ACK, Tl ARCHITE CTUT NDITION—Revised and Enlarged ria i aM MEL MT RT BE /P THIRD PRINTING THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED This book has proved a milestone in modern thought, and its compelling ideas and unusual illustrations have been widely acknowledged. Since its first publication in 1941, it has been re- issued ten times, and has been translated into half a dozen languages, Mr. Giedion is noted for the range and originality of his thought, for the force and clarity of his presentation, and for his ability to distill — sometimes from the most strik- ingly dissimilar examples — the essence of an idea or a trend, Year by year, his book gains a host of new readers among students and laymen alike. This considerably enlarged third edi- tion includes a new chapter on MIES VAN DER ROHE, GROPIUS IN AMERICA, and chapters on PERS VE AND URBANISM dealing with city planning in the Renais- sance, and POPE SIXTUS V AND THE PLANNING OF BAROQUE ROME. Nearly 70 new pictures have been in- cluded, and the entire book has been a new section on reset. HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE 38, MASSACHUSETTS {Y CENTER t |.ss.The CHARLES ELIOT NORTON LECTURES for 1938-1939SIGFRIED GIEDION SPACE, TIMEAND ARCHITECTURE Ve growl ofa HOM addin© COPYRIGHT, 1941, 1919, 1951 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College PRINTINGS: first, March 1941 second, August 1041 third, February 1942 fourth, April 1943 fifth, July 1008 sixth, June 1916 seventh, June 1947 hth (second edi ninth, January 19: tenth (third edition, reset and enlarged), January 1954 h, October 1956 September 1959 jon, enlarged), November 1919 PRINTED. in the United States of An Libeary of Congress Catalog Card Number 54-6326) fs. FOREWORD TO THE THIRD EDITION Jacob Burckhardt and Heinrich Woetllin never touched their books once they were written; they let others editions. Jacob Burckhardt, in re nee to a late printing of his Cicerone, once remarked to his students, “I ean really recommend this book to you; nine tenths of it have been re- written by others.” nprove” later Tndeed, books are born of a particular moment; it does no: good to revise them later. For the eighth printing (second edition) of Space, Time and Architecture we have merely added some new illustrations, scattered here and there throughout the book; some pages on “Gustave Eiffel and His Tower some additional notes on the works of Robert Maillart; and a chapter on Alvar Aalto Sinee for the tenth printing (third edition) Space, Time and Archileciure had to be reset, we have had an opportunity to add some new chapters, particularly in Part I. The chapter on “Perspective and Urban Pl of urban elements during the Renaissance, including some of the contributions of the great me Court of the Belvedere in the Va tol, Leonardo’s preludes to regional planning. ‘The chapter on “Sixtus V and the Planning of Baroque Rome” evaluates the work of the first modern town planner, Roi ”” outlines the formati ters, such as Bramante’s n, Miche lo’s Capi- us it grows oul of 's medieval and Renaissance background A chapter on “Mies van der Rohe and the Integrity of Form,” one on “Gropius in America,” and some indispensable rem ce 1938" have ks on “Le Corbusier's Development s been added in Part VI. Zorn, Doivervar, Junv 1953. 8.GFOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION Space, Time and Archilecture is intended for those who are alarmed by the present state of our culture and anxious to find a way out of the apparent chaos of its contradictory tendencies. I have attempted to establish, both by argument and by objec- live evidence, that in spite of the seeming confusion there is nev- ertheless a true, if hidden, unity. ‘rel synthesis, inour present civilization. To point out why this synthesis has nol become a conscious and aclive realily has been one of my chief aims. My interest has been particularly concentrated on the growth of the new tradition in tecture, for the pr ing its interrelations with other human activities and the similarity of methods that are in us ii hitecture, construction, painting. city planning, and science. ose of show- have found it preferable, in order to arrive at a true and complete understanding of the growth of the new tradition, to select from the vast body of available historical material only relatively few facts. History is nol a compilation of facts, but an insight into a moving process of life. Moreover, such insight is obtained not by the exclusive us the bird's-eye view, but by isol specilie events intensively. pene the manner of the ele to evaluate a culture from within as well as from without. of the panoramic survey, x and examining c rating and exploring them in -up. This procedure makes it possible In keeping with this approach, the bibliographical apparatus has been reduced to a minimum. or those interested in further study and research in the subject, the necessary in- formation is given in footnotes. No general bibliography has been provided. Its addition, in view of the theme and design of the book. would simply have swollen the yolume by somefifty extra pages without at the same time affording scientific complete ess. Space, Time and Architecture was written in stimu! sociation with young Americans —an outgrowth of Ie and seminars which I gave as Charles Eliot Norton Professor at Harvard University, The problem of its composition was to transmute the spoken word of lecture and discussion into the quite different medium of the printed page. For the lec- tures the English version was prepared by Mr. R. Bolfomley. Mr. W. J. Callaghan and Mr wart Matthews made the Eng- lish translation of the book, which was completed at Cam- ing as- ures bridge, Massachusetts, in Uke Spring of 1910... . Zéricn, Dovvertar, June 1910 §.6;CONTENTS Part I HISTORY OF A PART OF LIFE INTRODUCTION THE HISTORIAN ‘THE DEMAND FOR CONTINUITY CONTEMPORARY HISTORY A THE IDENTITY OF METHODS TRANSITORY AND CONSTITUENT FACTS: ARCHITECTURE AS AN ORGANISM PROCEDURE Part I OUR ARCHITECTURAL THE NEW SPX NCEPTION: PERSPECTIVE, PERSPECTIVE AND URBANISM th of Cities TERITAN Prerequisites for the Th shaped City PERSPECTIVE AND The Wall, the Square, and the Street CONSTITUENT E EMENTS OF THE CITY Bramante and the Open Stairway Michelangelo What Ts the Real Significance of the trea Capitolina? LEONARDO DA VINCL AND THE DAWN OF REGIONAL PLANNING SEXTUS V_ (1585-1590) AND THE PLANNING OF BAROQUE ROME The Medi City Sixtus Vand His Pontificate The M the Modeling of Outer Space Land the Renaissance ister Plan The Social Aspect THE LATE BAROQUE THE UNDULATING WALL AND THE FLEXIBLE GROUND PLAN Franceseo Borromini, 1599-1667 Guarino Guarini, 1624-1683 South Germa jersehnheiligen THE ORGANIZATION OF OUTER SPA The Residential Grow Single Squares nd Nature Series of Interrelated SquaresPart U1 THE EVOLUTION OF NEW POTENTIALITIE: as a Fundamental Event Enalond mon the Continent UMN T STEE Early Tron Construct FROM THE IRON € The Cast-Iron Column TOWARD THE STEEL FRAM James Bo: The St. Lo Barly Skeleton Buildings Elevators THE SCHISM BETWEEN ARCHITEC Discussions «AMI indus River Front rURE AND TECHNOLOGY Boole Polytechnique The Demand for a New Architec The Intorrelations of Architecture and Enxincerin HENRI LABROUSTE, ARCHITECT-CONSTRUCTOR, 1801-1875, NEW BUILDING PROBLEMS — NEW SOLUTIONS: Market Halls Department Stores THE GREAT EXHIBITIONS The Creat Exhibition, London, 1851 The Universal Exhibition, Paris, 1855 Paris Exhibition of 1867 Paris Exhi Paris Exhibition of 1889 ieaxo, 1893 the Connection between Science and Life New Forms — New Shapes GUSTAVE EIFFEL AND HIS TOWER Part LV THE DEMAND FOR MORALITY IN ARCHITECTURE ‘THE NINETIES: PRECURSORS OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE What Were the Sources of This Movement? Brussels the Center of Victor Hort ntemps sary Art, 1880-1890 ontribution Rerlage’s Stock Exchange and the Demand for Morality Otto Wagner a FERROCONCRI A. Tony Garnier the Viennese School TE AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON ARCHITECTURE PerretPart V AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT Europe Observes American Production The Structure of Am THE BALLOON FRAN The Balloon Fran The Invention of the Balloon Fra 7-18 The Balloon Frame and the Windsor Chair PLANE. SURFACES IN AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE The Flexible and Informal Ground Plan THE CHICAGO SCHOOL The Apartment House TOWARD PURE FORMS The Le 1889 The Reliance Building, 1894 Sullivan: The Carson, Pirie, Seott Store, 1899-1906 The Influence of the Chicago World's Fair, 1893 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT Writ jean Industry AND INDUSTRIALIZN1 and the Buildin: ON up of the West Snow, 17! er Buildin} ht and the American D I the lopment ted Plan The Crnciform a Elon Plat The Urge toward the Organic Office Buildinas Influence of Frank: Loyd Wri Surfaces and Structure TIME IN ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND CONSTRUCTION THE NEW SPACE CONCEPTION: SPACE-TIME Do We Need Artists? THE, RESEARCH INTO SPACE: CUBIS‘ The Arti THE RESEARCH INTO MOVEMENT: FUTURISM PAINTING TODAY CONSTRUCTION AND AESTHETICS: SLAB AND 1 of Robert Maillart Means JANE {fterteard WALTER GROPIUS AND THE GERMAN DEVELOPMEN Germany in the Nineteenth Century Post-War Germany and the Bauhaus The Bauhaus Buildings at Dessau, 1926 frehitectural tims 333 3a 312 345 318 319WALTER GRO! US TN AMERICAN 4195 The Siznificance of the Post-1930 Emizration 495 Walter Gropius and the American Scene 496 Architectural Activity 198 Gropius as Educator 306 LE CORBUSIER AND THE MEANS OF ARCHITECTONIC EXPRESSION 309 The Villa Savoie, 1928-1930 315 The League of Nations Competit Comes to the Front 1927: Contemporary Archit Larse Constructions and Architectural tims LE CORBUSIER'S DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN 1938 AND 1952 331 MIES VAN DER ROE AND THE INTEGRITY OF FORM a The Elements of Mies van der Ri Country Houses, 1923 The Weissenhof Housin Mies can der Rohe Builds On the Integrity of Form ALVA AALTO: ELEMENTAL AND CONTEMPORARY The Complementarity of the Differentiated and the Primitive Finland Finnish Architecture before 1930 Aalto’s First Buildin, Pe The Sanatorium, 1929-1933 The Undulating Wall Suni Mairea Orzanie Town Plannin: Furniture in Standard Uni The Human Side THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE he's trehitecture Settlement, Stuttzart, 172 Factory and Landscape, 1957-1939 Part VII CITY PLANNING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Karly Nineteenth Century The Rue de Rivoli of Napoleon 1 THE DOMINANCE OF GREENERY: THE LONDON SQUARES THE GARDEN SQUARES OF ELOOMSBURY LARGE-SCALE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT: REGENT’S PARK THE STREET BECOMES DOMINANT: THE TRANSEORMATION OF PARIS, 1853-1268 Paris in the First Half of the Nineteenth Ce The “Trois Résenux” of Eugine Havssinann Squares, Boulevards, Gardens and Plants The City asa Technical Problem Haussmann’s Use of Modern Met of Finance xiThe Basic Unit of the Street The Seale of the Street Haussmann’s Foresight: His Influence Part VILL CITY PLANNING AS A TUM. The Late Nineteenth Century r Howard and the Garden City rnier's Cité Industrielle, 1901-1904 RDAM AND THE REBIRTH OF TOWN PLANNING. THE GENERAL EXTENSION PLAN OF AMSTERDAM, 1934 Interrelations of Housing and Activities of Private Life PROBLEM Part IX SPACE-TIME IN CITY PLANNING Contemporary Attitude toward Town Planning DESTRUCTION OR TRANSFORMATION? THE NEW SCALE IN CITY PLANNING The Parkway Tull Buildings in Open Space 1 Civie Center IN CONCLUSION Index 12 aRDI GIORGIO. "Weder shaped bactioos from his “Tratiatto di "From the Codex Magliabecchianas. Florence _ CARPACCIO. St George and the Dragon, between 1502 and Photo. Alinari . 2 medieval town of Roman origin. Air photograph, Military ~Sforsinda” about 1460-64. MUA ETES Plan of the sarahaped city “Sforsicda "” Codex Maciabecehio- igne st Séersinia.* the starshaped city with is rndial ed patter. eR ea ete aE s Skeoro wELuint ‘The Presentalion of the Virsin in the Temple, c. 1440, drawing from Bellini’s sketchbook, Cabinet des Dessins. Louvre. S 88 8 o Ssh e E DU PERAC. Tournament in Bramante’s Cortile del Belvedere, 1565. Photo. Oscar Savio The Contile del Helvesiere after Bramante's death. Detail of a fresco in the ‘Castello S. Angelo. Rome. 153741. attributed to the Mannerist painter, Perino del Vara. Courtesy of Profesor James S. Ackerman Siena: Piazza del Campo, paved in 1413. Ar photosraph, Miltary tnttate, | FRANCESCO Di GIORGIO. Piazea of an ideal city. Walter Art Gallery. a8 RB Baltimore _ ‘MICHELANGELO. The Capital, Rome, besun 1536. LEONARDO DA VINCI. The River Arno and its regulation by a canal. Sepia ‘pen and ink drawing. Windsor Castle . LEONARDO DA VINCI Scheme for draining the Pontine Marches, 1514, “Drawing. Windsor Castle GIOVANNI BATTISTA FALDA. Medieval Rome. from the Castello 5 “Angelo to the Bridge of Sixtus IV. Detail from Falda’s map. 1676 ‘Planning of Baroque Home by Sixtus V, 1585-90 G.F_BORDINO. Sketch plan of the streets of Sixtus V. 1588, ‘Vis Master Plan of Rome, 1589, Fresco at the Vatican Libeary ‘Rome: The area between the Coliseum and the Lateran. From the map of Du Pérac Lafréry, Rome: The area between the Coliseum and the Lateran. From the map of Antonio Tempesta. 1593 y 'S. Maria Mazsiore and the Villa Montalto. From the map of Antonio Tempest 1383 'S. Maria Mazziore and its obelisk, 1587. From the fresco now in the Collegio ag 8 9 8 3. at 5 86, ‘The obelisk today. from the opposite side. Photo. Giedion95. ‘The Villa Montalto in the late seventeenth century. From G. B. Falda, Giardini di Floma, Nurembers, 1695 DOMENICO FONTAN A. The Transportation of the GF. BORDINE, ‘The Antonine Column and the best ‘Colonna, 1588 3 TORDINI. The obelisk before St, Peter's shortly after its erection, 1588, 39, The Moses Fountain, 1587, Fresco, Vatic 1). Basins of the Moses Fountain. Photo, A Drinking-water fountain, Photo. Giedion 12. The Mowe Fountain beside the Strada Pia, 1616 11. The Moses Fountain today. Photo. ¢ 44. The wash house at the Piazza delle 1 45, DOMENICO FONTANA. Sixtus V's plan transforming the Coliseum into a factory for wool spinning, 1390, From Domenica Fontana, second ¢ FRANCESCO BORROMINE. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Ro Enterior, Photo, Giedis FRANCESCO BORROMINL, San Carlo cLof the Sacred Crib ng of the Pinan Fresen. Callesio Massimo Quattro Fontane. Interior: the done, 1631-1 48, FRANCESCO BORKOMINL Sant’ Ivo, Home, 1612 62. Ground plan 1. FRANCESCO BORROMINE Sant’ Ivo, Rome, Interior of dome, - Photo, Giedion 50. PICASSO, Head, Sculpture, ¢. 1910, Collection of Walter P. Chrysler, Je Photo, ‘Soichi Sinami for the Museum of Modern Art 51. FRANCESCO RORROMINE. Sant [vo, Rom ‘columns and spital. Photo. Giedion TATLIN. Project for a monument in Moscow, 1920) FRANCESCO BORROMINE, San!" Ivo, Rome, Section through interior FRANCESCO BORKOMINE. Sant’ Ive, Rome, Detail, Photo. Giedion GUARINO GUARINL. San Lorenzo, Turin, 1668-7, Section through, cupola and the lantern, with intersecting binding arches me 56, GUAIINO GUAIUNT. Sau Lorenzo, Turin, Cupola with intersecting bi arches, Photo, Alinaei ARINO GUARINE. San Lorenzo, Ts St, Mosaue al Hakem, Cordova, 30. BALTHASAR NEUMANS, 7 Photo. 60. BALTHAS\IE NEUMANN with en Ground plan the Milrubs, Photo, Ar (Church of the Fourteen Sai De of the ot. BALTHAY EU MANN Horizontal sect 62, BALTHASAR NEUMANN, Vierrehnbeiligen, Interior. Photo, | Marburg 63. BALTHASAB NEUMANN. Viersehae Warped-plane binding arches 61. LOUIS LIE VAU. Chateau Vaucte-Vicomte, 1635-61. Engraving by Perelle LOUIS LE VAL and JULES HARDOUIN- MANSARD. Versa of the chateau, the garden, and the boulevard. Photo, Co Francaise 66, Versaills, Great court, stables, and highwa Versailles, View of th thie Tapis Ve to Pac s." the Grand Cana by Perville fand the ter- 68, Obliqua, St. Peter's, Rome. Lithogeaph, 1870 69. PATTI LTH with land mares 7. E nee interrelated squar Place Stanislas, DE CORNY. ‘Three interrelated squares at Nancy, Plan HERE DE CORNY. Palsis du Gouvernement with oval colonnades, Nancy JOHN WOOD THE YOUNGER, ‘The Circus, 1764, and the Royal Crescent, 1769, Bath, Air view, Photo, erofilms Ltd JACOUES-ANGE GABRIEL. Place Louis XV — Place \r6 JOHN WOOD THE YOUNGER. ‘The Royal Crescent, Bath, 1769. Air view. to. Aeeofilms Lid de la € corde, Paris, Engravin View to Scheme of the Pia polo, Rome. Section through the diffe ing by Edward W. Armstrong, 1 Planning Hesiew, December 1924 80. Piazza del Popolo, Rome. View 81. THEO VAN DOESBURG. Rel 82, FRANCESCO BORROMINI. Undul Fontane, 1662-67. Photo. Giedion the Pi ‘of horizontal and vertical y ing wall of San Carlo alle 4 119. 12h 12h 135 129 130 BL 136 158 1k 155, 136Photo, Acrofilms Ltd, 83, Lansdowne Cresent, Bath, 1794. Air BL, Bath and its crescents, Air view Photo, Aerofilms Lid, |; LE CORBUSIER. Scheme for skyserapers in Algiers, 1931 86. Aulomaton: writing doll, made by Pierre Jaquet-Droz, Neuchatel, abo Photo. Giesion 87. ABRAHAM DARBY. The first cast-iron bridge over the river Severm, 1375-29. Photo. Science Museum, Lond 88, Sunderland Bridge. 1793 96. British Crown copyright. Photo. Se Museum, London 89, HUMPHRY REPTON. Pheasantry for the Royal Pavilion, Bri 90. JOHN NASH. Royal Pavilion at Brighton, 1813 21 91. VIGTOR LOUIS. Théitre-Frangais, Iron rooting, 1 92. The Granary, Paris, HH 93. MARC SEGUIN. First French suspe near 9, 124. Photo, Giedi Golde an Francisco, 1983-37. Photo. Gabriel Moulin FONTAINE, Galerie d'Orléans, Palais Royal, Paris, 129-31 ROUHAULT. Greenhouses of the Botanical Gardens, Paris, 1833 0, ton, 180% jon bridge, of wire rope. over the Rhone, Wooden attic of factors, Bolton, Englan, , 1800. 18s Attic story with cast-iron roof framework, ©, 1835, British Crown copyright. Photo, Science Museum, London 183, 99. Farly use of cast-iron columns, London bookshop, 1794, Courtesy of Mrs. Albert ©. Koch rat JOHN NASH ghion, Wilik 21. Red drawing-room 185 JOHN NASH The kitehen 186 Paris Exhibitis Oval garden in the center af Jin building From. cposilion Universelle de 1867 Mlastrér 187 jon bridge over the Thames, London, 1801 Science Museum, London 188 drawings for the first seven-story mill with eams and columns, Salford, Manchester, 1801, Reproduced from the Boulton and Watt Collection, Birmingham Reference Library, England 190 105. WATT and BOULTON. Working drawings for the first seven-story mill with Deams and columns. Reproduced from the Toulton and Watt Collec tion, Birmingham Reference Library, England 1 106, WATT and BOULTON, Working drassings for the frst seven-story mill sith, iron beams and columns. Sections of a east-iron column, Reptedaced e Boulton aud rence Library 191 WILLIAM FAIIBAIRN. Kaglish refinery, 6, 1815. Cross section 12 WILLIAM FAIBAIRN. Enalish relinery, © 1843, Ceiling construct 12 JAMES BOGARDUS, Design for a factory, 1856, showin the resistance of ‘east iro 191 110. JAMES BOGARDUS. Harper & Brothers’ Building, New York, 1851, Courtesy of Harper & Brothers 195 U1. JAMES BOGARDUS. Project for the New York World's Fair, 1853. From and CR. Goodrich, The World af Science, Art and Industry 196 ne. font, Cast-iron front of 528-5 h First Street, 6. 1870-71 Courtesy of the United States Department of the Interior 200 AIS, St. Louis, river front, Cast-iron front of Gantt Building, 219-221 Chestaut 3, Fagade dating from 187 ile States Department oft 111, JULES SAULNIER. Menier Chocolate Works, Noisiel-sur-Marne, 1871-72 Tron skeleton 115, JULES SAULNIER, Menier Chocolate Worhs, Noisiel- sur View WILLIAM LE BARON JENNEY, Home [nsw 85. Courtesy of the Chicago Historical Society ELISHA, GRAVES OTIS. The world’s first sate elevator, 1853 LISHA GRAVES OTIS. Passonizer elevator at the time of the Civil War Company, Chica fel Tower, elevator to the fi fora, 1839) HENRI LABROUSTE. Libcary'of Sainte-CGenevidve, Paris, 1813-50. through the reading rosin wrought-iron framework of the e HENRT LABROUSTE. te-Genevidve, Paris, MEL5t HENRI LABIROUSTE Paris, L51)-6il. Reading room HENRI LABROLSI + Pati | plan HENBI EABROUSTE: Nationale, Paris, ks Photo. Giedion 222, HENRI LABROUSTE, Bibliothtque Nationale, Pais, 18 The stacks, Light pouring through gridiron floor. Photo. Gic 223 xy160. 16 162. tos. lot. 6s 166. 167 168. 169. xvi HENRI LABROUSTE. Bibliothéque N: iron floor und banisters, Photo, —Giedion HENRI LABROUSTE, Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, 1850-68, Glass wall between the stacks and reading room. Photo. Giedion Glass wall of the Garage Rue Marbovuf, Paris, 1929, Photo, Gied Market Hall of the Madelcine, Paris, 121 ford Fish Market, London. Motal roof, 1835 DR-RALTARD. Halles Centrales, Paris. Interior. Begun 1853 HECTOR HOREAU. Project for the Grandes Halles, 1819 EUGENE FLACHAT. Project for the Grandes Halles, 1849 Washington Stores, New York City, 1815, Courtesy of the Museum of the City of New York Oak Hall, Boston, e. 1850 Broorne Street, New York, 185 John Wanamaker Store. Philadelphia, 1876. Courtesy of John Wanamaker, Ine. EIEFE BOILEAU, Bon Marché, Paris, 1876, Interior, iron. brides, Photo. jon EIFFEL and BOILEAU, Bon Marché, Paris, 1876, Ground plan EIFFEL and BOILEAU, Bou Marché, Paris, 1876, Glass roof over skylight Photo, Chevei Winter Gardin and Assembly Hoom, P From L'Illustration, 1818 First Industrial Exposition, Champ-de- Mars, Paris, 1 I Palace, London, 1851. General view. Lithograph, lon Ulustrated Crystal Palace, La Crystal Pal The male, ‘The stacks. Detail of grid m Mighty From The Illustrated Exhibitor ‘denhan. Interior. Photo. Giedion popular sculpture of 1831 OI HORE AU. First prize in the competition for the Ceystal Palace, 1850 Crystal Palnee, London, Interior. Etching. British Crown Capsright. Photo, Victoria and Albert Museum, London J.M.W. TURNER, Simplon Pass. Water color, ©, 1910, Courtesy of the Fogg, Art Museum Litho: ernnational raph by J. Aro fernational Esti 1 Tho Hall of Mac Popular sculptar: Terselle de INGT Hlusirée Plat Fromm L'Mlastration, Journal Unirerset Is 167. From L'Exposition Uni Lave af th Ww. From Eugene Rimmel, Mecol 1868) International Exhibition, Paris, 1 Ieelions of the Paris Ezhibition (P MANET. "View of the Bs Oil, Photo. Dew International: Exhibition 167. Seetion of the galleries of the mai building. From 1’ Exposition Universelle de 1867 Ilasiree nal Exhibition, Paris, 1867. Galerie dex Machines, povilion Universelle de 1867 Llustrée I Exhibition, Paris, 1878 Main entrance, “Photo. Chovojon I Exhibition, Paris, 1873. Section and perspective of the Galerie terior. Fron ‘des Mac n, Paris, 1889, Galerie des Machines. Phot Paris, 16, Tease of the three-hinged arch, Chevojon Internati EDGAR DEGAS. “The Dancer.” Formerly in the collection of Samuel i889. Tableau de M. Wertheimer. Mustrée ctinn gondoliers From Le Courrier de U Expositio World's Fair, Chieago, 1005. V International E Paria, 1867, Iron skeleton, Magasin pillonesque, 1866 G.EIFREL. the Douro, 1875. Original sketeh, P ELEFEL Viaduct, 1880-01, Photo, Eiffel Garabit Viaduct! Detail of abutment. Photo. Ei Decorative arch of the Eiffel Tower, 1889. Photo, A pier of the Eiffel Tower. Photo. Giedion staircases between first and second floors of the Ei Eiffel Tower. View from the second platform to the first. Photo. RORERT DELAUNEY. Eiffel Tower, 1910, Photo, Kunstsammlung, Basel ARNODIN. Ferry Bridge in the Views Port™ of Manse Photo. Giedion ARNODIN. Ferry Bridge, Marseilles, View from upper platform to suspended Ferry. Photo, Giedion OS S88 82 8 BB 8 SER BOY BBBEE Se Be BR asARNODIN. Ferry Bridge, Marseilles, 1905. Photo, VICTOR HORTA. 12 Bue de Turin, Bruscels, 1893 VICTOR HORTA. 12 Rue de Turin, Bpissels. Plan St. Louis, river front, 109 TL1 North First Street, 100 of 1850. United States Department of the Interior 180. VICTOR HORTA, 12 Bue de Turin, Brussels, Teo Strap-iron ornaments on the & Maison du Peuple, Brussels, 1897, Exterio VICTOR HORTA, Maison du Peuple, Beussils, 1897, Second- and third-floor plane 805 18. H.P. BERLAGE. Stock Exchange, Amsterdam, 1898 1903. Wall treatment. Photo. 165. HH. RICHARDSON. Soyer Hall, Combridge, Massachusetts, 1878 186. Ho P. BERLAGE, Stock Exehange, Amsterdam, 1898-1903, Drawing Ii. HP. BERLAGE, Stock Exchange, Amsterdam, 1891 1903, Hall: treatment of wall. Phot ion 10. edion. olumin and staircase mseryaiory, Lacken, 1829 188. HP. BERLAGE, Stock Exchange, Amsterdam, 1898-1903. The great hall Photo, Giedion 312 189. OTTO WAGNER. Karlsplatz Station, Vienna, 1804, Detail 318 190, OTTO WAGNER. Savings Bank, Vi JL, OTTO WAGNER. Drawing for brid Vienna, 1906, 3 ANTONIO SANT? ELIA. Project for a subway, 1914. Different street levels, ‘apartment houses and elevators dystone Lighthouse. Residence, Bourg-la-Re BAUDOT. Saint-Jean d it.The hall 318 Subway, and different street levels, im ANATOLE DI Photo. Chesojo HARD, HAEFELI, and MALLLART, Queca Alexandra Sanatorium, Photo. E. Meerkimper 197, STE PERRI bis Rue Feauhlin, Paris, 1903. Photo, Cho 198, USTE PERRET, On the roof of 25 bis Rue Franklin 109, rE PERRI bis Rue Franklin, Plan 200. ERE Office on ground flo 201 RNIER jon, 1901-04 Project 202, American clacks, c. 1850 208 dards of American school furniture, 1819 204. Dlackemith's hammers, — Chic nd Atbert Museum, London h Crown Copyright. Photo, Vietoria Yale lock, Chicayo catalogue of 1877 iding bed, Philadelphia Exhibition, 1876 in elevator, Chicago, 1873. From The Land Owner, Chieawo, 182 Balloon-frame construction. From G. E. Woodward, Woodward's Co Homes (New York. 1869) mney 209, Si. Mary's Church, Chicago, 1833 210. Balloon frame. From W. FE. Bell, Carpentry Made Basy (1859) 811. Windsor chair. Photo. Giedion 212, KT NEUTRA. House Texas, 213, Old Larkin Building, Buffalo, 18 Larkin Company, Tne Bulfalo 2u4, aimbridge, Massachuset Clapboard wall Wharf warehouse, Boston, 1816, Photo. Gi y House, Concord, Vermont, 1832. Photo. cial Block, 110 Commercial Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 1856 cial Block, 110 Commercial Street, Boston, Massachusetts, From Boston Almanac. 1856 HLT. RICHARDSON. Marshall Field Wholesale Store, Chie House at 34 Chestnut Street, Salem, Massachusetts, 1821. Photo. FC. GARDNER. Anwrican kitehen, 1082, From Gardner, The Honse Thal Jill Built (New York, 12) 308 F.C. GARDNER. Country house, 1882. From Gardner, The House Thal Jill Built (New York, 182) 364 GARDNER, One-room house for an “old maid.” From Gardner Mlustrated Homes (Boston, 1875) 365 ‘The aeehitect and his spinster client, From Gardner, Mlustraled Homes (Boston 1875) 365 WILLIAM LE BARON JENNEY. First Leiter Building, Chieago, 1879. Courtesy of the Art Institute, Chicago 370Manh WILLIAM LE BARON Photo. Giedion TAM LE BARON JENNEY. The Fair Building tan Building, Chicago, 1891 ch £0, 1891. Photo, WILLIAM LE BARON JENNEY. The Faie Building, Chiengo, 1891 HOLABINDand ROCHE, Marqiictte Building, Chicago, 1894. Photo, HOLABIRD and ROCHE, Marquette Building, Chicazo, 1093, Plan of one story with undivided ollices oe 1z0 in the Novthern Hh WILLIAM LE BARON JE 1889. Photo, B. B. Ta LE CORBUSIER, "Maison Clarté, Ges BURNHAM AND COMPANY, — Reliance Buildi Randolph Street about 1891 er Building, Vani Buren Street, Chicago, eva, 1930 32. PI c to, “Tinster gv, 1894, | Photo, ROE, Project for a glass tower, 1921 LOUIS SULLIVAN. Carson, Pirie, Seott-and Company, department store, Chicago, 1109-1904. Photo. Fuermann LOUIS SULLIVAN. Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company department store Chicago, 1899-1004, Dota WALTER GROPIUS. Proje Chicago, 1923, Courtes FRANK LLOYD WHIGi GE, WOODWARD. ward, Suburban und Country Houses (New York, GE, WOODWARD. Crociform countey house, ex wanl, Suburban and Country Houses (New York. FIEANK LLOYD WRIGHT. Isabel Roberts RANK LLOYD WRIGHT. Isabel Roberts house, Pholo. Fucrmana FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT. Isabel Roberts house, Hi ‘Two-story living room, Photo, Fuermann FRANK LLOYD WIIGHT. Santop Houses, Ardmore, Py . 1939 Plan. Reproduced, by permission, from clrchilecliral Forum, August 1939 FRANK LLOYD WIGHT. -Suntop Houses, Ardmore, Pennsslvania, 1939. Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art, New York tral Park Casino, New York City, 1871. Courtesy of the Museum of the Sity of New York. Photo, Work Projects Administration AMIDE Montgomery, Wari & Company, Chicago, 1905. Photo, PRANK LLOYD WRIGHT.” Robie house, Woodlawn \v Photo. Furman FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT. Larkin Ad Details of eapitals of pillars. Photo. FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT. Tennis Club, River Forest, 1 of cement slabs. Photo. 1. 1, Tague FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, Resides PRANK a e, Astor Street, Chicago, 1893, lan of a erucilorm country house, 1873. From Wood- u BARDEN & MARTIN. Warchouse of, Photo. tion Build io ¥, Administration Buildiag ino, Wisconsin, 1938 39. Interior. Courtesy of S. C. Johnson and Son, PRANK LLOYD WRIGHT. Johnson Wax Company, Administration Building, 1938-39. Interior of cornice of glass tubing, outer wall, Courtesy of SC. Johnson and Son PICASSO. “Still Life Arensberg. Photo, BRAQUE.. Coll MONDIIAN MALEWITSCH. Architectonies, ¢. 1920 THEO VAN DORSBURG and ©. VAN EESTEREN. Scheme for a villa, 1923 WALTER GROPIUS, The Bauhaus, Dessau, 1926 BOCCIONI. “Bottle Exolying in Space,” 19L1-12 BALLA, “Speed,” 1913. Reproduced by permission of W. W. Norton and ‘Company, New York, from Moboly Nagy. The New Vision DGERTON. . Speed photograph of a tennis player, 1939 PICASSO." Guernica, MAILLART, “Warchow MAILLART. ©1914. From the colicetion of Me. and Mes, Walter C. oo Lath rom Cahiers d'Art, vol. VI rot ceiling in Europe 382 383, 3at BBS 387 390) 301 401 410. 413 116 at07 308. aio. au 312. 313 iedion 1933." Nir view. | Phe Salginntobel Bridge, Schwandbach-Briic 933. Slabs. Photo, Gi Schwandhach-Ririeke. Detail. Photo, Gieilion Rainbow Bridge near Carmel, Califor Gied MAILLART., - Bridge over the river 1 10a Photo. 456 MAILLART, Bridge over the river Arve near Genova, 193637. Photo. Boissonnas Gentye 459 MAIL Arve Bridge, 1936 87. Support and rvinforeoment of the support Photo. Giedion 160 MAILLART. Arve Bridge, 1936 37, Supports a = Photo, Giedion 461 Dipylon Vase, seventh century B.C. Detail, Reproduced from Buschor Griechische Vasenmuterei 101 MOHOLY-NAGY. Painting, 1924. Reproduced by permission of W. W Norton and Company, New York, ftom Mohioly-Naxy, The New Vision 162 ALVAR AALTO. Armehaic 162 FREYSSINET, Lovomotive sheds at Bagneus, near Paris, 1929, Photo, ivdion 462 MAILLART, Cement Hall, Swiss National Exhibition, Zurich, 1089 462 MAILLART. Cement Hall, Swiss National Exhibition, Zurich, 1939, Photo Wolf Tender 165 MAILLART. Bridge at Lachen, 1940. Photo. Wolf-Bender 163, MAILTART. Bridge at Lachen. ‘The joint of the arch 163 MAILLART. Bridge over the Sime, Berner Oberland, 1940) 108 MAILLART, Bridge at Lachen, 1910, Photo, Woll-Hender 169 MAILLART, Bridge oyer the Simme, 1940 169 Ihteenth contury. Colour-Print by Hol British M Japanese wooden bridge of the Published by the Testes of th WALTER GROPIUS, F: WALT OPIS. lory), Alfeld a.d. Leine, 1911 WALT OPTUS. Court clovation of the “ Fabrik,” Werkbund exhibition, 191, Photo, Schmalz ROPIUS. Spiral staircase on corner of the“ Fabrik,” Cologne, 1014 Schindla 182 I GROPIUS, Deutsche Werkbund exhibition, Paris, 1930. Club 181 IR GROPIUS, Project for an international academy of philosophical 1024 186 ER GROPIUS. ‘The Bauhaus, Desai, 1926. Air viow 188 S. ‘The Bauhaus, Desai, 1926, Plot plan 188 1911-12." Oil, Collection of Walter B, Chrysler, Jr. 190 OPIUS. The Bauhaus, Dessau, 1926, Corner of the workshop Photo. Moboly-Dessau 191 RGROPIUSand MARCEL BREUBR. Gropius’ own house in Lincoln, 1938, View from the south and ground plan 199 OPIUS and MARCEL BREUER. House in Wayland, Massa- Photo, 1 Pictor Sol i ity 1919-50, Plan of the whole comple, including the Commons, C Gropius 502 nimons building, with passuxe dhuate Center, Harvard University. ways, Photo. "Fred Stom inter, Harvard University. View of the Commons and detail of the toa dormitory, Photo, Fred Stone 508 Center, Harvard University. Grill Room, with wooden reliefs by Hans Photo. D. 1. Wright 505, REUTER, ‘The High Court of Justice, € CORBUSIER, Ferroconercte skeleton for a dwelling house, 1915, PORBUSIEK, “Still Life.” 1921. Oil SORBUSIER and P JEANNERET, Setilement houses at Pessac, near Bordeaux, 1926 313 ‘ORBUSIER and P.JEANNERET. Villa Savoie at Poissy, 1928-30 316 CORBUSIER aud PLJEANNERET, Villa Savoie, 1928-30. Cross section 516 LE CORBUSIER aud P. JEANNERET, Villa Savoie, 1928-30, View of ead 0! PORBUSIER and a of Nations Palace, Geneva311. LE CORBUSIER and P.JEANNERET. League of Nations Palace, 1027. Cross section of the Grande Salle 523 $15. LE CORBUSIER and P. JEANNERBT, League of Nations Sheltered, plitform-tike entrance ‘ 523 $16, LE CORBUSIER and P. JEANNER League of Nations Palace, 192 Administration Building Seerétarint général), rear view 524 317. LE CORBUSIER and P.JEANNERET Universi- faire, Paris, 1930-32. View and plan 520 BI, PICASSO. "Woman in an Armchair,"” 1998. Detail. Collretion of Mrs. Miérie Callery. Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art, New York 30 319. LE CORBUSIER. Project for exhibition at Lidxe, 1% 530, 320, LE CORBUSIER, Unité d’Habitation, Marseille, 194 Detail. PI Giedion st LE CORBUSIER, Unité «Habitation, Marseille, 1917-52. View, and cross Cross svetions by courtesy of Dr, HL Girsberger 535, E HOCH. Mother and Child, ©. 1650. Photo. F. Bruckmann, 5H SVAN DER ROHE. Project of a brick country house, 1923, Courtesy ‘of the Museum of Modern Art, New York 516, 424, MIES VAN DER ROHE. Brick country house, 1923, Ground plan. Courtesy nof Modern Art, New York 516 SVAN DER ROHE, German pavilion at the International Exhibition Barcelona, 1929 546 326, MIES VAN DER ROHE, Project of a concrete house, 1923. Courtesy of the: Museum of Modern Xet, New York aT MIES VAN DER ROHE, Co Exhibition, 1931 MIES VAN DER ROBE, Weissenbof settlement, St Now York Jssenhof settle nity house for a bachelor, Berlin Building Country house for a bae teurl, 1027. Photo. TI welor. Ground Plan © Museum af Modern Art, 330. W 31. W Stuttgart, 1927. Plan Shittgart, 1927. Photo, Dr, Lassen a Company, Stuttgart 882. Grotind Pl KBB. Steel Ske su. MI with its (wents-four buildings, 1940. 835. MIES VAN DER ROHE. 336, MIES VAN DER ROHE, Akademischer Verlag tite of Technol Bi id Metallurgy Building 1919, Northwest view. Photo, Illinois Institute of Technology 555, S87, MIES VAN DER ROHE, Mincrals and Metal Research Bi 1918, South view, Photo. Hedrich- Blessing 556 88. MIESVAN DER ROHE, Promontory Apartment, Chieago, 1949. Rast front. Detail of the entranee side 558, 330. Promontory Apartment, 199. Plan 558, $10. Promontory Apartment, 1919. East front. From Archilectural Forum. Photo. Hedrich-Blessing 559 SH. Promontory Apartinent, 1919. View from the lobby dividing the symmetrically built wings. Photo, "Hedrieh-Bli 560, $12. MIFS VAN DER ROME. Lake Shore Drive Apartments, 1951. Plan 502 33. MIES VAN DER ROHE,” Lake Shoe Drive Aparunents, 1951. Photo. Hedrich Bless 503 $11. Finland, transportation of wood, Photo. Pietinen 508 315, hibition of forestry and agriculture inthe 570 16, tare in the North Finland. Interior 317. ALVATU NATO. Orchestra platform for jubilee of Turku, 1920 MM ALVAR AALTO. Turwe-Suromat building, Taka, Printing room, 1928-30 HM. ALVAR ALTO, Building for the Turin-Senomal, Exterior, 1928-30. Photo, edion $50, ALVAR-AALTO, of patients” win $51. ALVAR AALTO, View of t ALVAR AALTO, | Tuberculosis Ss Paimio, 192993. View of the patients) rooms a I Photo, - Gustaf Velin $58. ALVAR AALTO, ‘Tuberculosis Sanatorium, Paimio, 1929-33. Ground plan S51, ALVAR AALTO, Viipuri Library, 1927 34. Undulating eciling of the lect hall Paimnio, 1929-93, Hest hall on top jo, South Finland, 1929-33 xxALYAR AALTO, Finnish Pavilion, World’s Fair, Now York, 1939, Undulating ‘wall jn the interior. Photo. Fara Stoller: Picior Finnish lakes and forests, Aulanko ALVABAALTO. Finnish Pavilion, World's Pair, New York, 1939. Gi ALVAR AALTO, Glass vases. Photo, Artek ALVAR AALTO. Dormitory (Baker House), Mass nology, 1947-49. Nir view. Courtesy of MALT. ALVATE AN AMLLT. Dormitory, 1947-49, Charles River front, with projection dining hall. Photo. “E. MELT. Dorm First floor plan, w ie ‘T, Dormitory. Lounge wit i basement dining hall Dormitory. Baleony lounge and stairway to din Dormitory. View from ath und plan Ihusetts Institute of Tech and projecting cory, ‘Throo-man study, with bunks to save AALTO. MAT. Dor Space ALVA, Sunila, 1927 39. Conveyors, factory, and granite blacks, Photo. ALVATUAALTO. Sunila 1. Warchouse, conveyors. Photo. Roos ALVAB AXLTO. Sunil 39. View toward theopen sea. Photo, Giedion ALVAR AALTO. Sunila, 1937-39 of factory and living quactors ALVAR ANLTO. Maicea, 1938-39, Exterior Photo. Welin ALVA Maire, 1938-39. ¢ phan ALVAR Maire, 1930-39, View toward the Finnish fireplace and drawing room. Photo. Wels ALVA AALTO, Mairea, 1938-39. Details of the staircase, Photo. Giedion ALVAR ALTO. Moirea, 1938-39. Staircase, drawing roon ALVAR ALTO. Project for an experimental town, 1940. Fi War Reconstruction: Rehonsing Resrarch in. Finland, 1p. 4 ALVARAALTO. Kauttia. Ground plan From Arkkitehti no. 1-2, 1948, ALVAR ANLTO. Kauttua. ‘Terraced houses, Photo. Gi ALVAR AALTO. Kauttua Terraced houses sh levels ALVAR AALTO. Oulu, 1913. Model. Photo. Gewerbeschule 2 ALVAR AALTO, Oulu, 1913. The city with the new eivie centers MERCIEM, Etching from Tablean de Parcs, Vi86 ries, gardens laid out by Lendtre. Engraving by Marietle Thue de Rivoli, Paris, ¢. 1825 PERCIER and FONTAINE, Elevation of a house on the Rue de Rivoli, 1806 Tue de Rivoli, view toward the Louvre, 140 WREN. Plan for the revonsituction of London, 1668. Rep sion, from Town Planning Revien, Mi n Aalto, Post on different laced, by permis: ‘Queen Square, Bloomsbury, Lo rtesy Albert €. Koch Grosvenor Square, Mayfair, in the early cighteenth British Crown Copyright|, Photo, Victoria and Albert Museu Square in the Bloomsbury district fosvenior Square, London, bezun oduced, by permission, from Defoe's A Tonr through London by Sic Mayson Becton and B, B. Chancellor (Bataford: London, 1929) Bloomsbury at the end of the eighteenth century. Part of the estates shown on a map of 175. Courtesy af the University of London Bloomsbury in 1828, Map of James Wyld engraved by N. R. Hewitt of the University of London Bloomsbury; air view of Russell, Hed Photo, Aerofilis Ltd Bedford Place, from Bloomsbury Square to Russell Square, Photo. Giedion bay distrsel, Woburs Giluert, row of houses, c Kensington, London, 1830-10, Air view. Photo, Aer JOHN NASH. Park Creseont, London, begun in 1812 JOHN NASH. ent to Bi by pen from Architectural Review, December U JOHN NASH. A terrace of Regent's Park, Enzravin Malvetio JOHN NASH. First project of the housing development in Rezent’s Park, 1812 Reproduced, by permission of the publishers, Allen and Unwin, Ld , from John sso, John Nash (London, 1935) Firming! Map of Paris by Napo The Of Be ied, Bloomsbury, and adjacent squares mn in 1300) 30, Phote. Giedia ns Ltd Park. Reproduced, Map by Aiphand Jacques, 1855 029 630. 633, 63 637 638, 639 639 ow. ots ou 650)405, 406. 407 4108: 109, 410, a 13, aut 5, 116, 417, 118. 439, a1 112 113, 45, 446. a7 a. 449, Michel, 1869 npératrice (Avenue Foch), 1862 hhard-Lenoir, 1861-63, Avenue de POpéra, from the Opéra to the Louvre and Grand staircase of the Tuileries, Lamperial Ball, 1860 ‘Trer-lifting machine for teanspl grown trees Place de la Concorde and Champs-Elysées. Air view, 1853) Hardy subtropical plants: Wigandi Bois de Boulogne, 183i it Bois de Vincennes, from Plateau de Gravelles, 157 64 House on the Boulevard Séhastopol, Paris, 1i60. Fagade and section House on the Boulevard Sebastopol. 1860... Plan of second, third, and fourt J.B. PAPWORTH. Scheme for “Rural ‘on the banks of the Oh “Hygeia,” 12 OTTO WAGNER fONY GARNIER, PONY GARNIER, rONY GARNIER TONY GARNIER, TONY GARNIER In staircases and roof gardens LE CORBUSIER. Settlement a Pess HP. BERLAGE, Plon of \msterdam South, 1902 French landscape gardening. 1869 HP. BERLAGE. Final plan for Amsterdam So Amsterdam South, North and South Aims KLM. Boulevard ichard-Lenoir, 1861-63 Anisterdam South, the Amsielkian Amsterdam South, the Amstellaan, — Apart Master plan for Amsterdam South, 1934 Amsterdam, master plan, distriet Bosch M. Amsterdam West, proposal f MERKELBACH and KARSTEN. Low-cost housing sctilement, Amsterdam West ("Het Westen” Photo. Giedion Changes of the mast ‘ative architects of “ Het Weste MERKELBACHL Low-cost housing settle “Het Westen.” Apartment with living room, two bedroorts for parents and children, kitehen, balcony, aud shower FL, OLMSTED, Overpans in Cent raph. Sarony, Major & Knapp Morritt Parkway, Connecticut, 1939. Photo, Meyers, Courtesy of the Park Departinent, Hartlord, Connecticut : Merritt Parkway, Connecticut, with overpass, holo, Giedion Randall's Island, closerteaf, with approach to Triborough Bridge, 1986, Courtesy of the Park Com New York Ci ‘The Pretzel,” intersection of Grand Central Parkwa Extension, Union Turnpike, Interboro Parkway, ani York City, 1936-27, Courtesy af the Park Commi West Side develop Henry Hudson Ps of the Park Co New York City WALTER S) Slablike block units, 1930) WALTER GROPIUS, Model for the settlement “Haselhorst,” Berlin, 1929) W.VAN THEN. Th Rotterdam, 1037-3 Apurtinent house at I { London, by the Tecton group, 1936-38. Photo, ‘Giedion Rue de Rivoli Noors 1901-04 rielle, O01 O1. Air view of houses and gardens Industrielle, 1901 04. Plas of a dwelling unit; terraces Industriclle, 1901 04. School, with open and covered mstrielle 1901-04. Ferroconerete houses with open Air view. Photo, at houses by de Klerk, 1923, | 1998 I Park, New York City, 1858, Litho- in open space near L cago, ©. 1920, Michiga nidat greenery: project for Buenos Aires, 1929 E CORBUSIER insalubre, na. 6." 193: LE CORBUSIER, no. 6." housing development Rockefeller Center, New York City. 1981 39. Airview. Photo, Thomas Airviows The slablike skyscraper: RC, A. Building, Rockefeller Center, New York, 1931 52, Photo, Wenlell Macfae R.C. A. Building, Rockefeller Center, Floor pl The towers of Asinelli and Garisenda, Bolo Photomontage of goll stxoke TOL a3 7part | HISTORY A PART OF LIFEHeinrich Walt. flin: contrasting periods Lale Baroque and omandic Classicism INTRODUCTION Unknown in the United States and using a language that is foreign to me, | must seek the shortest way to direct contact with an American public. The way of personal contact is always the shortest route to understanding, not merely in personal but in general matters. Let me begin then by saying a few words about where | come from and where | intend to go for these facts have a bearing upon the discussion that follows. As an art historian | am a disciple of Heinrich Wolfflin, In our personal contacts with him as well as through his distinguished lectures, we, his pupils, learned to grasp the spirit of an epoch. Wilfllin’s incisive analysis made clear to us the true meaning and significance of a painting or a piece of sculpture. Ile delighted in contrasting one period with another. He em- ployed this method most effectively both in his teaching and in his books —in his Renatssance and Baroque (1889), in Classical Art (1899), in which the fifteenth century is opposed to the sixteenth, and even in his Principles of Art (Kunst- geschichlliche Grundbegriffe, 1915), which had just appeared when I studied under him at Munich. Many of his pupils have tried to emulate this method of contrasting styles, but none have achieved the same depth and d clness. In my own first book. Lale Baroque and Romantic Classicism (Munich, 1922 . | tried to follow Wolfllin’s method. ‘The periods contrasted were the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, both periods of classicism. The Louis XVI style formed in shape and structure the end of late baroque tendencies, with classicism serving as ils framework. The classicism of the beginning of the nine- teenth century found its most significant outlet in that country of romantics, Germany. In the architecture of the time the trend toward an individualistic isolation of rooms from each’ it was in Gi written as a thes other was nowhere so strongly marked as rmany — in the work of K. F. Schinkel mple. s the true} architectural equivalent of the individualism of the romantic} poets. I called this period one of romantic classicism. Classicism in] both periods was only a coloring — a transitory fact, as | wouldsay now. The essential characteristic of this time was that, beneath the classic exterior, the baroque inheritance had begun to disintegrate and nineteenth-century tendencies had begun to appear. The problem which formed, where the roots of present-day thought lay buried This problem has fascinated me from the time I first became capable of reasoning about it until today. Heinrich Wolfflin was the pupil of Jakob Burckhardt, and succeeded him as professor at the University of Basle when he: was only twenty-seven years old. He later taught with great success at Berlin and Munich, W6lfflin always laid stress on the wide view taken by Jakob Burckhardt and often quoted Burekhardt's words not only in his lectures but also in con- yersation. Thus the Swiss historical tradition formed the bi of our instruction in the science of art. But [am afraid that many of us did not grasp the significance of Burckhardt — a significance which reached beyond his métier — until much later. Jakob Burekhardt (1818-1897) age of the Renaissance. He first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety. with regard not only for its painting, sculpture, and architecture but for the social institutions of its daily life as well. ascinated me was how our epoch had heen was the great discoverer of the Tshall mention only one book in this connection, his Civiliza- tion of ihe Renaissance, which first appeared in 1860. The English translation was produced in 1878. An extremely well- informed review of it appeared in the New York Herald for October 20, 1880. Burckhardt, who normally shrank from praise, was so pleased with this review that he wrote * Bravo!” at the bottom. In Civilization of the Renaissance Burckhardt. emphasized sources and records rather than his own opinions. He treated only fragments of the life of the period but treated them so skillfully that a picture of the whole forms in his readers’ minds. Jakob Burckhardt had no love for his own time: he saw during the forties an artificially constituted Europe which was on the Yerge of being overwhelmed by a flood of brutal forces. ‘The Jakob Burckhardt: the integral tre ment of a periodContemporary artists: significance for historical method South at that time appeared to have withdrawn from history ; for Burckhardt it had the quiet of a tomb. So it was to the South, to Italy, that he turned for refuge from all those things for which he felt hatred and disgust. But Burckhardt was a man of great vitality, and a man of vitality cannot entirely desert his own time. His flight to Italy produced the finest traveler's guide that has ever been written, his Cicerone (1855) —a book which has opened the eyes of four generations to the unique qualities of the Italian scene. His Civilization of the Renaissance aimed at an objective ordering of factual material, but in it his greatest efforts are devoted to uncovering the origins of the man of today. John Ruskin, Burckhardt’s immediate contemporary, also hated the age and sought to draw the means for its regeneration from other periods (though not those which preoccupied the Swiss historian). But T owe as large a debt to the artists of today as to these guides of my youth. It is they who have taught me to observe seriously objects which seemed unworthy of interest, or of interest only to specialists. Modern artists have shown that mere fragments lifted from the life of a period can reveal its habits and feelings: that one must have the courage to take small things and raise them to large dimensions. ‘These artists haye shown in their pictures that the furniture of daily life, the unnoticed articles that result from mass produc- tion —— spoons, bottles, glasses, all the things we look at hourly without seeing —have become parts of our natures. They have welded themselves into our lives without our knowing it. My activities have brought me into friendly contact with the architects of our day. We haye sat together in small groups about many tables in Europe, from Stockholm to Athens not to discuss problems in art or matters of specialized detail but to determine as elearly as possible what directions housing, town planning, or regional planning had to take. This close and continual contact granted me the privilege of seeing architectural problems in their nascent state.IRIAN’S RELATION TO HIS AG THE H The historian, the historian of architecture especially, must be in close contact with contemporary conceptions. Only when he is permeated by the spirit of his own time is he y ' y i prepared to detect those tracts of the past which previous generations haye overlooked. Hlistory is not static but dynamic. No generation is privileged to grasp a work of art from all sides; each actively living generation discovers new aspects of it. But these new aspects will not be discovered unless the historian shows in his field the courage and energy which artists have displayed in their use of methods developed in their own epoch. Architects have imitated other periods, taken over their special shapes and techniques, in the hope of eseaping from transitory work and achieving a timeless rightness. And after a short time their buildings have become lifeless masses of stone, in spite of the incorporation into them of details from works of eternal beauty. ‘These men possessed the exact contrary of the “Midas touch” — everything they put their hands on turned to dust rather than to gold. Today we can see why. History is not simply the repository of unchanging facts, but a process, a pattern of living and changing attitudes and interpretations. As such, it is deeply a part of our own natures. To turn back- ward to a past age is not just to inspect it, to find a pattern which will be the same for all comers. The backward look transforms its object; every spectator at every period al every moment, indeed — inevitably transforms the past according to his own nature. Absolute points of reference « no more open to the historian than they are to the physicist; both produce descriptions relative to a particular situation. Likewise there are no absolute standards in the arts: the nine {eenth-century painters and architects who thought certain forms were valid for every age were mistaken. History cannot be touched without changing it. The painters of our period have formulated a different attitude: lo speltatore nel centro del quadro. ‘The observer must be placed in the middle of the painting, not at some isolated The historian and contemporary conceptions History dynamic rather than static History is cha When touchedThe historian’s relation to the present observation point outside. Modern art, like modern science, recognizes the fact that observation and what is observed form one complex situation — to observe something is to act upon and alter it Historians quite generally distrust absorption into contempo- rary ways of thinking and feeling as a menace to their scientifie detachment, dignity, and breadth of outlook. But one ean be thoroughly the creature of one’s own period, embued with its methods, without sacrificing these quali Indeed, the historian in every field must be united with his own time by as widespread a system of roots as possible. The world of history. like the world of nature, explains itself only to those who ask the right questions, raise the right problems. The his- torian must be intimately a part of his own period to know what questions concerning the past are significant to it. Apart from this approach, history remains a wilderness of blank happenings in which no creative work is possible. Only dead chronologies and limited special studies will be produced, The historian detached from the life of his own time writes irrelevant history, deals in frozen facts. But it is his unique and nontransferable task to uncover for his own age its al interrelationships with the past. The historian cannot in actual fact detach himself from the life about him; he, too, stands in the stream. The ideal his- torian — out of the press of affairs. au-dessus de la mélée, sur- veying all Lime and all existence from a lofty pedestal — is a fiction. The historian, like every other man, is the creature of his time and draws from it both his powers and his weaknesses. By virtue of his calling he may survey a larger circle of events than his average contemporary, but this does not lift him out of his own historical setting. It is even to his advantage to be forced from his ac ionally and made to participate in the common struggles of the moment. For direct contact with li nd its necessities sharpens his abilities to penetrate the jungle of printed records to the unfalsitied voices of the real actors. It is the task of the his | its disguises. demic chair oc orian to recognize the truth through