
(11,500e11,910 cal BP) (Andreev et al., 1997). The Allerød pollen
spectra from Ulkhan Chabada and Khomustakh lakes in central
Sakha produced clear signals of steppe vegetation (Artemisia, Poa-
ceae, Thalictrum, Chenopodiaceae, etc.), as well as birch shrub taxa
(Betula sect. Nanae, Betula fructicosa). Similarly, in southern Sakha,
Allerød sediments produced a predominance of birch and shrub
382 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
alder pollen at basal layers from the Suollakh Peatbog. For Andreev
et al. (1997), these Allerød vegetation signals meant that, “mean
July temperature was by 1.5e2  C below the present values, that of
January by 2 to 5  C” (p. 116).
Andreev et al. (1997) were able to extract pollen from Kho-
mustakh and Ulkhan Chabada lakes and the Suollakh Peatbog along
the middle section of the Lena River (Fig. 1, nos. 1, 2, and 3,
respectively). A bulk sample from the base of the Lake Khomustakh
core was dated to 10,400  600 14C BP (11,240e11,780 cal BP) (GIN-
4176) from Younger Dryas sediments. Likewise, a bulk sample from
the base of the Suollakh Peatbog was dated to 10,610  70 14C BP
(12,430e12,630 cal BP) (GIN-4363) and also assigned to the
Younger Dryas. Deposits below these dates in both cores are
believed to contain pollen reflecting terminal Allerød conditions.
Younger Dryas spectra showed increased wormwood, grasses
and herbs compared to Allerød samples, which indicated a reduc-
tion in precipitation by 150 mm from today and temperatures that
were 3  C cooler in the summer and 6e7  C cooler in January. As
conditions changed at the onset of the Preboreal, larch and birch
woodlands intruded on the steppe established during the Younger
Dryas. Interestingly, arboreal taxa are present in all samples. Larix
pollen found in very small quantities throughout the cores, indi-
cates that the trees may have persisted along river floodplains, even
during the Younger Dryas, in environments similar to where they
are found today (Andreev et al., 1997, p. 116). The presence of larch
suggests mean July temperatures above 12  C (Andreev, 1980), and
thus, conditions favorable enough to offer refuge to plants, and
perhaps animals and humans.
Farther north along the Lena River, Werner et al. (2010) exam-
ined pollen and macrofossils from a terrace profile near Dyanushka
Lake to draw similar conclusions as Andreev et al. (1997), that
temperature and precipitation were sufficient for larch, shrub birch
and alder to thrive around the site during the Younger Dryas (Fig. 1,
no. 4). Earlier studies by Tarasov et al. (2009) identified similar
macrofossils at the lake. There was, however, an increase in Arte-
misia late in the Younger Dryas, which Werner et al. (2010, p. 64)
regard as an indication of decreased precipitation.
Evidence for a Younger Dryas oscillation in Eastern Siberia
occurs even farther north at Dolgoe Lake (71520 N, 127 040 E) (Fig. 1,
no. 5) at the mouth of the Lena River (Pisaric et al., 2001). Pollen
from a core, spanning the entire late-glacial/Holocene transition,
showed a sharp increase in herb taxa at the expense of shrubs and
trees between 11,000 and 10,000 14C BP (12,850 and 11,500 cal BP).
Prior to this, beginning around 12,200 14C BP (14,050 cal BP), Betula
became the dominant pollen when Gramineae, Artemisia and
Cyperaceae were reduced. This was followed by “the rapid decrease
of birch and the coeval increase of several herbs and grasses” at
11,000 14C BP (12,850 cal BP) (Pisaric et al., 2001, p. 239). Accord-
ingly, the authors of the study suggest this vegetation change was
likely the result of a climate oscillation similar to the Younger Dryas
even seen in the GRIP ice core and in northwest Europe. Shrub birch
returned at 10,000 14C BP (11,500 cal BP) and then was quickly
replaced by Alnus as the dominate species during the Preboreal.
Paleoenvironments from the southern part of Eastern Siberia
have been interpreted from data recovered at Lake Kotokel and
adjacent Lake Baikal (Fig. 1, nos. 6 and 7, respectively). Demske et al.
(2005) examined pollen from Lake Baikal cores to conclude that
a major shift in vegetation associated with climatic warming
occurred around 12,000 14C BP (13,850 cal BP) when Picea distri-
bution in the area reached its maximum, but began to decline by
11,000 14C BP (12,850 cal BP) when temperatures and precipitation
dropped enough for shrub Betula, Artemisia, and Chenopodiaceae to
spread (Demske et al., 2005, p. 273).
In a similar way, pollen records from Lake Kotokel revealed
a significant increase in arboreal taxa (Picea, Betula, Alnus)
beginning around 12,150 14C BP (14,000 cal BP) when taiga spread
(Bezrukova et al., 2010, p. 192). Beginning at around 10,750 14C BP
(12,650 cal BP) there appears to have been major cooling in the
region when herb tundra replaced the forest vegetation. At this
time there was a complete disappearance of Abies from the record,
and nearly a complete replacement of Alder with Betula (Bezrukova
et al., 2010).
Evidence for a Younger Dryas event in the southern area of
Eastern Siberia also appears in the diatom records of lakes Baikal
and Kotokel (Mackay, 2007). At Kotokel there is a high abundance
of taxa associated with relatively warmer climates and longer ice-
free, open-water seasons between 13,850 and 10,900 14C BP
(16,900 and 12,700 cal BP). Between 10,900 and 10,100 14C BP
(12,700 and 11,700 cal BP), however, the signals indicate a cold
oscillation coincident with the Younger Dryas (Bezrukova et al.,
2010, p. 195). During this period, there was an overall reduction
of diatom concentrations and retraction of warm-loving Cyclotella
ocellata from Lake Kotokel. Subsequent Holocene warming begin-
ning at 10,080 14C BP (11,650 cal BP) at the Preboreal is marked by
high amounts of Aulacoseira granulata, a species common in lakes
with high nutrient content (Bezrukova et al., 2010). Records from
Lake Baikal show a similar pattern.
Boës et al. (2005) used gray-scale values of sediments from Lake
Baikal as proxy for environmental conditions. Lower gray-scale
values were associated with cold phases (Oldest Dryas, Younger
Dryas) when diatom-poor clays accumulated in the lake.
Conversely, warm phases (Bølling, Allerød, Preboreal) were char-
acterized by the concentration of diatom-rich sediments with
higher gray-scale values. The Allerød deposits reflected the highest
values of any period (120 units), but at the onset of the Younger
Dryas, the gray-scale levels dropped to 80 units, and recovered to
values between 90 and 110 during the Preboreal (Morley et al.,
2005).
3.2. Russian Far East
The signals for a Younger Dryas oscillation in the Russian Far
East are mixed. On the one hand, Bazarova et al. (2008) identified
evidence for warm conditions during the Allerød followed by cooler
temperatures during the Younger Dryas. Then, at the beginning of
the Holocene, warm conditions returned and peaked around 9000
14
C BP (10,200 cal BP). Alternately, Kokorowski et al. (2008, p. 1716)
concluded that there was uniform warming in the Russian Far East
during the late-Glacial/Holocene transition. In the lower Amur
Basin, Bazarova’s team extracted pollen from cores at the Tyapka,
Gur (Gursky) and Kiya peatbogs spanning the latest Pleistocene
through the Holocene with the most complete section recovered at
Gur (Fig. 1, no. 8) (Bazarova et al., 2008).
At Gur, the lowest pollen zone dating between 13,000 and 10,300
14
C BP (15,500 and 12,080 cal BP) revealed a high abundance of birch
(Betula sect. Nanae) and alder (Alnus) with lesser, but not insignifi-
cant amounts of conifers (Picea, Pinus, Abies). While arboreal and
non-arboreal taxa were present throughout the core, their relative
proportions varied in accordance with warm periods (Bølling and
Allerød) and cold periods (Middle and Younger Dryas). Admittedly,
the strongest signal for the Younger Dryas from Gur was a thin eolian
dust layer bracketed between 12,010  75 and 9290  45 14C BP
(13,870 and 10,500 cal BP) that may have indicated increased aridity
in areas upwind (west) of the site (Bazarova et al., 2008).
At Gur the earliest Preboreal deposits, represented by Pollen Zone
II, began accumulating around 10,300 14C BP (12,080 cal BP). In the
lower part of the zone, Betula and Alnus continued to dominate the
spectra (40% of total pollen), but Picea contributed a significant
portion (up to 20% of the total pollen), and Ulmus (elm) and Quercus
(oak), two warm-loving deciduous species, appeared for the first
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
time (3.3% and 1% of total pollen, respectively). The upper part of
Zone II accumulated under slightly cooler conditions beginning
around 9590  60 14C BP (AA-36949) (10,790e11,100 cal BP)
(Bazarova et al., 2008, p. 13). Here, shrub birch dominates (57% of
arboreal pollen) with lesser amounts of Alnus. By 9000 14C BP (10,200
cal BP) temperatures were reaching their maximum in the area.
Mokhova et al. (2009) carried out independent analysis of pollen
from Gur and concluded that forest-tundra (shrub birch and alder,
herbaceous taxa, and cold-tolerant Abies, Pinus, and Picea) was
widespread even during the Allerød 12,150 14C BP (14,000 cal BP). As
the Pleistocene waned between 10,000 and 9300 14C BP (11,500 and
10,500 cal BP), cool conifer forests were established. Mokhova et al.
(2009), however, were unable to identify signals of an intervening
shift in the Gur pollen that would indicate a Younger Dryas event.
One criticism of Bazarova et al.’s (2008) study was the poor
chronological control for the Younger Dryas; no dates from any core
were between 11,000 and 10,000 14C BP (12,850 and 11,500 cal BP).
Based on an evaluation of the 14C ages and other proxy data,
Kokorowski et al. (2008, p. 1716) concluded that there was uniform
warming in the Russian Far East. They examined the pollen record
from Gur to indicate an increasing contribution by warm-loving
species and continuous, uninterrupted amelioration at the late-
glacial-Holocene transition. Likewise, in the original study of the
Gur sample, Klimin et al. (2004) did not find a shift in vegetation
between 12,000 and 9600 14C BP (13,850 and 10,950 cal BP), which
would reflect a Younger Dryas climate oscillation.
3.3. Northeastern Siberia
The last two decades have witnessed a remarkable amount of
paleoenvironmental research in northeastern Siberia making it one
of the best-studied areas in the region. Pollen data indicate that most
of northeastern Siberia was spared the cooling and drying experi-
enced elsewhere during the Younger Dryas (Kokorowski et al.,
2008). The late-glacial-Holocene transition was, for the most part,
a time of gradual, uniform warming. Younger Dryas spatial patterns
in northeastern Siberia, nevertheless, were the most heterogeneous
of all the regions covered in this paper. As a case in point, areas
around the Kolyma Basin and most of the Chukotkan Peninsula
experienced continuous and increasingly warm conditions between
the Allerød and Preboreal, while the area around Smorodinovoye
Lake just east of the Verkhoyansk Range along the upper Indirka
River (Fig. 1, no. 9) appears to have undergone sharp cooling and
a shift from birch-willow shrub vegetation to herbaceous tundra
during the Younger Dryas (Anderson et al., 2002). Yet, conditions
may have been warmer and wetter on Wrangel Island and the New
Siberian Islands (Fig. 1, nos. 10 and 11, respectively) (Lozhkin et al.,
2001; Makeyev et al., 2003; Vazhenina, 2004).
There also seems to have been no dramatic Younger Dryas
climate shift in the Upper Kolyma area at sites such as Elikchan Lake
2 and Bakhapcha River (Fig. 1, no. 12) where aquatic species
(Potamogeton, Nymphaea cf. candida, Nuphar cf. pumila), herbs
(Eriophorum cf. brachyantherum, Carex kreczetonczii), shrubs (Ribes
sp.) and arboreal taxa (Betula, Larix gmelinii, Picea, Pinus pumila)
persisted (Lozhkin et al., 2011, p. 10). In a like manner, Younger
Dryas sediments at Melkoe Lake near Anadyr (Fig. 1, no. 13) dated to
10,620  50 BP (12,540e12,630 cal BP) (CAMS-58292) produced
Pinus pollen (Shilo et al., 2005).
Reconstructions of vegetation patterns across northeastern
Siberia reveal a fairly widespread distribution of Betula and Alnus
beginning around 12,000 14C BP (13,850 cal BP) (Edwards et al.,
2005; Lozhkin and Anderson, 2006). Other studies indicate that
northeastern Siberia was a haven during the Younger Dryas for
certain arboreal species, especially Larix (Brubaker et al., 2005;
Shilo et al., 2008) and Pinus pumilla (Shilo et al., 2007).
383
One of the most comprehensive studies in northeastern Siberia
has come from Lake El’gygytgyn, Chukotka (Fig. 1, no. 14). The lake
formed nearly 3.6 million years ago from a meteor impact (Gurov
et al., 2007). Cores have produced a nearly 250,000-year record of
millennial-scale climate change (Brigham-Grette et al., 2007)
where numerous proxies have been used to record Allerød and
Younger Dryas oscillations. The core is well-dated through a series
of luminescence samples and correlation with magnetic suscepti-
bility to the Greenland ice-core (Forman et al., 2007).
Unlike other regional studies that preclude a Younger Dryas
event in northeastern Siberia, clay mineralogy in the Lake El’gy-
gytgyn core, “shows a distinctive shift to warmer then back to
cooler conditions.between 11.6 and 14.5 ka, placing it between
the Younger Dryas cooling period and the warmer Bølling/Allerød”
(Asikainen et al., 2007, p. 117). Abundance of chlorite apparently
increased in lake sediments during the Younger Dryas when higher
amounts of the unweathered clay from the surrounding catchment
were available for transport into the basin. These results, however,
contradict pollen data that do not signal climatic cooling.
Lozhkin et al. (2007a,b) analyzed pollen from Lake El’gygytgyn
to determine that shrub tundra was established during the late-
glacial/Holocene transition. Lozhkin et al. (2007a, p. 148) found
that the emergence of modern climatic conditions occurred at
10,700 14C BP (12,620 cal BP) when Betula and Alnus appeared, but
did not dominate on the landscape. These arboreal species became
widespread only after 9900 14C BP (11,280 cal BP) during what
Lozhkin et al. (2007a) term the Post-Glacial Thermal Maximum.
3.4. Summary
In sum, temperatures appear to have increased in all areas of
Asiatic Russia east of Lake Baikal during the Allerød (Anderson and
Lozhkin, 2002). This was followed by a period of cool, dry condi-
tions that interrupted this warming at various times depending on
the location between 11,000 and 10,000 14C BP (12,850 and 11,500
cal BP). In Eastern Siberia near Yakutsk, grass and Artemisia dis-
placed shrub birch and alder established during the Allerød. Farther
south around Lake Baikal studies indicate a shift from warm to cool
loving species. Data from the Russian Far East indicate little to no
shift between the Allerød and Preboreal. Data from Primorye, for
example, show steady, gradual warming between around 12,000
and 9000 14C BP (13,850 and 10,200 cal BP). Likewise, northeast
Siberia appears to have been spared the fluctuation experienced in
Eastern Siberia. Remarkably, there were likely even warmer and
wetter conditions during the Younger Dryas in the extreme
northeast (Wrangel and New Siberian islands).
4. Archaeological record
This section introduces study sites and devotes the bulk of the
discussion to those with Allerød and Younger Dryas radiocarbon
dates associated with unequivocal artifacts or features. The radio-
carbon dates presented in Table 1 are not exhaustive. Many Pre-
boreal and earlier dates are excluded from the list, as are many that
are older than 12,000 14C BP (13,850 cal BP). When possible, the
locations of sites were identified using Google Earth to determine
or confirm geographic coordinates.
4.1. Eastern Siberia
4.1.1. Bol’shoi Yakor’
The Bol’shoi Yakor’ site is on the 13e14 m terrace on the right
bank of the lower Vitim River at its confluence with Bol’shoi Yakor’
Creek (57490 N, 113 580 E) (Fig. 1, no. 15). The site produced 21
cultural layers, the lowest 16 of which dated between 12,700 and
Table 1

384
14
Archaeological Sites Mentioned in the Text with their Associated C Dates.
14
Site Fig. 1 Designation Location Layer C BP cal BP (1 s) Lab Code Material Chronozone designation Reference
Eastern Siberia
Bol’shoi Yakor’ 15 57 490 N, 113 580 E 4B 11,970  170 13,620e13,430 GIN-6464a Unreported Allerød Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011
3A 11,750  190 13,410e13,780 GIN-8980 Unreported Allerød Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011
6 10,400  600 11,240e12,780 LE-4172 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin, 1994
4A 10,320  150 11,820e12,420 IM-968 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin, 1994
3A 10,100  100 11,410e11,960 IM-920 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin, 1994
4A 10,070  540 10,880e12540 LE-4137A Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin, 1994

Kosaya Shivera 16 50 090 N, 108 440 E 14 12,070  300 13,510e14,520 GIN-6123 Charcoal n/a-too old Konstantinov, 1994
Mukhur-Tala-7 17 51 450 N, 108 470 E ea 11,630  300 13,390e13,570 SOAN-3468 Charcoal Allerød Lbova, 2001
e 11,240  360 12,720e13,420 SOAN-3467 Charcoal Allerød Lbova, 2001

Oshurkova 18 51 580 N, 107 280 E 3 11,630  140 13,340e13,640 GIN-6121 Charcoal Allerød Kirillov and Derevianko, 1998
3 11,230  80 12,990e13,260 GIN-5787 Charcoal Allerød Kirillov and Derevianko, 1998
3 10,900  500 12,120e13,310 GIN-302 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kirillov and Derevianko, 1998
3 9700  700 10,220e12,200 GIN-5788 Charcoal Preboreal Kirillov and Derevianko, 1998

Ust’-Kiakhta 19 50 320 N, 106 160 E 1 12,595  150 14,260e15,130 SOAN-1553b Bone n/a-too old Orlova, 1995

I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

1 11,510  100 13,260e13,460 SOAN-1552 Pottery temper Allerød Kuzmin and Orlova, 2000
3 11,680  155 13,390e13,700 SOAN-3091 Bone Allerød Tashak, 1996
5 12,100  80 13,840e14,030 GIN-N84-93a Bone n/a-too old Tashak, 1996
5 12,230  100 13,890e14,470 GIN-N84-93b Bone n/a-too old Tashak, 1996
5 11,500  100 13,260e13,450 SOAN-3092 Bone Allerød Tashak, 1996
6 11,375  110 13,140e13,340 SOAN-3093 Bone Allerød Orlova, 1995

Ust’-Menza-1 20 50 130 N, 108 370 E 11 10,380  250 11,820e12,570 GIN-5503 Charcoal Younger Dryas Konstantinov, 2001
13 11,350  250 12,930e13,450 GIN-5503 Charcoal Allerød Konstantinov, 2001
14 11,820  120 13,510e13,790 GIN-7161 Charcoal Allerød Konstantinov, 2001

Studenoe-1 21 50 030 N, 108 150 E 19/4 11,314  160 13,140e13,460 IEMEDZH-199 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
19/4 11,030  380 12,660e13,420 GIN-2938 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
16 11,630  50 13,460e13,810 SOAN-1656 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
16 11,520  260 13,160e13,820 AA-33036 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
16 11,340  200 13,050e13,760 GIN-2932 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
15 11,660  500 13,170e14,090 GIN-293 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
15 11,340  180 13,140e13,750 GIN-2931A Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
14 11,395  180 13,150e13,780 SOAN-1655 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
14 10,970  135 12,880e13,140 SOAN-1654 Charcoal Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003
13/1 10,755  140 12,640e12,970 SOAN-1653 Charcoal Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003
8 11,995  150 13,820e14,130 AA-33040 Charcoal Allerød Buvit et al., 2003
7”b” 10,450  300 11,700e12,890 GIN-5493 Humates Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003
6 10,780  150 12,650e12,980 GIN-4577 Charcoal Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003
5 11,000  90 12,900e13,140 AA-33037 Charcoal Allerød/Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003
5 10,400  155 11,780e12,800 SOAN-1648 Charcoal Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003
3 10,580  155 12,340e12,890 SOAN-1647 Charcoal Younger Dryas Buvit et al., 2003

Kovrizhka-2 15 57 480 N, 113 560 E 5 11,190  390 12,660e13,410 SOAN-4553 Charcoal Allerød Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011
Kovrizhka-3 15 57 480 N, 113 560 E 2 10,940  150 12,660e13,050 SOAN-7029 Charcoal Younger Dryas Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011
Ust’-Karenga-12 22 54 280 N, 116 310 E 7 12,180  60 13,930e14,120 AA-60210 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin and Vetrov, 2007
7 12,170  70 13,910e14,120 AA-60202 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin and Vetrov, 2007
7 11,240  80 13,080e13,270 GIN-8066 Charcoal Allerød Vetrov, 1995
7 11,070  70 12,870e13,090 AA-38101 Pottery temper Allerød Kuzmin and Keally, 2001
7 10,870  70 12,650e12,830 AA-60667 Pottery temper Younger Dryas Kuzmin and Vetrov, 2007
7 10,750  60 12,590e12,690 GIN-8067 Charcoal Younger Dryas Vetrov, 1995
7 10,600  110 12,410e12,640 AA-21378 Pottery temper Younger Dryas O’Malley et al., 1999
Ust’-Timpton 23 58 420 N, 127 070 E VIII 11,800  200 13,430e13,830 IM-453 Charcoal Allerød Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
VIb 10,130  100 11,410e11,990 LE-897 Wood Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
VIb 10,650  80 12,640e12,814 LE-898 Wood Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
VIb 11,150  150 12,930e13,170 IM-454 Unreported Allerød Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
VIa 10,300  50 11,980e12,370 LE-920 Charcoal Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
VIa 10,340  140 11,840e12,580 LE-862 Wood Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
Vb 10,740  100 12,560e12,720 LE-861 Charcoal Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
Vb 9450  300 10,300e11,170 IM-455 Charcoal Preboreal Mochanov, 1977
Va 9140  150 10,180e10,550 Unreported Unreported Preboreal Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a
 0  0 c
Berelekh 24 70 50 N, 145 30 E * 13,420  200 16,060e16,840 IM-152 Wood n/a-too old Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996b
* 12,930  80 15,140e15,840 GIN-1021 Wood n/a-too old Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996b
* 12,410  50 14,170e14,630 Beta 243745 Mammoth tusk n/a-too old Pitulko, 2011
* 10,600  90 12,420e12,620 LE-998 Wood Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996b
e 18,920  80 22,310e22,640 Beta 243743 Ivory n/a-too old Pitulko, 2011
e 12,240  160 13,890e14,520 LU-149 Mammoth tusk n/a-too old Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996b
e 12,200  40 13,970e14,130 Beta 216796 Mammoth bone n/a-too old Pitulko, 2011
e 11,830  110 13,510e13,800 LU-147 Wood Allerød Mochanov, 1977
e 11,450  140 13,170e13,430 Beta 190085 Hare bone Allerød Pitulko, 2011

Ezhantsy 25 60 290 N, 135 080 E 10,940  100 12,680e12,920 GIN-737 Charcoal Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996c

I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

e
e 10,500  300 11,830e12,680 LE-964 Charcoal Younger Dryas Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996c
e 9000  100 9920e10,250 LE-997 Charcoal Preboreal Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996c

Zhokov 26 76 070 N, 152 370 E * 10,810  390 12,733e11,531 LE-4533a Bone Younger Dryas Pitulko and Kasparov, 1996

Russian Far East

Malye Kuruktachi 27 50 170 N, 130 190 E * 14,200  130 17,070e17,500 SOAN-3287 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin et al., 1998
* 13,815  150 16,770e17,060 AA-13399 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin et al., 1998
* 13,310  105 15,980e16,700 AA-13398 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin et al., 1998
* 12,485  80 14,240e14,910 AA-17212 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin et al., 1998
* 11,730  70 13,470e13,680 AA-17211 Charcoal Allerød Kuzmin et al., 1998
* 11,355  370 12,840e13,600 SOAN-3591 Charcoal Allerød Kuzmin et al., 1998
* 10,520  95 12,220e12,590 SOAN-3590 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin et al., 1998

Golya Mys 28 52 090 N, 140 000 E * 12,925  65 15,130e15,820 AA-36287 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
* 12,680  65 14,810e15,200 AA-36278 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
* 12,610  60 14,660e15,100 AA-36279 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
* 12,360  60 14,120e14,560 AA-36281 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
* 10,340  50 12,065e12,380 AA-36280 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin, 2006a,b

Gromatukha 29 51 500 N, 128 500 E Lower layer 13,240  85 14,570e17,030 AA-20039 Pottery temper n/a-too old Derevianko et al., 2004
Lower layer 13,310  100 16,060e16,700 AA-20940 Pottery temper n/a-too old O’Malley et al., 1999
Lower layer 12,340  60 14,100e14,530 AA-36079 Charcoal n/a-too old Jull et al., 2001
Lower layer 11,320  150 13,080e13,370 SNU02-002 Pottery temper Allerød Derevianko et al., 2004
Lower layer 10,450  60 12,170e12,530 AA-38108 Pottery temper Younger Dryas Derevianko et al., 2004
Lower layer 9895  50 11,230e11,340 AA-36447 Charcoal Preboreal Kuzmin, 2006a,b

Ustinovka-6 30 44 160 N, 135 180 E * 11,750  620 12,900e14,590 SOAN-3538 Charcoal Allerød Kuzmin and Jull, 1997
* 11,550  240 13,190e13,670 GEO-1412 Charcoal Allerød Kuzmin, 2003

Gasya 31 48 450 N, 135 380 E Lower layer 12,960  120 15,160e15,900 LE-1781 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin and Jull, 1997
Lower layer 11,340  60 13,160e13,280 GEO-1413 Charcoal Allerød Kuzmin, 2003
Lower layer 10,870  90 12,640e12,850 AA-13391 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin and Jull, 1997

Khummi 32 50 340 N, 137 060 E Lower layer (low) 13,260  100 15,920e16,620 AA-13392 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
Lower layer (low) 12,425  850 13,500e16,040 SOAN-3583 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
Lower layer (middle) 12,150  110 13,850e14,140 SOAN-3826 Charcoal n/a-too old Kuzmin, 2006a,b
Lower layer (middle) 10,350  110 12,020e12,410 AA-13391 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin, 2006a,b
Lower layer (upper) 7760  120 8410e8700 GIN-6945 Charcoal n/a-too young Kuzmin, 2006a,b

(continued on next page)

385
Table 1 (continued )

386
14
Site Fig. 1 Designation Location Layer C BP cal BP (1 s) Lab Code Material Chronozone designation Reference
Goncharka 33 49 200 N, 134 550 E Lower layer 12,500  60 14,250e14,950 LLNL-102169 Charcoal n/a-too old Jull et al., 2001
Lower layer 12,055  75 13,820e13,990 AA-25437 Charcoal n/a-too old Jull et al., 2001
3b 10,590  60 12,430e12,610 LLNL-102168 Charcoal Younger Dryas Jull et al., 2001
3b 10,280  70 11,830e12,370 AA-25438 Charcoal Younger Dryas Jull et al., 2001
3b 10,280  70 11,830e12,370 AA-25439 Charcoal Younger Dryas Jull et al., 2001
3b 9890  230 10,880e11,950 GaK-18981 Charcoal Preboreal Jull et al., 2001

Ushki Lake 34 56 100 N, 159 570 E 7 14,300  800 16,590e18,560 MAG-550 Charcoal n/a-too old Goebel et al., 2010
7 14,300  200 16,930e17,910 GIN-168 Charcoal n/a-too old Goebel et al., 2010
7 13,800  500 16,070e17,610 MAG-522 Charcoal n/a-too old Goebel et al., 2010
7 13,600  250 15,430e17,220 GIN-167 Charcoal n/a-too old Dikov, 1993
7 11,650  100 13,380e13,630 MAG-594 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,360  330 12,890e13,580 LE-3695 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,330  50 13,160e13,270 CAMS-74639 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2003
7 11,220  25 13,090e13,180 UCIAMS-53556 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,210  25 13,080e13,180 UCIAMS-53554 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,205  25 13,080e13,190 UCIAMS-53555 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,185  25 12,970e13,160 UCIAMS-53553 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010

I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

7 11,120  500 12,430e13,600 LE-3697 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,070  60 12,880e13,090 AA-69057 Charcoal Allerød Kuzmin et al., 2010
7 11,060  25 12,900e13,080 UCIAMS-32199 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2010
7 11,050  75 12,840e13,090 AA-41389 Humates Allerød Goebel et al., 2003
7 11,050  75 12,840e13,090 AA-45716 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2003
7 11,005  115 12,740e13,070 AA-41388 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2003
7 10,850  320 12,410e13,130 AA-45709 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
7 10,810  75 12,600e12,760 AA-45708 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
7 10,675  75 12,550e12,660 AA-45710 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
7 9750  100 10,870e11,260 MAG-637 Charcoal Preboreal Goebel et al., 2010
7 9960  100 11,250e11,610 LE-3024 Charcoal Preboreal Goebel et al., 2010
6 11,130  100 12,940e13,110 AA-45717 Charcoal Allerød Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,860  400 12,220e13,230 MAG-400 Charcoal Younger Dryas Dikov, 1993
6 10,800  150 12,670e12,930 AA-45714 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,790  100 12,750e12,880 MAG-518 Charcoal Younger Dryas Dikov, 1996
6 10,760  110 12,700e12,870 MAG-219 Charcoal Younger Dryas Dikov, 1977
6 10,460  80 12,190e12,630 SR-5811 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,385  90 12,070e12,560 AA-45719 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,360  350 11,610e12,600 MO-345 Charcoal Younger Dryas Dikov, 1993
6 10,240  75 11,810e12,110 AA-41386 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,230  70 11,820e12,080 AA-45720 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,170  160 11,410e12,090 AA-69055 Charcoal Younger Dryas Kuzmin et al., 2010
6 10,160  80 11,630e12,000 AA-45715 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
6 10,040  130 11,310e11,810 AA-45713 Charcoal Younger Dryas Goebel et al., 2003
a
From a non-artifact bearing layer.
b 14
McKenzie (2009) reports GIN-1553 as 12,600  90 C BP (14,600e15,090 cal BP) on pottery temper from the site.
c
*From the single cultural layer at the site.
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
11,500 14C BP (15,100 and 13,340 cal BP). Radiocarbon dates
between 12,000 and 10,000 14C BP (13,850 and 11,500 cal BP) are
listed in Table 1 (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011). Roughly 25-30 cm of
sediment separates the lower, terminal Pleistocene cultural layers
(12-3A) from later, Neolithic and Bronze Age layers (3-1). Ineshin
and Teten’kin (2011) and Ineshin (2006) treat layers 4B, 4A, 4, 3V,
3B, and 3A as a single component because of their technological
uniformity.
Each layer, excluding 3V, produced a single hearth feature and
Ineshin and Teten’kin (2011) suggest that a dwelling feature also
existed in cultural layer 3B. Based on use-wear analysis, asym-
metrical bifaces served as knives or side scrapers during the initial
formation of the bifacial edge, then as side scrapers, burins,
notches, and finally as Yubetsu microblade cores during reduction
(Ineshin, 2006). Bone needles were found in layer 4B and other
bone artifacts related to both hunting (slotted bone points) and
fishing (a harpoon) were discovered below cultural layer 4B
(Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011). The site also produced polished
pieces of graphite (layers 3B and 4B), and a flat stone with red
mineral stains (layer 4A) (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011). Based on
geochemical analysis, the graphite may have been extracted from
a source 60 km north of the site on Takhtyga Creek (Ineshin and
Teten’kin, 2011).
Bol’shoi Yakor’ was situated in a prime location to exploit
resources from several different ecological niches. Allerød layers
produced remains of horse, bison, and musk ox common to steppe
environments, moose, red deer, wolf, and hare from forests, and
reindeer and argali sheep from tundra or alpine landscapes
(Ineshin, 2006; Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011). Furthermore, the site
produced remains of birds (ptarmigan, white ptarmigan, and teal),
fish (perch and pike), fox, and lemming (Ineshin, 2006; Ineshin and
Teten’kin, 2011). Functionally, the site appears to represent
a temporary settlement that was seasonally reoccupied during the
spring and autumn over a 2000-year period where hunting and
other resource processing took place (Ineshin, 2006; Ineshin and
Teten’kin, 2011).
4.1.2. Kovrizhka
The Kovrizhka complex was found around 1.5 km from Bol’shoi
Yakor’ on the right bank of the Vitim River (Fig. 1, no. 15) (57480 N,
113 560 E) (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011) and is associated with
Allerød and Younger Dryas radiocarbon dates (Table 1). Kovrizhka
2, positioned within alluvium of the 17e19 m terrace, produced five
late Paleolithic to Neolithic cultural layers. Cultural layer 5, dated to
w11,200 14C BP (w13,120 cal BP), included a hearth with two river
cobbles and a scraper (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011).
Kovrizhka 3 is situated in eolian deposits capping the 21e22 m
terrace of the Vitim River (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011). Cultural
layer 2 produced a dwelling outlined with slate stones, a hearth, an
anvil, flat-faced cores, microblade cores, bifaces, transverse and
angle burins on flakes, scrapers, and choppers. Ineshin and
Teten’kin (2011) consider the industry part of the Dyuktai cultural
complex in the Sakha Republic as described by Mochanov (1977).
Functionally, the Kovrizhka sites may have served as hunting camps
during seasonal reindeer migrations (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011).
4.1.3. Kosaya Shivera
Kosaya Shivera (50 090 N, 108 440 E) is located on the first terrace
(8.5 m) of the Menza River in the Transbaikal region (Fig. 1, no. 16).
Excavations in 1981 by M. V. Konstantinov produced two dozen
cultural layers, of which layers 14 and 13 correspond to the final
Paleolithic, while 12 through 10 are early Mesolithic. The site’s only
numeric date, 12,070  300 14C BP (13,510e14,520 cal BP) (GIN-
6123), places layer 14 within or just before the Allerød (Table 1).
Excavations revealed a 5-m diameter, cobble-outlined dwelling
387
with a central hearth feature associated with 4 microblade cores, 9
miscellaneous lithic tools, 348 flakes, 398 chips, 7 microblades, and
various animal bones (Konstantinov, 1994, pp. 104e105).
4.1.4. Mukhor-Tala-7
The Mukhor-Tala-7 site is situated on the 70e75 m elevation
line of the Mukhor-Tala Ridge (Fig. 1, no. 17) (51450 N, 108 470 E)
(Lbova, 2000, p. 80). Excavations revealed multiple localities with
occupations spanning the middle Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic.
The site is located within a roughly 3.5 km2 lava flow of liparites
(rhyolite and silicified tuff) and volcanic glass (Lbova, 2000, p. 80).
Mukhor-Tala-7 is believed to have functioned as a workshop for
the exploitation of these raw materials. Some of the numeric ages
on charcoal from Mukhor-Tala-7 date between 12,000 and 10,000
14
C BP (13,850 and 11,500 cal BP), but no unequivocal archaeo-
logical material was discovered there (Lbova, 2000, p. 87, 2001)
(Table 1).
4.1.5. Oshurkova
The Oshurkova site is situated on the 6e8 m terrace of the
Selenga River (Konstantinov, 1994, p. 99; Kirillov and Derevianko,
1998, p. 140; Konstantinov, 2001, p. 143) (Fig. 1, no. 18) (51580 N,
107 280 E). The site was discovered and excavated by A. P. Oklad-
nikov in 1951 who renewed excavations there in 1958
(Konstantinov, 1994, p. 99, 2001, p. 143). Konstantinov reopened the
site in another locality in 1986 and continued in 1988, 1990, and
1996 (Konstantinov, 1994, p. 101, 2001, p. 143). Four cultural layers
were discovered, of which layer 3 produced radiocarbon dates that
likely represent an Allerød to Younger Dryas occupation (Tseitlin,
1979, p. 208; Konstantinov, 1994, p. 103; Kirillov and Derevianko,
1998, p. 140) (Table 1).
During excavations of layer 3, Konstantinov discovered a small
hearth 1.8  1.3 m in diameter containing a 5-cm thick accumula-
tion of charcoal, calcined mammal bone, fish bones, a bone
harpoon, a bird-bone awl (or needle), a bone tool with a broken tip,
and hundreds of chipped-stone examples (Fig. 3) (Konstantinov,
1994, pp. 102e103). According to Konstantinov (2001, p. 144)
large stones associated with the archaeological remains may have
been the remnants of a dwelling. The harpoon and fish bones
indicate the intensification of riverine resources in addition to
hunting (Okladnikov, 1961, p. 493).
4.1.6. Ust’-Kiakhta
Ust’-Kiakhta-17 is located in the Transbaikal region near the
Mongolian border on the 5e6 m terrace of the Selenga River (Fig. 1,
no. 19) (50 320 N, 106160 E) (Konstantinov, 2001, p. 138). A. P.
Okladnikov excavated there in 1947 and again in 1976 and 1978 at
localities 1-4, but the results were only partially published
(Konstantinov, 2001, p. 138). During Tashak’s renewed excavations
in the 1990s, he discovered six more cultural layers that produced
seven radiocarbon dates, four of which were between 12,000 and
10,000 14C BP (13,850 and 11,500 cal BP) (Table 1).
Layer 3 produced the remains of a circular dwelling approxi-
mately 4 m in diameter partially outlined by 10 cobbles. The
dwelling contained an unlined hearth with animal and fish bones
associated with five fire-altered cobbles and charcoal staining. The
4652 lithic artifacts found in and around the dwelling included
prismatic and subprismatic cores, microblade cores, microblades
and microblade fragments, flakes, chips, and angular debris
(Tashak, 1993, 1996; Konstantinov, 2001, p. 138). Stone beads, large
pieces of ochre and graphite, and a large, ochre-stained stone were
also discovered (Tashak, 1993, 1996; Konstantinov, 2001, p. 138).
Fauna included fish, ostrich eggshell (Struthio asiaticus), and
a humerus of a house martin (Delichon urbica) (Tashak, 1993, 1996;
Mlikovsky et al., 1997; Konstantinov, 2001, p. 138).
388 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
Fig. 3. Artifacts from Oshurkova. Layer 3: scrapers (1-15), cores (16, 18), bone harpoon
(17), retouched blade (20), bone tool (21), chopper (22), large scraper (23) (after
Konstantinov, 1994, Fig. 63).
There are reports of pottery in cultural layer 1 dated at
11,510  100 14C BP (13,260e13,460 cal BP) (SOAN-1552)
(McKenzie, 2009) (Table 1). The pottery was 8e10 cm in diameter
and tempered with crushed rock minerals and ostrich eggshell
(Kuzmin and Vetrov, 2007; McKenzie, 2009, pp.182e183). Kuzmin
(2006a, p. 367) and Kuzmin and Orlova (2000, p. 359) report that
the association between pottery and the radiocarbon date in
cultural layer 1 is unclear. McKenzie (2009, p. 183), however, argues
that the association may be good based on both the presence of
ostrich eggshell used for beads and temper and the fact that ostrich
disappeared from the region only after the early Holocene. Exca-
vations of cultural layer 1 produced wedge-shaped microblade
cores, scrapers, and ostrich eggshell beads, along with the pottery
fragments (Aseev, 2003; McKenzie, 2009, pp.182e183). The exte-
rior of the pottery may have been burnished while the interior
exhibited parallel lines (Kuzmin and Vetrov, 2007, p. 13; McKenzie,
2009, pp. 182e183).
4.1.7. Ust’-Menza-1
Ust’-Menza-1 is located in the Transbaikal region on the first
(5e6 m) terrace of the Menza River (Fig. 1, no. 20) (50130 N,
108 370 E). It appears that cultural layers 13 through 25 were
occupied during the late Upper Paleolithic, but radiocarbon ages
from layers 13 and 14 indicate Allerød occupations (Konstantinov,
1994; Buvit, 2008) (Table 1). In cultural layer 13, a circular
dwelling outlined with widely spaced cobbles was found with
a flake and a chopper. A charcoal smear (1.60  1.06 m) outlined by
river rocks and associated with a flake core, a biface, and a few
flakes, was found in cultural layer 14 (Konstantinov, 2001, p. 46;
Terry, 2010, pp. 114e115). Fauna remains consisted mostly of red
and roe deer (Kuznetsov, 1996).
Hearth charcoal from layer 11 dated to 10,380  250 14C BP
(11,820e12,570 cal BP) (GIN-5459) (Konstantinov, 2001, p. 49)
(Table 1). This layer produced the remains of a dwelling outlined by
nine river cobbles, a hearth, and a charcoal smear. Artifacts
distributed within the dwelling included 2 microblade cores, 8
microblades, 4 microblade fragments with retouch, a retouched
flake, burins on microblades, a chopper, 60 microblade fragments,
114 flakes, 2 slotted bone points, a bone fragment with a drilled
hole, pieces of ochre, ungulate teeth, and many small bone frag-
ments (Fig. 4) (Konstantinov, 2001, p. 49; Konstantinov et al., 2003,
p. 23).
Although cultural layer 12 was undated, it was bracketed by
layers 13 and 11 (Konstantinov, 2001), placing its occupation
between the Allerød and the Younger Dryas. Layer 12 produced the
remains of a dwelling with a stone-outlined hearth and
a 0.9 m  1.25 m charcoal stain that may have been the dwelling’s
entrance. Artifacts distributed around the hearth included a wedge-
shaped core, a wedge-shaped core fragment, 2 chisels on flakes, 3
retouched microblade fragments, a blade fragment with retouch, 7
scrapers, 8 retouched flakes, 220 microblade fragments, 1882
flakes, pebbles with scratch marks (scored), 5 bone needle frag-
ments, a bone point, and animal and fish bones (Konstantinov,
2001, p. 47; Konstantinov et al., 2003, p. 22).
4.1.8. Studenoe-1
The Studenoe-1 site is associated with the first alluvial terrace
on the right bank of the Chikoi River at its confluence with Stu-
denoe Creek in the southwest Transbaikal region (Fig. 1, no. 21)
(50 030 N, 108 150 E). Excavations were undertaken over several
decades beginning in the 1970s until 2003 when the site was finally
closed. In that time, the site produced 41 radiocarbon dates many of
which were discordant and between 12,000 and 10,000 14C BP
(13,850 and 11,500 cal BP) (Table 1). Despite stratigraphic irregu-
larities with the dates, Konstantinov (1994) argued that cultural
layers 14, 15, and 16 were occupied between 10,800 and 12,000 14C
BP (12,640 and 13,850 cal BP). There was likely a Younger Dryas
occupation at Studenoe-1; however, too many dating inconsis-
tencies prohibit precise resolution of the site’s geochronology (see
Buvit et al., 2003 for a complete list of dates and more discussion).
4.1.9. Ust’-Karenga-12
The Ust’-Karenga complex, located on terraces around the
mouth of the Karenga River at its confluence with the Vitim River
(54 280 N, 116 310 E) (Fig. 1, no. 22) in the northern Transbaikal
region, contains 16 sites with cultural layers dating from the final
Upper Paleolithic to the Paleometal periods (Kuzmin and Vetrov,
2007, p. 9). Ust’-Karenga-12 produced seven late-glacial/early
Holocene radiocarbon dates and is situated within alluvial sedi-
ments of the 20e25 m terrace of the Karenga River (Kuzmin and
Vetrov, 2007, p. 10) (Table 1). Eight cultural layers were identified,
but cultural layer 7 produced four dates just at or younger than
11,000 14C BP (12,870 cal BP), and if accurate would place the
occupation within the Younger Dryas (Table 1). Layer 7 also
produced two >12,000 14C BP (>13,850 cal BP) dates on charcoal
that are the earliest dates associated with pottery west of the
Russian Far East (Table 1).
The pottery from Ust’-Karenga-12 is plant-fiber tempered like
that found in the Russian Far East and comprises fragments that
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400 389

Fig. 4. Artifacts and features from Ust-Menza-1. Layer 11: microblade cores (1, 2), scrapers (3e8, 11, 12), burin (9), bone with drilled hole (10), slotted bone point (13). Layer 12:
Dwelling and hearth (14) (dwelling after Konstantinov, 2001, p. 47; artifacts after Konstantinov, 1994, Figs. 67e70).

form approximately 10 conical vessels. The exterior of the pieces
are elaborately decorated with comb, cogwheel stamps, zigzag, and
herringbone designs (Kuzmin and Vetrov, 2007, p. 12). The presence
of ceramic technology at Ust’-Karenga-12 is compelling as
researchers are still in the midst of understanding the origins of
early pottery in the Transbaikal. One question is whether it was
introduced from the east before the advent of agriculture (Kuzmin
and Vetrov, 2007, p. 15).
4.1.10. Ust’-Timpton
Yu. Mochanov and S. Fedoseeva conducted investigations at
Ust’-Timpton from 1964e1966, 1969e1971, 1974e1977, and
1979e1982 (Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 199). The site
extends 170 m along the second terrace of the Aldan River at its
confluence with the Timpton River (Fig. 1, no. 23) (58 420 N,
127 070 E) (Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 199).
Artifacts occur in the lowest, undated layer IX, but the overlying
layer VIII may have been occupied during the Allerød based on
a single radiocarbon date (Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 201)
(Table 1). Cultural material is sparse but includes a combination
tool (scraper/knife), a dihedral burin, 5 blades, and 65 flakes
(Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 206).
Layer VI is subdivided into two sublayers e VIb and VIa e and
associated with five Younger Dryas radiocarbon dates (Mochanov
and Fedoseeva, 1996a, pp. 199e201) (Table 1). A rectangular
dwelling was discovered in VIb made up of burnt timbers oriented
at right angles to each other overlain by smaller branches inter-
preted as a roof. One meter from the dwelling was a hearth asso-
ciated with 2 end scrapers, 2 blades, and 680 flakes (Mochanov and
Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 204). A granite pebble and eight flakes were
found within the dwelling, while a scraper and five flakes were
discovered outside the dwelling apart from the hearth (Mochanov
and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 204).
Excavations of layer VI produced a caribou bone, an elk or moose
tooth, and two other unidentifiable animal bones (Mochanov and
Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 201). Other artifacts without clear sublayer
390 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
VIa or VIb designation included 2 wedge-shaped microblade cores,
a prismatic core, a discoidal flake core, 4 end scrapers, 2 side
scrapers, 6 knives, 3 broken blades, 1 notched blade, 3 burins,
a wedge-like tool, and a combination tool (scraper/knife)
(Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 204).
The layer Vb assemblage has been interpreted as transitional
between earlier Dyuktai and later Sumnagin traditions. The radio-
carbon dates from this layer, however, may be problematic (Table 1)
(Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 199), as cryogenic activity likely
displaced artifacts upward from Vb to Va (Mochanov and Fedoseeva,
1996a, p. 199). A pair of artifact concentrations produced 2 Gobi
wedge-shaped and 2 subprismatic cores, 6 end scrapers on blades
and flakes, a graver, a transverse burin, 11 complete blades and
microblades, and 3 broken blades (Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a,
p. 201). Mochanov and Fedoseeva (1996a, p. 199) also included the
following redeposited Dyuktai-like artifacts with the layer Vb
assemblage: 2 wedge-shaped blade cores, a discoidal flake core, 2
dihedral transverse burins, 2 scrapers, and a wedge-like tool
(Mochanov and Fedoseeva, 1996a, p. 201). In sum, the Ust’-Timpton
site produced a blade-based lithic assemblage thought to be the
progenitor of later Sumnagin technology with origins in the Younger
Dryas. Post-depositional disturbance at the site, however, has made
interpretations about its cultural assemblages difficult.
4.1.11. Berelekh
Archaeological material at the Berelekh site is situated 2.5 m
beneath the tread of the 12 m terrace of the Berelekh River, Sakha
Republic (70 500 N, 145 300 E) (Fig. 1, no. 24) (Mochanov and
Fedoseeva, 1996b, p. 218). Radiocarbon ages from the site’s single
cultural layer published by Mochanov (1977) and Mochanov and
Fedoseeva (1996b) indicate an occupation prior to the Allerød,
but a single date may place humans at the site in the Younger Dryas
(Table 1). Mochanov (1977) and Mochanov and Fedoseeva (1996b)
estimate the age of the site is between 13,000 and 12,000 14C BP
(15,230e13,850 cal BP) based on an age of 11,830  110 14C BP
(13,510e13,800 cal BP) (LU-147) extracted from wood above the
cultural layer.
Upon reexamination of the data, Pitulko (2011, p. 12) argued that
this date was associated with a bone bed separate from the archae-
ological material at the site. Pitulko (2011, p. 28), however, places the
age of the site around 11,450  140 14C BP (13,170e13,430 cal BP)
(Beta 190085) oddly based on dated hare bones from the surface of
a talus slope near the cultural material. Because of the uncertainties
associated with its dating, further discussion of the site is excluded
(but see Pitulko, 2011; Goebel and Slobodin, 2005, p. 121).
4.1.12. Ezhantsy
Although radiocarbon dates on charcoal from the Ezhantsy site
(60 290 N,135 080 E) (Fig.1, no. 25) fall within the Younger Dryas, they
are from strata overlaying the cultural layer (Table 1). Furthermore,
Mochanov and Fedoseeva (1996c, p. 184) believe that the charcoal
was transported by frost cracking and only date cryogenic activity of
the Younger Dryas, not the underlying cultural material.
4.1.13. Zhokov
The Zhokov site (76 070 N, 152 370 E) (Fig. 1, no. 26) yielded
a radiocarbon date that falls within the Younger Dryas (Table 1);
however, 21 of 23 radiocarbon dates from the cultural layer at the
site are younger than 9100 14C BP (10,240 cal BP) (Pitulko and
Kasparov, 1996, p. 4).
4.2. Northeastern Siberia
No dated archeological sites from this region fall within the late-
glacial/Holocene transition.
4.3. Russian Far East
4.3.1. Malye Kuruktachi-1
Malye Kuruktachi-1 is located above the Bureya River on
a bedrock slope (Fig. 1, no. 27) (50170 N, 130190 E) (Jull et al., 1999;
Kuzmin and Chernuk, 2000; Kuzmin, 2003, p. 18; Derevianko et al.,
2006) and consists of one cultural layer yielding a wide range of
radiocarbon dates on hearth charcoal between 14,200 and 10,500
14
C BP (17,280 and 12,480 cal BP) (Table 1) (Kuzmin et al., 1998).
Derevianko et al. (2006, p. 69), however, place the habitation of the
site between 12,200 and 13,800 14C BP (14,050 and 16,890 cal BP),
and thus outside the scope of this paper.
4.3.2. Golya Mys-4
Golya Mys-4 is located in the lower Amur River Basin on the
shore of Lake Udyl (52 090 N, 140 000 E) (Fig. 1, no. 28) (Derevianko
et al., 2006, p. 71). Most radiocarbon ages on hearth charcoal from
this site range between 13,000 and 12,300 14C BP (15,550 and
14,220 cal BP), and one dates to the Younger Dryas (Table 1)
(Kuzmin, 2006b). Derevianko et al. (2006, p. 72), however,
consider the age of the site to fall within the earlier pre-Allerød
time frame.
4.3.3. Gromatukha
Most of the radiocarbon dates on charcoal from the Gromatukha
site, located in the Middle Amur River basin along the Zeya river
(Fig. 1, no. 29) (51500 N, 128 500 E), are outside the range of this
study (Table 1) (O’Malley et al., 1999). Two younger dates from
organic pottery temper and one early Holocene age on charcoal
(Table 1), however, may be relevant, but Derevianko et al. (2004)
state that there is ambiguity in their stratigraphic contexts and
not reliable.
4.3.4. Ustinovka-6
Located along a cliff terrace of the Zerkalnaia River in Primorye
(44160 N, 135180 E) (Fig. 1, no. 30), the Ustinovka-6 site was occu-
pied just prior to the Younger Dryas based on the two radiocarbon
dates from the site (Table 1) (Kuzmin, 2003, p. 19). The site
produced over 20,000 artifacts with two distinct occupation areas,
one of which was interpreted as a lithic manufacturing station
(Kononenko et al., 1995, p. 1, 2003, p. 72; Derevianko and Tabarev,
2006, p. 50). The lithic assemblage consisted of subprismatic and
narrow faced cores, Yubetsu, Horoka, and Togeshita microblade
cores, asymmetrical leaf-shaped knives, laurel-leafed and willow-
leafed points, burins, bifaces, gravers, end scrapers, and bifacial
adzes, as well as four small tanged or stemmed arrowheads, an
anvil, and a stone pendant (Fig. 5) (Kononenko, 2003, p. 114;
Kononenko et al., 2003, p. 72). The arrowheads are similar to those
found in the lower Amur River Basin, as well as in Hokkaido and
Honshu, Japan as part of the terminal Pleistocene Mikoshiba
cultural complex (Kononenko, 2003, p. 114; Derevianko and
Tabarev, 2006, p. 50).
Kononenko (2003:114) conducted use-wear studies and
determined that meat cutting (with knives and composite knives
with inserts), processing fresh hide (scrapers), bone and antler
working (burins, drills, end scrapers, knives, abrasive pebbles),
cutting non-woody plants (knives), processing plants (grinding
slabs and grinders), and drilling soft stone (burins) occurred at
Ustinovka-6. Siliceous tuff and liparite from nearby locations
were used to manufacture chipped-stone artifacts. Other raw
materials include obsidian and flint, but source locations are not
reported (Kononenko, 2003, p. 114). Based on these features,
Kononenko (2003, p. 114) considers the site to have functioned as
a base camp for hunting and fishing where organic tools were
manufactured.
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
Fig. 5. Ustinovka-6 artifacts: ski-spall (1), microblade cores (2-5), bifaces (6-8),
scrapers (9, 10), burins (11, 12) (after Kononenko et al., 1995, pp. 3e4).
4.3.5. Gasya
The Gasya site is situated on a cliff 13e16 m above the Amur
River (48 450 N, 135 380 E) (Fig. 1, no. 31) (Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997,
p. 160; Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39; Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006, p.
125). The site was first investigated by Derevianko and Medvedev
(1993) who excavated 1000 m2 in the 1980s and discovered
a thick cultural layer 130e180 cm below the surface (Derevianko
and Medvedev, 2006, p. 125). Two of three radiocarbon dates
from the site suggest occupation just prior to and possibly during
the Younger Dryas (Table 1) (Kuzmin and Jull, 1997; Kuzmin, 2003).
Archaeologists discovered two possible dwellings consisting of
dark charcoal stained areas (3.5  4.5 m and 1.5  5.0 m, respec-
tively) associated with most of the artifacts. Derevianko and
Medvedev (2006, p. 130) suggest that these dwellings were con-
structed with wood and animal hides built on the ground surface. A
“Mesolithic-like” laurel-leaf point was found in association with
pottery (Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39). Other artifacts were a chipped and
a ground adze, scraping tools on pebbles, arrow, dart, and spear
points, bifaces, knives, end scrapers, side scrapers, blades, flakes,
391
burins, cobble tools, combination tools (knife/scraper), and wedge-
shaped and end-struck microblade cores (Zhushchikhovskaya,
1997, p. 160; Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006, pp. 127e129).
Pestles, hammerstones, anvils, and grooved tools were also present,
as well as net weights for fishing (Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006,
pp. 129e130). Some of the earliest examples of art in the Russian
Far East discovered at Gasya were a bird motif chipped from a silt-
stone blade and a clay bear figurine (Derevianko and Medvedev,
2006, p. 131).
Plant-fiber, grog, and crushed stone were used as temper in low-
fired (400 e500  C) pottery (Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997, pp.
160e62; Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006, p. 130). Flat bottom,
concoidal vessels decorated with lines, cross-like designs, and
zigzag patterns were also discovered (Zhushchikhovskaya 1997, p.
160; Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39; Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006, p. 130).
Zhushchikhovskaya (1997, p. 160) suggests that vessels were con-
structed using a mold or by paddle and anvil as basketry impres-
sions appeared on their exterior surfaces. The plant-fiber temper,
vessel mold and design, as well as low firing temperatures, are
characteristics similar to early pottery in Japan and China
(Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997, pp. 169e170).
No plant or faunal remains were found because of the acidic
soils of the lower Amur basin (Kuzmin, 2002, p. 42; Derevianko and
Medvedev, 2006, p. 131), so no direct interpretations about
subsistence can be made. Net sinkers, however, lend support to
fishing as a major economic activity (Derevianko and Medvedev,
1993, pp. 99e100, 1994, pp. 92e93; Kuzmin, 2002, p. 42). Like-
wise, ceramics may have been utilized to extract fat from anadro-
mous fish (Kuzmin, 2002). Based on both lithic industries and
pottery found at Gasya and other sites in the Osipovka Complex,
Zhushchikhovskaya (1997, p. 171) considers these sites as part of
a wide social network connected to Japan and possibly China.
4.3.6. Khummi
The Khummi site is located within late Pleistocene deposits
above the Amur River at its confluence with the Khummiiskaia
River (50 340 N, 137 060 E) (Fig. 1, no. 32) (Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39;
Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006, p. 126). The oldest cultural
material was radiocarbon dated prior to and during the Younger
Dryas (Table 1), although discussions of the cultural material are
typically lumped into one assemblage (Kuzmin et al., 1997, p. 496).
The remains of two rectangular dwellings were found in
Younger Dryas layers at Khummi (Kuzmin, 2003, p. 21), one of
which was dug 20e22 cm into the ground, along with nine post
holes and stone-outlined hearths (Derevianko and Medvedev,
2006, p. 131). Artifact concentrations produced bifaces, large
blades, wedge-shaped and end-struck microblade cores, end
scrapers, knives, adzes, and pebble net sinkers indicative of the
Osipovka Complex (Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997, p. 162; Derevianko
and Medvedev, 2006, p. 129). Other lithic artifacts include ham-
merstones, anvils, pestles, and grooved tools, as well as stone beads
and pendants (Derevianko and Medvedev, 2006, p. 129, p. 132).
Concoidal, plant-fiber tempered pottery, with flat bottoms
decorated with various lines, cross-like designs, and zigzag
patterns, was discovered at Khummi (Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997, pp.
160e162; Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39). Some sherds had a net pattern on
their outer surfaces and grooved lines on their interiors indicating
they were manufactured utilizing a basket mold and a wooden tool
pressed from the inside of the vessel. Another characteristic of the
pottery was a low firing temperature (600  C) in an open fire
(Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997, p. 162).
4.3.7. Goncharka-1
Goncharka-1 is located on a terrace of the Amur River (Fig. 1, no.
33) (49 200 N, 134 550 E), (Shevkomud, 2002, 2005). The site
392 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
produced numerous radiocarbon dates spanning the late-glacial/
Holocene transition (Table 1). The site lies within dense, clay-like
loams that were disturbed by cryogenic processes in which later
artifacts have intruded into the lower layers through ice wedges
(Shevkomud, 2002, 2005). In both the upper and lower layers, stone
and ceramic artifacts were clustered in and around hearths along
with accumulations of tested chert cobbles (Shevkomud, 2002).
Shevkomud (2002) notes the presence of post molds, which he
considers evidence of dwellings. A burial was also discovered that
contained ground and polished artwork (Shevkomud, 2002).
Most siliceous lithic raw materials at Goncharka-1, as well as
other sites in the Osipovka culture complex, including siltstone,
tuff, and chalcedony, were gathered from river edges near the sites
(Shevkomud, 2002). A small amount of high-quality siliceous silt-
stone and obsidian was obtained in the form of large blocks from
distant areas (Shevkomud, 2002, 2005). Lithic artifacts such as flake
pebble cores, wedge-shaped and end-struck microblade cores, end
scrapers, pebble scrapers, a few burins, leaf-shaped dart and arrow
points, knives, and scrapers tie the site to the Osipovka Complex
(Fig. 6) (Shevkomud, 2002, 2005). Groundstone axes, arrow points,
Fig. 6. Artifacts from Goncharka-1. Arrowheads (1e3, 7), scrapers (4, 6), scraper-like tool (5), knife-like tool (8), edge-ground chopping tool (9), and flat-bottomed ceramic vessel
with perforations and zigzag motif (10) (after Shevkomud, 2005, pp. 16e17).
bifaces, net sinkers, as well as grinding stones were also common
(Shevkomud, 2002, 2005).
Flat-bottomed, wavy rimmed concoidal vessels fired at temp-
eratures less than 600  C were decorated with perforations slightly
below their rims (similar to those found at Ustinovka-3), zigzag
patterns (similar to those from Ust’-Karenga in the Transbaikal),
and horizontal exterior and vertical interior lines (similar to
Gasya) (Zhushchikhovskaya, 1997, p. 160; Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39;
Shevkomud, 2002, 2005). Goncharka vessels were made with sand
instead of organic temper (Kuzmin, 2002, p. 39; Shevkomud, 2002,
2005).
4.3.8. Ushki Lake
The Ushki site produced five excavation localities situated along
an oxbow lake of the Kamchatka River (56100 N, 159 570 E) (Fig. 1, no.
34) (Kuzmin et al., 2008; Goebel et al., 2003). Dates from layer 7
range between 14,300  200 (17,110e17,650 cal BP) (GIN-167)
(Dikov, 1996) and 9960  100 (11,250e11,610 cal BP) (LE-3024), but
the layer has been firmly assigned to the Allerød (Goebel et al., 2010;
but see Kuzmin, et al., 2010). Layer 6 dates from 11,130  100 14C BP
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400 393

(12,890e13,140 cal BP) (AA-45717) to 10,040  130 14C BP
(12,070e12,520 cal BP) (AA-45713) with the bulk of the ages less
than 11,0000 14C BP (12,850 cal BP) (Goebel et al., 2003) (Table 1).
Layer 7 produced numerous dwelling features varying in size
between 40 and 100 m2, each associated with several unlined
hearths (Dikov, 1996, pp. 246e247). A possible burial was also
identified in a pit with hundreds of stone beads, red ochre, and
lithic projectile points (Fig. 7). Elk antler, moose (Alces sp.), duck
gastroliths, and unidentified charred bones are the only zooarch-
aeological evidence from layer 7 (Dikov, 1996, pp. 246e247). The
lithic assemblage lacks microblades and is composed of notched
projectile points, leaf-shaped bifaces, scrapers, and burins
produced on flakes or blades (Dikov, 1996, pp. 246e247; Goebel
et al., 2003).
Wedge-shaped microblade technology appears in layer 6 along
with foliate bifaces, burins, and scrapers associated with over 20
dwellings, each roughly 5 m in diameter (Dikov, 1996, pp. 246e247;
Goebel et al., 2003). These features were dug into the ground to
a depth of 30 cm, each with a narrow entryway and stone-outlined
hearth containing abundant fish bones (Dikov, 1996, pp. 245e246;
Goebel et al., 2003). In addition, post-holes indicate these dwellings
had wooden frames (Dikov, 1996, pp. 246e247; Goebel et al., 2003).
An associated dog burial produced three stone tools, while the
burial of a child contained numerous grave goods, including ground
stone slabs, a pendant fragment, wedge-shaped microblade cores,
retouched microblades, and red ochre (Fig. 7) (Dikov, 1996, pp.
246e247). Fauna from layer 6 include bison (Bison priscus),
mountain sheep (Ovis nivicola), lemming (Lemming or Dicrostonyx
sp.), horse (Equus caballus), and duck and fish (Goebel and Slobodin,
2005). Source studies reveal that during the habitation of layer 7,
obsidian was transported to the site from seven locations up to
200e300 km away (Kuzmin et al., 2008), while in layer 6 only four
sources were utilized at a distance of 180e190 km from the site
(Kuzmin et al., 2008).

Fig. 7. Artifacts and feature from Ushki Lake. Layer 7: stemmed/notched arrowpoints (1e7), pendants (8e10), stone beads (11), unifacial and bifacial knives (12, 13), core (14), drills
(15, 16), burins (17, 18). Layer 6: leaf-shaped points (19e21), bifacial knives (12, 13), wedge-shaped microblade cores (24e27), ski-spalls (28, 29), burins (30, 31), scrapers (32, 33),
scraper-burnisher (34), knife (36), pendants (35, 37e39), incised stone (40), dwelling (41) (after Dikov, 1996, pp. 247e249).
394 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

5. Behavioral adaptations
If the Younger Dryas imposed pronounced resource stress on
cultural groups in Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East, then
shifts in various strategies associated with artifact manufacture and
use, feature construction, and faunal utilization from the Allerød to
the end of the Younger Dryas are expected. During times of
resource stress hunter-gatherers have several options for coping
mechanisms. Researchers have recognized several tactics employed
by foragers that can potentially reduce risk associated with either
resource depression or environmental change. One way is to
increase residential mobility as a means to improve encounter rates
with diminished resources (Cashdan, 1985; Sobel and Bettles,
2000). Other strategies might be to intensify or diversify resource
use (Hawkes and O’Connell, 1992; Hawkes and Bliege-Bird, 2002),
rely more on storage facilities while increasing sedentism
(Cashdan, 1985), change or innovate technologies within food-
getting systems (Jones and Madsen, 1989; Smith, 1991; Metcalfe
and Barlow, 1992; Bettinger et al., 1997; Beck et al., 2002), and
widen social connections through reciprocity (Kaplan and Hill,
1985; Cashdan, 1985; Hawkes et al., 1991; Cashdan, 1992; Sobel
and Bettles, 2000; Weissner, 2002). These adaptations are man-
ifested as more ephemeral site use, subsistence diversification,
increased storage and greater sedentism, increased exotic raw
material use, and possibly the influx or borrowing of technologies.
It is important to note that evaluation of the Younger Dryas is
hampered by inconsistent counts of the archaeological material in
some of the publications used. Specific numbers of artifacts and
features are presented for some sites, but presence or absence is
noted for others. Analysis is also hindered when material from the
Allerød and Younger Dryas are combined into a single description
in the primary literature (e.g., Goncharka-1). There may, in fact, be
subtleties between the archaeological material from the two
components that are not recognized in this overview. Thus, Tables 2
through 6 show numbers of sites in each time period with specific
artifacts, features, and stylistic designs, not counts of the actual
items. Subsequently, as a whole this analysis may be coarse and
only able to document gross changes that likely occurred during the
2000-year period between the Allerød and Younger Dryas.
5.1. Settlement
With the exception of Mukhor-Tala-7, sites dating to the Allerød
and Younger Dryas in Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East are
located in riparian environments associated with alluvial terraces.
Table 2 shows the number of sites in each time period in terms of
location, the presence or absence of dwellings, hearths, storage, and
burials. The table also indicates whether hearths and dwellings,
when present, were more durable (indicating greater sedentism), or
of “light” construction (indicating greater mobility). Furthermore,
most sites were habitation settlements (e.g., produced dwellings or
other evidence of long-term use), but there is some evidence for
short-term use as resource extraction locations. Bol’shoi Yakor’ in
Eastern Siberia, for example, may represent a briefly occupied, task-
specific site and arguably served as a location to obtain seasonal
resources, such as large and small mammals, as well as birds and
fish, for other Ust’-Karenga Complex sites along the Vitim River in
northern Transbaikal (Ineshin and Teten’kin, 2011).
Other sites in the Transbaikal region, such as Ust’-Menza-1
layers 13 and 14 and Oshurkovo, and in the northern Russian Far

Table 2
Comparison of the number of Allerød and Younger Dryas sites in terms of locations, site types, and features.

Eastern Siberia Russian Far East Total Total 0.05 significance

Allerød Younger Dryas Allerød Younger Dryas Allerød Younger Dryas

N¼8 N¼7 N¼5 N¼2 N ¼ 12 N¼9

N sites N sites N sites N sites N sites (%) N sites (%)

Settlement
Location
Riverine 7 7 5 2 12 (92) 9 (100) X2 ¼ 0.725, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.394
Non-riverine 1 0 0 0 1 (8) 0 (0)

Type
Base camp 6 5 5 2 11 (85) 7 (78) X2 ¼ 0.167, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.683
Camp/quarry 2 2 0 0 2 (15) 2 (22)

Features
Dwelling
Absent 2 3 1 0 3 (23) 3 (33) X2 ¼ 0.282, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.595
Present 6 4 4 2 10 (77) 6 (67)

Dwelling type
Light (unlined) 2 1 2 0 4 (40) 1 (17) X2 ¼ 0.95, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.330
Durable (rock or timber 4 3 2 2 6 (60) 5 (83)
lined, pit, posts)

Hearth
Absent 3 1 0 0 3 (23) 1 (11) X2 ¼ 0.512, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.474
Present 5 6 5 2 10 (77) 8 (89)

Hearth type
Light (unlined) 4 3 2 0 6 (60) 3 (37) X2 ¼ 0.90, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.343
Durable (stone lined, pit) 1 3 3 2 4 (40) 5 (63)

Storage
Absent 7 7 5 2 12 (92) 9 (100) X2 ¼ 0.646, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.421
Present 1 0 0 0 1 (8) 0 (0)

Burial
Absent 8 7 3 0 11 (85) 7 (78) X2 ¼ 0.167, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.683
Present 0 0 1 1 2 (15) 2 (22)
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400 395

Table 3
Comparison of the number of Allerød and Younger Dryas sites in terms of fauna.

Eastern Siberia Russian Far East Total

Allerød N ¼ 6 Younger Dryas N ¼ 3 Allerød N ¼ 1 Younger Dryas N ¼ 1 Allerød N ¼ 7 Younger Dryas N ¼ 4

N sites N sites N sites N sites N sites (%) N sites (%)

Fauna
Large mammals 6 3 1 1 7 (100) 4 (100)
Small mammals 2 0 0 1 2 (29) 1 (25)
Birds 3 0 1 1 4 (57) 1 (25)
Fish 3 1 0 1 3 (43) 2 (50)
2
0.05 significance X ¼ 0.545, df ¼ 1, p-value ¼ 0.909

East at Ushki Lake, however, have been interpreted as seasonal base
camps with no clear connection to other task-specific localities
(Konstantinov, 1994; Goebel and Slobodin, 2005, p. 135). In the
southern part of the Russian Far East in the Amur Basin and Pri-
morye, Kononenko and Cassidy (2000) propose that during the
Allerød, task-specific localities functioned as lithic workshops,
hunting camps, and woodworking camps, tied to base camps
positioned along waterways at sites like Ustinovka-6, Gasya,
Khummi, and Goncharka-1.
5.2. Sedentism and storage
Storage may alleviate stress during times of resource scarcity
(Cashdan, 1985). Foragers can also increase mobility, either resi-
dential or logistical, as a means to augment reduced encounter
rates with prey (Cashdan, 1985; Sobel and Bettles, 2000). A proxy
for sedentism can be the relative degree of effort put into habitation
construction. Evidence of stone or timber-outlined dwellings,
semi-subterranean house pits, or evidence of post molds or holes is
an indication of more permanent settlement, while the lack of
these traits is an indication of higher mobility.
There is no clear shift of occupational duration between the
Allerød and the Younger Dryas in terms of dwelling and hearth
construction, storage, or burials (Table 2). Durable dwellings with
stone or timber outlines were present in Eastern Siberia, and
postholes or molds, or semisubterranean floors existed in the
Russian Far East at most sites. There is a slight, but insignificant rise
in the number of durable dwellings from the Allerød (N ¼ 5) to the
Younger Dryas (N ¼ 6). Hearth construction consisted of both
charcoal smears (presumably representing campfires made directly
on the ground with little or no preparation of the area) and more
durable, typically stone-outlined or dug-out types. In terms of
storage, there was only one functional pit found at the Allerød site
Oshurkovo, apparently used for fish resources (Konstantinov, 1994).
Burials were also found in the same proportions during both times.
The Ushki Lake sites may provide evidence of greater occupational

Table 4
Comparison of the number of Allerød and Younger Dryas sites in terms of chipped stone artifacts.

Eastern Siberia Russian Far East Total

Allerød N ¼ 8 Younger Dryas N ¼ 7 Allerød N ¼ 5 Younger Dryas N ¼ 2 Allerød N ¼ 12 Younger Dryas N ¼ 9

N sites N sites N sites N sites N sites (%) N sites (%)

Core reduction
Microblade core 5 5 4 2 9 (75) 7 (78)
Blade core 1 2 2 0 3 (25) 2 (22)
Flake core 5 2 1 1 6 (50) 3 (33)
0.05 Significance X2 ¼ 0.260 ,df ¼ 2, p-value ¼ 0.878

Extractive tools
Biface (and core reduction) 4 1 5 2 10 (83) 3 (33)
Points 1 0 5 2 6 (50) 2 (22)
Spear point 0 0 2 1 2 (17) 1 (11)
Dart point 0 0 2 1 2 (17) 1 (11)
Arrow point 0 0 3 1 3 (25) 1 (11)
0.05 significance X2 ¼ 0.138 ,df ¼ 3, p-value ¼ 0.987

Processing tools
Scraper (end and side) 5 5 5 2 10 (83) 7 (78)
Knife 1 1 4 2 5 (42) 3 (33)
Notch 1 1 0 1 1 (8) 2 (22)
Burin 5 4 3 0 8 (67) 5 (56)
Graver/chisel 2 2 2 0 4 (33) 2 (22)
Wedge 0 1 0 0 0 (0) 1 (11)
Utilized flake 1 0 0 0 1 (8) 0 (0)
Utilized blade 1 0 0 0 1 (8) 0 (0)
Combination tool 1 1 1 0 2 (17) 1 (11)
Chopper/cobble tool 3 2 1 1 4 (33) 3 (33)
Bifacial adze 0 0 3 0 3 (25) 0 (0)
0.05 significance X2 ¼ 5.9646, df ¼ 10, p-value ¼ 0.812

Debitage
Microblades 5 3 1 1 6 (50) 4 (44)
Blades 1 3 2 1 3 (25) 4 (44)
Flakes 7 4 2 1 9 (75) 5 (56)
0.05 significance X2 ¼ 0.930, df ¼ 2, p-value ¼ 0.637
396 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400

Table 5
Comparison of the number of Allerød and Younger Dryas sites in terms of the presence or absence of organic, ceramic, and groundstone technology.

Eastern Siberia Russian Far East Total

Allerød Younger Dryas Allerød Younger Dryas Allerød Younger Dryas

Organic Total sites N¼2 Total sites N¼2 Total sites N¼0 Total sites N¼1 Total sites N¼2 Total sites N¼3
N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites)
Slotted points 1 1 0 0 1 1
Points 0 1 0 0 0 1
Harpoon 2 0 0 0 2 0
Paddle 0 0 0 1 0 1
Needle 2 1 0 0 2 1
Pressure flaker 1 0 0 0 1 0

Ceramics (construction)
Non-organic temper
Organic temper
Low firing temperature
Mold or paddle formed
Total sites N¼1 Total sites N¼1 Total sites N¼3 Total sites N¼1 Total sites N¼4 Total sites N¼2
N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites)
1 0 2 1 3 1
1 1 2 0 3 1
0 0 3 1 3 1
0 0 1 0 1 0

Groundstone Total sites N¼0 Total sites N¼0 Total sites N¼4 Total sites N¼2 Total sites N¼4 Total sites N¼2
N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites)
Adze 0 0 2 0 2 0
Axe 0 0 2 1 2 1
Grooved tool 0 0 3 1 3 1
Pestle 0 0 2 1 2 1
Grinding stone 0 0 1 1 1 1
Net weight 0 0 3 1 3 1
Biface 0 0 1 1 1 1
Whetstone 0 0 0 1 0 1

sedentism on a local scale. In cultural layer 7, dwellings and hearths
were unlined and built on the ground surface, but stone-outlined
hearths and semisubterranean dwellings appeared during the
Younger Dryas in cultural layer 6.
5.3. Subsistence (faunal remains)
One of the most noticeable changes that characterized the late-
glacial landscape in Siberia was the extinction of many large
mammals (Sher, 1997). Some of the more notable prey species in
Siberia that saw their demise at the end of the Pleistocene were
woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) and woolly rhinoceros
(Coelodonta antiquitatis). The chronologies of these extinctions
have been subjects of rigorous study for several decades. Some taxa,
such as the woolly mammoth, have had the benefit of direct
radiocarbon dating on specimens. Mammoth persisted latest in
northern Siberia where remains have been dated around 9700 14C
BP (cal BP) on the Taimyr Peninsula (Orlova et al., 2003), and even
later on the Wrangel Islands, where dwarf varieties survived into
the early Holocene (Boeskorov, 2004; Vartanyan et al., 2008). Of
note, ostrich (S. asiaticus), the eggshells of which have been found
at a number of sites in this study, appears to have disappeared from
Siberia at the end of the Younger Dryas, but may have survived into
the Holocene (Kurochchin et al., 2010, p. 1092). Megaloceros
giganteus (giant deer), on the other hand, may have only experi-
enced a decrease in habitat and range during the Younger Dryas

Table 6
Comparison of the number of Allerød and Younger Dryas sites in terms of symbolic representation.

Eastern Siberia Russian Far East Total

Allerød Younger Dryas Allerød Younger Dryas Allerød Younger Dryas

Symbolic Total sites N ¼ 3 Total sites N ¼ 2 Total sites N ¼ 5 Total sites N ¼ 6 Total sites N ¼ 7 Total sites N ¼ 4
N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (% of total) N (% of total)
Pigment (ochre, graphite) 2 1 1 1 3 (43) 2 (50)
Beads 1 0 2 1 3 (43) 1 (25)
Pendants 0 0 2 0 3 (43) 1 (25)
Figurines 0 0 1 0 1 (14) 0 (0)
Polished stone 0 0 1 1 1 (14) 1 (25)
Incised pebbles or slabs 0 1 0 2 0 (0) 2 (50)
Burial 0 0 2 2 2 (29) 2 (50)

Ceramic Style Total sites N ¼ 1 Total sites N ¼ 1 Total sites N ¼ 3 Total sites N ¼ 1 Total sites N ¼ 4 Total sites N ¼ 2
N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (# of sites) N (% of total) N (% of total)
Conical with pointed base 0 1 0 0 0 1
Conical with flat base 0 1 3 1 3 (75) 2 (50)
Perforations 0 0 1 1 1 (25) 1 (25)
Burnished 1 0 0 0 1 (25) 0
Parallel lines 1 1 2 0 3 (75) 1 (25)
Zigzag 0 1 3 1 3 (75) 2 (50)
Cog stamp 0 1 1 1 1 (25) 2 (50)
Herringbone 0 1 0 0 0 1 (25)
Cross 0 0 2 0 2 (50) 0
Comb 0 1 0 0 0 1 (25)
 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
(Lister and Stuart, 2008). These changes in the spatial distribution
of fauna would have had a direct impact on humans and their
subsistence economies at the end of the Pleistocene.
If there was resource stress during the Younger Dryas, and high-
ranking, large mammal resources were becoming scarce, then
foragers should have added small mammals, birds, and fish to their
diets (Hawkes and O’Connell, 1992; Hawkes and Bliege-Bird, 2002).
Although faunal preservation and identification from the sites were
variable, only 54% of Allerød sites and 44% of Younger Dryas sites
had any identifiable bones, overall, resource diversification did not
increase during the Younger Dryas (Table 3). The bulk of the sample
comes from Bol’shoi Yakor’ and Oshurkova in Eastern Siberia where
large mammals such as bison, musk ox, horse, moose, red deer,
reindeer, argali sheep, wild boar, and wolf, small mammals (hare,
lemming, fox, and pika), birds (ptarmigan, teal, and ostrich), and
fresh water fish (perch and pike) were recognized. During the
Younger Dryas, red deer and roe deer and unidentified fish were
identified at Ust’-Menza-1, and large mammals such as moose, red
deer, and reindeer were the focus at Ust’-Timpton.
In the Russian Far East, only the Ushki site contained faunal
remains, as soils in the Amur and Primorye prevented their pres-
ervation. Again, cultural layer 7 at Ushki (Allerød) contained
a slightly wider range of animals including red deer and birds, than
layer 6 (Younger Dryas) where subsistence seems to have focused
on fishing.
5.4. Extractive technology
The development of new tools or modification of existing ones,
along with resource caching can reduce risk by increasing
encounter rates with prey or plant resources (Smith, 1991) and
decreasing travel costs associated with hunting (Jones and Madsen,
1989; Metcalfe and Barlow, 1992; Bettinger et al., 1997; Beck et al.,
2002). Chipped stone, groundstone, organic, and ceramic technol-
ogies before and during the Younger Dryas in Eastern Siberia and
the Russian Far East are remarkably similar (Tables 4 and 5). With
the exception of Ushki layer 7, microblades were the principle
reductive technology at sites seconded only by blade and flake
cores in Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East (Table 4). In the
southern Russian Far East, for example, leaf shaped or tanged spear,
dart, and arrow points were important for capturing large prey
between 12,000 and 10,000 14C BP (13,850 and 11,500 cal BP) at
Ustinovka-6, Goncharka-1, and Gasya. At Ushki in Kamchatka, there
was a clear shift from non-microblade to microblade technology
from layer 7 to layer 6, as well as stylistic changes from stemmed or
tanged points to small, foliate points.
Processing tools revealed similar continuity over time. Hunter-
gatherers utilized large quantities of scrapers, knives, burins,
chisels, and cobble tools in both Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far
East. Based on use-wear studies in the Russian Far East scrapers were
primarily utilized for processing animal skins, while knives were
used on mammals and fish (Kononenko et al., 2003; Volkov et al.,
2006). Likewise, gravers or chisels and bifacial adzes were impor-
tant woodworking tools, especially in the southern Russian Far East.
Sites with non-chipped stone technology, although represented
in fewer quantities, followed a similar pattern as chipped stone
(Table 5). Bone and slotted points, in combination with microblades
in Eastern Siberia, and groundstone points in the southern Russian
Far East, reflect a reliance on large mammals throughout the Allerød
and Younger Dryas. In addition, net weights indicate that fish
resources were also utilized in the Russian Far East. A bone harpoon
from Oshurkovo site in Eastern Siberia indicates that at least some of
the fish resources were acquired during the Allerød.
Plant resources were especially important in the southern
Russian Far East where groundstone axes, adzes, pestles and
397
grinding stones were discovered. The increase of forests during the
Allerød in the Amur and Primorye may have prompted inclusion of
more plant resources in their economies, especially in the form of
tree nuts. Ceramic vessels appeared in the Russian Far East at Gasya,
Goncharka-1, and Khummi well before the Younger Dryas that may
signal a diversification or intensification of specific resources.
Researchers suggest that ceramic vessels were used to extract
fat from anadromous fish or to process tree nuts. Pottery temper,
molding, and firing also remained stable throughout the Allerød
and Younger Dryas. In Eastern Siberia ceramic vessels were found in
association with fish remains at Ust’-Kiakhta-17 that may pre-date
the Younger Dryas and at Ust’-Karenga just before or during the
Younger Dryas.
5.5. Reciprocity
Reciprocity is one of the best mechanisms hunter-gatherers use
to alleviate risk (Yellen, 1977; Lee, 1979; Weissner, 1982, 2002;
Cashdan, 1985; Kaplan and Hill, 1985; Meyers, 1988; Hawkes
et al., 1991). Sharing, in essence, acts as insurance against vari-
ance by investing resources when they are plentiful into a pool that
can be withdrawn when they are scarce. During large-scale
resource depression, reciprocity is typically performed across
groups (Cashdan, 1985, 1992). Documentation of reciprocity in the
archaeological record can be problematic, but may be displayed as
exotic items, or borrowed technologies and ideas. If an influx of
these during the Younger Dryas is detected, then this could be an
indication of increasing social networks as an adaptational means
of reducing stress (Whallon, 1989; Weniger, 1990; Gamble, 1993;
Svoboda et al., 1996; Jochim, 1998; Baales, 2001; Kuhn and Stiner,
2001; Eriksen, 2002; Whallon, 2006).
Although based on somewhat tenuous data, there is no
detectable increase in the number of sites that show evidence for
long-distance sharing during the Younger Dryas. Broadly, raw
material source data on siliceous stone (chert, liparite, tuff,
obsidian), as well as mineral pigment (graphite), indicate that
distant sources were utilized in similar proportions. For the five
Allerød sites with sourcing data, four (80%) had material from local
sources and three (60%) from distant sources. Of the three Younger
Dryas sites with sourcing data, one (33%) has material from local
sources, and two (66%) have material from distant source. Research
on raw material source during this time period, however, is scarce
(only for 42% of the Allerød sites and 33% of the Younger Dryas sites
in this study) and currently not detailed. Furthermore, it is unclear
whether these items were obtained through direct procurement or
reciprocity.
Notwithstanding a small sample size that precludes chi-squared
analysis, there is no increase in the number of sites with symbolic
artifacts during the Younger Dryas. Pigments, beads, pendants,
polished stones, and incised pebbles were discovered at Allerød
sites of Bol’shoi Yakor’, Ust’-Kiahkta-17, Ushki Lake (layer 7),
Ustinovka-6, Gasya, Goncharka-1, and Khummi, as well as Younger
Dryas sites of Ust’-Menza-1 (layer 11 and 12), Ushki Lake (layer 6),
and Goncharka-1 (Table 6). Similarly, stylistic variation of ceramic
vessel shapes and motifs remain relatively unchanged. Vessels
were conical with flat bases in the southern Russian Far East
decorated with perforations, parallel lines, zigzags, and cog stamp
motifs. Some of these patterns were present on ceramics in Eastern
Siberia, hinting at wide social connections starting before the
Younger Dryas. Pottery found in the Russian Far East also bore
similarities with Japan and China in terms of molding techniques,
temper, and low firing temperatures (Kajiwara and Kononenko,
1999). Similarly, during the Allerød arrowheads from Ustinovka-6
resembled those in the lower Amur Basin, as well as in Hokkaido
and Honshu.
398 I. Buvit, K. Terry / Quaternary International 242 (2011) 379e400
5.6. Summary
Overall, the bulk of evidence suggests that no major shifts
associated with behavioral adaptations that indicate resource
stress occurred during the Younger Dryas. Before and during,
settlements were almost exclusively positioned in riparian envi-
ronments, likely locations where an array of resources could be
accessed from seasonal base camps. There is some evidence,
however, that a few sites from both the Younger Dryas and
Allerød may have been associated with more temporary resource
extraction localities. A sundry of foodstuff was taken at
encampments including large and small mammals, as well as
birds and fish. Principally, microblade inset points or bifacial
spear, dart, or arrow points were used as projectiles, while fish
were caught with nets and harpoons. In the Amur Basin and
Primorye, acquiring and processing tree nuts with groundstone
tools may have also been of importance. The presence of ceramic
vessels in the Amur Basin and Primorye, as well as the Trans-
baikal, perhaps points toward processing or storing fish and plant
resources. Hunter-gatherer groups also maintained relatively
long-distant social ties, sharing both lithic and ceramic tech-
nology and stylistic designs.
6. Conclusions
Data from a handful of sites in Siberia east of Lake Baikal allow
elucidation of a pattern of increasingly Mesolithic lifestyles (i.e.,
more sedentary villages with a focus on a few key wild plant and
animal species) at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, but many of
these changes occurred prior to the Younger Dryas and may have
acted as buffers against environmental fluctuation. Of course the
generalizations outlined here can only be considered preliminary
starting points in the understanding of human-environment
interaction during the Younger Dryas. Clearly, many questions
remain unanswered. For example, why is there temporal and
geographic overlap of sites with and without pottery? Also, what
role did microblades play in the continually shifting subsistence
patterns of the latest Pleistocene? More work needs to be carried
out at known sites, and with existing archaeological collections.
Likewise, the search for new sites dating to the Younger Dryas must
continue.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Lawrence G. Straus and Ted Goebel for inviting
us to contribute this manuscript and their enduring patience. We
are likewise indebted to two anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments. Also, we thank Yaroslav V. Kuzmin and Masami Izuho
for providing many offprints and obscure literature from the
Russian Far East and Eastern Siberia.
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