Analytical Geometry Notes - MATHS 132 - REVISED-1-1

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MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 1 OF 171

EGERTON UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING
THE E-CAMPUS
E-LEARNING COURSE
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
By
Onyango Lawrence Omondi, Dr. Njenga and Mr. Obonyo
September, 2020
_________________________________________________________
MAIN INFORMATION PAGE

COURSE PRELIMINARIES
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Is this course for you?
This course is compulsory for first year students taking mathematics as a

subject in the Faculties of; Education, Science and Arts. The learners are
expected to complete the course in 45 hours within a period of one
semester. During the course, the learners will take two continuous
assessment tests, averaging to 30% and one final examination marked out
of 70%.
Introduction to the course
This course gives the basic information on the mathematical operations of

geometry and their application in real life situation. The course involves the
application of geometry in finding: equation of a straight line, distance
between two points in a plane, equations and applications of various conics,
vectors and its applications, complex numbers and finally, polar coordinates.
It contains problems at the end of every topic and you will be expected to
solve homework problems by looking back through the notes and finding
similar examples.
Course Content

There are TEN (10) topics in this course, namely:
Topic One: Coordinate Geometry
Topic Two: Equation of a Straight line
Topic Three: Equation of a Circle
Topic Four: Equation of a Parabola
Topic Five: Equation of an Ellipse
Topic Six: Equation of Hyperbola
Topic Seven: Vector Operations
Topic Eight: Vector and Cartesian Equation of a Line
Topic Nine: Vector and Cartesian Equation of a Plane
Course Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
i. Locate a point on the plane
ii. Calculate the distance between two points on the line
iii. Find the equation of a line
iv. Find the slope of a line given two points on the line
v. Calculate the angle of inclination of a line
vi. Define a circle
vii. Derive the equation of a circle
viii. Find center and radius given the equation of a circle
ix. Find equation of a circle given three points on it
x. Convert the general form of the equation of a circle to standard form
xi. Define an ellipse.
xii. Derive the equation of an ellipse.
xiii. Write equations of ellipses centered at the origin.
xiv. Write equations of ellipses not centered at the origin.

xv. Identify the center, foci, vertices, and endpoints of major axis of an
ellipse given its equation.
xvi. Define a parabola
xvii. Derive the equation of a parabola
xviii. Determine the equation of a parabola given focus and vertex
xix. Determine the equation of a parabola given directrix and vertex or
focus.
xx. Find equation of parabola given its graph.
xxi. Define a hyperbola
xxii. Derive the equation of a hyperbola
xxiii. Identify the center, foci, and vertices
xxiv. Identify the transverse axis and conjugate axis
xxv. Write the equations of the asymptotes
xxvi. Be able to sketch the graph of a hyperbola
xxvii. Add and subtract vectors
xxviii. Find the magnitude of a vector
xxix. Find the unit vector of a vector
xxx. Find dot product
xxxi. Apply dot product in mechanics
xxxii. Find cross product
xxxiii. Apply cross product in mechanics and surfaces
xxxiv. Find the vector equation of a line
xxxv. Find the Cartesian equation of a line
xxxvi. Find the vector equation of a plane
xxxvii. Find the Cartesian equation of a plane
Course Study Skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from

your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have
professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely

be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to time
management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also
need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with
exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space, that is, the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in
that learning.
We recommend that you take time now - before starting your self-study - to
familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent
resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The "How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will
find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study
place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books, using reference
sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will
find links to time scheduling (including a "where does time go?” link), a
study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques, control of the study
environment, note taking, how to read essays for analysis, and memory
skills ("remembering”).

http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
This is another "How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing ("hands-on” learning), memory building, tips
for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
Need Help?
This course was developed in May 2020 by Dr. Onyango Lawrence, Phone:
+254724568890; Email: lonyango@egerton.ac.ke. Dr. Onyango is a
Lecturer ofApplied Mathematics in the Department of Mathematics at
Egerton University.
This session, the instructors for this course are Dr. Onyango Lawrence, Dr.
Njenga, Dr. Ogada and Mr. Obonyo. Our offices are located in the
Department of Mathematics in the New Physics Laboratory (N.P.L Block).
You may consult us during the normal working hours between Monday and
Friday.
For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please contact
tech-support via e-mail elearning@egerton.ac.ke. You can also reach learner
support through elearnersupport@egerton.ac.ke.
Assignments/Activities

Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some
assignments/activities will require submission while others will be self-
assessments that do not require submission. Ensure you carefully check
which assignment require submission and those that do not.
Course Learning Requirements
 Timely submission of the assignments

 2 CATs (30%)
 Final Examination (70% of total score)
 Calculator, Ruler and a Pen
Self-assessment
Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the

topic and course content. While they may not be graded, you are strongly
advised to attempt them whenever they are available in a topic.

TOPIC ONE: FUNCTIONS
Introduction
This topic introduces the Cartesian coordinates and its applications in the
real world situation.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [2 hours]
 Total student input [5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Solving problems given under activities
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Locate a point on the plane

ii) Calculate the distance between two points on the line
iii) Find the equation of a line
iv) Find the slope of a line given two points on the line
v) Calculate the angle of inclination of a line

Topic Content
1.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATES
In order to determine the position of a point in the plane, we establish a one

to one correspondence between the points on the plane and ordered pairs of
real numbers. We select an horizontal line in the plane; this line extending
indefinitely to the left and to the right, is called the X- axis and a vertical line
extending indefinitely up and down is also chosen, called the Y – axis as
shown in fig 1a below
Y axis
y . P(x , y)
x X −axis
O (0, 0)
Fig . 1 a
The point of intersection of the X and Y axes is called the origin. It is

denoted by O and its coordinate is given as O (0, 0). A point P on the plane
is identified by the ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y). The distance of P
from the Y- axis is called the abscissa of P and is given by X. The distance
of P from the X- axis is called the ordinate of P and is given by Y. The
abscissa and ordinate of a point P are called the Rectangular Cartesian
Coordinate of a point P.
The two axes divide the plane in four equal parts called quadrants. In the
first quadrant, both abscissa and ordinate are positive, in the second
quadrant the abscissa is negative and the ordinate is positive. In the third
quadrant both abscissa and ordinate are negative and in the fourth quadrant
the abscissa is positive and ordinate negative as shown in fig 1b
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 10 OF

171
2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant
(-x, y) (x, y)
3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

(-x, -y) (x, -y)
Fig .1 b
1.2. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE
If A is point on the plane with coordinates A(x 1, y1) and B is another point
on the same plane with its coordinates given as B(x 2, y1), that is both A
and B have the same ordinate but different abscissa, then the
distance between point A and B is given by x2 – x1.
Examples:
a) If A(3, 4) and B(9, 4), find the distance between the points A and
B.
Solution
The distance between A and B is given by 9 – 3 = 6 units
b) If A(-8, 0) and B(x, 0), find x if the distance between A and B is 14

units’
Solution
The distance between A and B is x – (-8) = 14
x + 8 = 14
x = 14 – 8
=6
If C is a point on the plane whose coordinate is given as C(x 1, y1) and D is
another point on the same plane whose coordinates is given by D(x 1, y2),
then the distance between the points C and D is given by y 2 – y1. Here C and
D share same abscissa but different ordinates.
Examples:
a) If C(1, -2) and D(1, -8), find the distance between C and D.
Solution
The distance between C and D is given by (-8) – (-2) = - 6 units.
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b) If C(-2, -3) and D(-2, y), find y if the distance between C and D is
7units
Solution
The distance between C and D is y – (-3) = 7
y+3 = 7
y=7–3
=4
If a particle moves from a point A to a point B where the abscissa of the

particle changes from (x1, y) to (x2, y), then the change in abscissa is
denoted as∆ x=x 2−x 1.
Similarly, a particle moving along a line parallel to y axis from (x, y 1) to (x,
y2) has its change in ordinate given as ∆ y = y 2− y 1 and if P (x1, y1) and Q (x2,
y2) are two different points on the plane as shown in figure 1c below.
Q¿
P ¿y1¿ R ¿)
Fig . 1 c
Distance PR is given as ∆ x=x 2−x 1 and the distance RQ is given as∆ y = y 2− y 1.

By using Pythagoras theorem, distance PQ can be expressed as
|PQ|= √ ∆ x2 + ∆ y 2, which is the same as, distance|PQ|= √( x 2−x 1 ) + ( y 2− y1 ) .
2 2

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Examples
a) Calculate the distance between point A(9, 4) and point B(12, 18)
Solution
Distance AB = √ ( 12−9 )2+ ( 18−4 )2

= √ 32 +142
=√ 205
= 14.318 units
b) The abscissa of a point is - 6 and its distance from point (1 , 3) is√ 74,
find the ordinate of the point.
Solution
Let the two points have the coordinates¿) and(1 , 3) .
Given that the distance between the two points is√ 74 , then,
√ 74=√ (−6−1 ) + ( y −3 ) . . . (i)
2 2
Squaring both sides of (i), we get

2 2
74=(−7) +( y−3)
= 49 + y2 – 6y + 9
= y2 - 6y + 58
0 = y2 -6y – 16
= y(y -8) +2(y -8)
y = 8 or y = -2
c) Given that the distance of the line segment joining the points A(x , 9)
and B(6 , 21) is 13 units. Find the possible values of x
Solution
The distance between the points A(x, 9) and B(6, 21) is 13
13=√ ( 6−x ) + ( 21−9 ) . . .

2 2
(i)
Squaring both sides we get
2
169= x −12 x +36+144
2
¿ x – 12 x +180
2
0=x – 12 x +11
x (x−11)−1( x−11)=0
x=1∨x =11

171
d) If a point P(x, y) is such that its distance from A (3, 2) is always
twice its distance from B (-4, 1), find an equation that the
coordinates of P must satisfy.
Solution
From the statement of the problem,

|PA|=2|PB|, then
√ ( x−3 ) +( y−2 )
2
= 2 √ ( x + 4 )2 + ( y−1 )2
2
Squaring both sides, we get

x2 – 6x +9 + y2 – 4y +4 = 4(x2 +8x +16 +y2 -2y + 1)
or 3x 2 + 3y2 + 38x – 4y + 55 = 0, which is the required
equation.
e) Using distance formula, show that a triangle with vertices A(-2, 4),
B(-5, 1) and
C (-6, 5) is an isosceles triangle.
Solution
The length of sides,

AB = √ (−5+ 2)2 +( 1−4 )2 = √ 18
BC = √ (−6+5)2+(5−1)2 = √ 17
AC = √(−6+2)2+(5−4)2 = √ 17
Therefore we can see clearly that side AC = side BC, hence triangle
ABC is an isosceles triangle.
f) Prove analytically that the lengths of diagonals of a rectangle are

equal,
Solution
Draw the general rectangle. Since we may choose the coordinate axes
anywhere in the plane, and since the position of the axes does not affect the
truth of the theorem, we take the origin as one vertex, the x – axis along
one side and the y – axis along another side. This simplify the coordinates
of the two vertices on the two axes as shown in figure 1d below

171
Y -axis
C (0, b) B (a, b)
O (0, 0) A (a, 0)
X-axis
Fig . 1 d
We want to prove that the diagonals OB = AC.
Proof
OB =√ (a−0)2 +(b−0)2 = √ a2 +b 2
CA = √ (0−a)2 +(b−0)2 = √ a2 +b 2
Since length OB = length CA, the diagonals are

equal
Problem set 1.1
1. Find the distance between the two points given below

171
i) A(1, -2) and B(6, 8)
ii) P(3, -6) and Q( 7, 12)
iii) S(0, 4) and R(-5, 8)
2. Using distance formula, prove that a triangle with vertices A (3, -6), B
(8, -2) and
C (-1, -1) is a right angled triangle. Find its area.
3. The distance between points C (9, y) and T (15, 3) is 10 units. Find
possible values of y
4. Prove analytically that the lengths of the diagonals of a square are
equal
5. If the two vertices of an equilateral triangle are (-4, 3) and (0, 0), find
the third vertex
6. Find an equation that must be satisfied by the coordinates of any
point whose distance from the point (5, 3) is always two units greater
than its distance from the point (-4, -2)
1.3 SLOPE
Definition of Slope
Consider a particle moving along a non-vertical line segment from a point

P1(x1, y1) to a point P2(x2, y2). The vertical change y2 – y1 is called the rise,
and the horizontal change x2 – x1 the run.
y2 P2 (x 2 , y 2 )
(RISE)
x 2−x 1
y1
RUN
x1 x2
Fig. 1e
Definition
This is the rate at which an ordinate of a point of a line on a Cartesian plane

changes with respect to a change in the abscissa, that is, if P1(x1, y1) and
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P2(x2, y2) are points on a non-vertical line, then the slope m of the line is
defined by :
y 2− y 1 ∆y Change∈ y coordinates
m= , that is , which is
x 2−x 1 ∆x Change∈ x coordinates
Examples
a) Find the slope of the line passing through the points P 1(2, 3) and P2(4,
7)
Solution
7−3
m= =2
4−2
b) A line l passing through the points A (3, 6) and B (4, y) has its slope
equal to ¾, find the value of y.
Solution
y−6 3
m= =
4−3 4
4y – 24 = 3
y = 27/4
Note that, a line l whose slope is zero is an horizontal line parallel to the x –
axis and a line whose slope is undefined is a vertical line parallel to the y –
axis as shown below,
y -axis y-axis line l2, m is undefined
Line l1, m = 0
x -axis x -axis
Fig . 1 f

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1.4 ANGLE OF INCLINATION
The angle of inclination of a straight line is the angle that the line makes
with the x-axis, with the angle being measured anti-clockwise. Example, in
the diagram below, angle θ and angle ∅ are the angles of inclination.
Y Y
∅
θ
X X
Fig . 1 g shows angles of inclination
If a line has a slope given as m, and angle of inclination θ then, tan θ = m,

which is the slope of the line. The angle of inclination of a line parallel to x –
axis is 0 ° and the angle of inclination of a line parallel to the y – axis is 90 ° . If
θ denotes the angle of inclination of any line then θ may be any angle in the
interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 180.
Theorem

171
If θ is the angle of inclination of line l, not parallel to the y – axis then the
slope m of l is given as
m = tan θ
Proof
Let P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) be any two distinct points on line l, considering
three different cases we have:
Case 1, y 1 < y 2.
Drawing a line through P1 and P2
y - axis
P1(x2, y2)
∆y
P1(x1, y1) θ
θ ∆x
θ
θ x - axis
1. g , slope of a line
y 2− y Δy
m= 1
=
x 2−x 1 Δx
Δy
From definition of tangent, anθ= , therefore, tanθ=m .
Δx
y 1− y y2− y
Case 2, If we interchange P1 and P2, thenm= =
2 1
=m, therefore
x 1−x 2 x 2−x 1
tanθ=m
Case 3, if y 1= y 2 , then m = 0 givingθ=0. Therefore,tanθ=0 this implies that

there is no angle of inclination that is the gradient of a horizontal line.

171
Examples
a) Find the angle of inclination of a line passing through the points A(4,
8) and B(6, 15).
Solution
15−8 7
m= = ,
6−2 2
Therefore the angle of inclination is tan

−1 7
2 ()
= 74.055°
b) The angle of inclination of a line passing through (2, y) and (6, 5) is

135 . Find the value of y.
°
Solution
y−5 y−5
m= = ,
2−6 −4
° °
tan135 =tan(180−135)
°
¿−tan 45
= -1
y−5
Hence we have =−1
−4
y–5=4
y=9
Problem set 1.2
1. Find the slope and angle of inclination of a line through the given
points
i) (2, 3) and (5, 8)
ii) (a, a) and (-a, 2a)
ii) (-1, 4) and (4, 2)
2. A line through the points A(x, 4) and B (8, 6) has its angle of
inclination given as33.7° , find the value of x.
3. A line through the points A (2, 4) and B (6, y) has its angle of
inclination given as153.43° , find the value of y.
1.5 Angle between Two Lines

171
If two lines intersect, two angles are formed at their points of intersection,
the two angles being supplementary angles as shown in fig. 1h below
Y- axis
L2 L1
θ❑
α2
α1
α1 α2
X-axis
fig .1 h , angle between two intersecting lines

171
To distinguish these two angles, we let l2 to be the line with a greater angle
of inclination α 2 and l1 be the line with a smaller angle of inclination α 1. Then
the angle θ is defined by
θ=α 2−¿ α ¿
1
If l1 and l2 are parallel lines then α 2=α 1 and the angle between them is 0° .
Thus if l1 and l2 are two distinct lines then the angle between them ranges
from 0° ≤ θ ≤180 °
Theorem
If l1 and l2 are two intersecting non-perpendicular lines with slopes m1 and

m2 respectively with l2 having a greater inclination then,
m2−m
tanθ= 1
1+m1 m2
Proof
Given that θ=α 2−¿ α ¿ . . . . (i)

1
Taking tangent on both sides of (i), we get

tanθ=tan ⁡¿. . . (ii)
By trigonometric expansion of tangent, (ii) becomes
tan α 2−tan α 1
tanθ=
1+tan α 2 tan α 1 α
m2−¿ m
¿ ¿
1
1+ m2 m1
Note that this formula does apply when 1 + m2m1 = 0, this implies that
m2m1 = -1 hence the two lines are perpendicular and the angle between
them is 90° whose tangent is undefined.
Examples
a) Find both the acute and obtuse angles between the two lines that have
1
their slopes as m1= and m2 = 2
2
Solution:
171
1
2−
2
tanθ=
1+
1
2 ()
2
3
=
4
= 0.75
−1
θ=tan ( 0.75 )
= 36.87°
NOTE: To find the obtuse angle between the two lines, just subtract the
acute angle between them from 180 ° that is
Obtuse angle =(180−36.87)°

=143.13°
b). Find to two significant figures the interior angles of a triangle with
vertices A(-2, 1),
B(2, 2) and C(-3, 4).
Solution
Sketching the triangle
B (2, 2)
C (-3, 4) β
δ
A (-2, 2)

171
4−2 −2
The slope of line CB is =
−3−2 5
4−1
The slope of line CA is =−3
−3+2
1−2 1
The slope of line AB is =
−2−2 4
2
−3+
5
tanβ =
2
1+3( )
5
=-
1.8182
−1
β=tan (−1.8182)
= 50°
1
−3−
4
tanα=
1
1−3 ( )
4
=-
13
−1
α =tan (−13)
= 94 °
The remaining angle is given as 180° −(94+50)°
=36°
Problem Set 1.3
1. Find the acute angle between the two lines that have m1 = 3 and m2 = 7
as their slopes.
2. Find the acute angle between two lines whose slopes are m1 = 0 and m2
= 1. (m1 = 0 signifies that line L, is horizontal and the formula still
holds.)
3. Find the acute angle between the y -axis and a line with a slope of m = -
8.
4. Find the obtuse angle between the x -axis and a line with a slope of m =
- 8.
1.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

171
The general equation of a straight line is often written with capital letters for
coefficients, as follows: Ax+ By+ C=0
These literal coefficients, as they are called, represent the numerical
coefficients encountered in a typical linear equation.
Suppose we are given two equations that are duplicates except for the
constant term, as follows: Ax+ By+ C=0
Ax+ By+ D=0
By placing these two equations in slope-intercept form, we can show that
their slopes are equal, as follows: y=− ( ) ( )

A
B
x+
−C
B
y=− ( AB ) x+( −DB )

Thus, the slope of each line is -A/B. We then see that Parallel lines have
equal slopes.
Since the two lines above are parallel, we can also say that, for any two
linear equations, if the coefficients of the x and y terms are identical in value
and sign, then the lines represented by these equations are parallel.
Example:
Write the equation of a line parallel to 3 x− y−2=0 and passing through the
point (5, 2).
Solution:
The coefficients of x and y in the desired equation are the same as those in
the given equation. Therefore, the equation is 3 x− y + D=0
Since the line passes through (5, 2), the values x=5 and y=2 must satisfy
the above equation. Substituting these, we have3 ( 5 )− (2 )+ D=0, giving D=13
Thus, the required equation is3 x− y−13=0.
Alternatively, we can find the slope of the given line as y=3 x−13 , giving the
slope as 3.
We then find the equation of the required line by using a point (x , y ) and the
given point (5 , 2)
y−2
as =3, giving as y=3 x−13
x−5
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A situation similar to that prevailing with parallel lines involves
perpendicular lines. For example, consider the equations Ax+ By+ C=0 and
Bx−Ay + D=0
Writing these equations into the slope-intercept form, we have:

y=
−A
( ) ( )
B
x+
−C
B
y=( ) x+ ( )
B D
A A
Since the slopes of these two lines are negative reciprocals, the lines are
perpendicular. In other words, we say that two lines are perpendicular if the
product of their slopes gives -1 (negative one)
Example:
Write the equation of a line perpendicular to the line x + 3y + 3 = 0 and

having a y intercept of5.
Solution:
The required equation is of the form 3 x− y + D=0

Notice the interchange of coefficients and the change of sign. At the point
where the line crosses the Y axis, the value of x is 0 and the value of y is 5.
Therefore, the equation is3(0)−(5)+ D=0, giving D to be 5. Therefore the
required equation is 3 x− y +5=0
Alternatively, as we did with parallel lines, we can find the slope of the
given line as
−x
y= −1, then the slope of a line perpendicular to this line is 3, and then
3
y−5
the equation is given as =3, giving the required equation as 3 x− y +5=0.
x−0
(Note, at the y- intercept the x coordinate is equal to 0)

171
Problem set 1.4:
1. Find the equations of the following lines:

i) passing through (1, 1) and parallel to 5x - 3y = 9.
ii) passing through (-3, 2) and perpendicular to x + y = 5.
2. A line passing through the points (2, 5) and (x, 10) is perpendicular to a
line whose gradient is – 2/5, find the value of x
3. The angle of inclination of undirected line is 120 . If the line passes

through point (2, 5), find the equation of the line.
Topic two: Equations of a Straight Line
Introduction

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This topic introduces the Cartesian coordinates and its applications in the
real world situation.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Define the slope of a line

ii) Find the equation of a line given two points
iii) Express the equation of a line in slope- intercept form
iv) Calculate the shortest distance between a point and a line
v) Express the equation of a line in normal form
2.0. Introduction

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Equations such as 2 x+ y=6 are designated as linear equation and their
graphs are shown to be straight lines. The purpose of this discussion is to
study the relationship of slope to the equation of a straight line.
Point-Slope Form
Suppose that we want to find the equation of a straight line that passes
through a known point and has a known slope. Let (x, y) represent the
coordinates of any point on the line, and let ( x 1 , y 1) represent the coordinates
of the known point. The slope is represented by m.
Recalling the formula defining slope in terms of the coordinates of two

points, we have
y− y 1
m=
x−x 1
Therefore y− y 1=m(x−x 1)
Example:
Find the equation of a line passing through the point (2, 3) and having a
slope of 3.
Solution:
x 1=2 and y 1=3

y− y=m(x−x 1)
Therefore y−3=3(x −2)❑

y−3=3 x−6❑
or y−3 x=−3
The point-slope form may be used to find the equation of a line through
two known points. The values of x 1 , x 2 , y 1and y 2are first used to find the slope
of the line; then either known point is used with the slope in the point-slope
form.
Example 2.1
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Find the equation of the line through the points (-3 4) and (4, -2).
Solution:
y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1
−2−4 −6
¿ =
4 +3 7
Letting (x, y) represent any point on the line and using (- 3, 4), then
−6
y−4=
7
[ x−(−3 ) ]
7 ( y−4 )=−6( x+3)
7 y−28=−6 x−18
7 y +6 x=10
Using (4, - 2) as the known point will also give 7y + 6x = 10 as the linear
equation.
2.1. Slope-Intercept Form
Any line that is not parallel to the Y axis intersects the Y axis at some point.
The x - coordinate of the point of intersection is 0, because the Y axis is
vertical and passes through the origin. Let the y coordinate of the point of
intersection be represented by b. Then the point of intersection i s ( 0 , b ) ,
as shown in figure 1i. The y coordinate, b , i s called the y i n t e r c e p t .
Δy
The slope of the line in figure 1i is given as
Δx
The value of ∆ y in this expression is y - b, where y represents the y
coordinate of any point on the line. The value of ∆ x is x−0=x , so
∆ y y −b
m= =
∆x x
mx= y−b
y=mx+b

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Y −axis
(x , y )
∆y
(a ,b) ∆x
α X −axis
Figure 1i.-Slope-intercept form.
This is the standard s l o p e - i n t e r c e p t form of a straight line.
Example 2.2.
Find the equation of a line that intersects the Y axis at the point (0, 3) and
has a slope of 5/3.
Solution:
y=mx+b
5
y= x +3
3
3 y=5 x +9
or 3 y−5 x=9
Problem set 2.1:
Write equations for lines having points and slopes as follows:
i) P ( 3 ,5 ) , m=−2
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1
ii) P (−2 ,−1 ) , m=
3
iii) P1 ( 2, 2 ) ,and P2 (−4 ,−1 )
iv) y intercept=2, m=3
2.3. Normal form of equation of a line
Methods for determining the equation of a line usually depend upon some
knowledge of a point or points on the line. Let's now consider a method that
does not require advance knowledge concerning any of the line's points. All
that is known about the line is its perpendicular distance from the origin and
the angle between the perpendicular and the X axis, where the angle is
measured counterclockwise from the positive side of the X axis.
In figure 1j, line AB is a distance p away from the origin, and line OM forms
an angle θ (the Greek letter theta) with the X axis. We select any point P(x,
y) on line AB and develop the
N P(x , y)
P
S θ
θ θ
θ
O R B
O
Figure 1 j .−Normal form .
equation of line AB in terms of the x and y of P. Since P represents any

point on the line, the x and y of the equation will represent every point on
the line and therefore will represent the line itself.
PR is constructed perpendicular to OB at point R. NR is drawn parallel to AB,

and PN is parallel to OB. PS is perpendicular to NR and to AB. A right angle
is formed by angles NRO and PRN. Triangles ONR and OMB are similar right

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triangles. Therefore, angles NRO and MBO are equal and are designated asθ.
Since θ + θ = 90° in triangle OMB and angle NRO is equal to θ , then angle
PRN equals θ Finally, the x distance of point P is equal to OR, and the y
distance of P is equal to PR.
To relate the distance p to x and y, we reason as follows:
ON =(¿)cosθ
¿ xcosθ
PS=(PR)sinθ
¿ ysinθ
OM =ON + PS
P=ON + PS
P=xcosθ + ysinθ
This final equation is the normal form. The word "normal" in this usage
refers to the perpendicular relationship between OM and AB. "Normal"
frequently means "perpendicular" in mathematical and scientific usage. The
distance p is always considered to be positive, and θ is any angle between 0°
°
and 360
Example 2.3
Find the equation of the line that is 5 units away from the origin, if the
perpendicular from the line to the origin forms an angle of 30 ° from the
positive side of the X axis.
Solution.
P=5 ; θ=30 °
P=xcosθ + ysinθ
5=xcos 30 °+ ysin30 °
5=x ( √23 )+ y ( 12 )
10=x √ 3+ y
Problem set 2.2.
1. Given that line L1 passes through the points (2, 5) and (6, -7). Find:
i. The slope of the line
ii. The angle of inclination of the line
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iii. The equation of the line
If another line L2 is passing through (-3, 6) and perpendicular to L1, find

the slope, angle of inclination and equation of L2.
2.4. Perpendicular (Shortest) Distance between a Point and a Line
We must often express the distance from a point to a line in terms of the
coefficients in the equation of the line. To do this, we compare the two forms
of the equation of a straight line, as follows:
General equation: Ax+ By+ C=0
Normal form: xcosθ + ysinθ−P=0
The general equation and the normal form represent the same straight line.
Therefore, A (the coefficient of x in the general form) is proportional to cosθ
(the coefficient of x in the normal form).
By similar reasoning, B is proportional to sinθ, and C is proportional to -P.

Recalling that quantities proportional to each other form ratios involving a
constant of proportionality, let k be this constant. Thus, we have
cos θ
=k
A
sinθ
=k
B
cosθ=kA
sinθ=kB
Squaring both sides of these two expressions and then adding, we have
2 2 2 2 2
cos θ+ sin θ=k ( A + B )
Therefore 1=k 2 ( A2 + B2)
2 1
k = 2 2
A +B
1
k=
± √ A2 + B2

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The coefficients in the normal form, expressed in terms of A, B, and C, are
as follows:
1
cosθ=
± √ A 2+ B 2
1
sinθ=
± √ A2 + B2
C
−P=
± √ A 2+ B 2
The sign of √ ( A2 + B2 ) is chosen so as to make p (a distance) always positive.
The conversion formulas developed in the foregoing discussion are used in
finding the distance from a point to a line. Let p represent the distance of
line L K from the origin. (See fig. 1k.) To find d, the distance from point P, to
line L K , we construct a line Y through P, parallel to L K . The distance of this
line from the origin is OS, and the difference between OS and p is d.
d P1 (x 1 , y 1 )
P
θ θ
O M KX
Figure 1 k .−Distance ¿ a point ¿ a line .
We obtain an expression for d, based on the coordinates of P, as follows:
OS=x 1 cosθ+ y 1 sinθ

and
d=OS−P
¿ x 1 cosθ + y 1 sinθ−P
Returning to the expressions for sinθ , cosθ , and p in terms of A, B, and C
(the coefficients in the general equation), we have:
d= x1
( A
± √ A +B
2 2) (+ y1
B
± √ A +B
2 2
+
) C
± √ A 2 +B 2

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In the formula for d, the denominator in each of the expressions is the
same. Therefore, we may combine terms as follows:
d=
| x 1 A + y 1 B+C
√ A 2+ B 2 |
We use the absolute value, since d is a distance, and thus avoid any
confusion arising from the ± radical.
Note that the absolute value, || of a number is defined as follows:

|b|=b for b ≥ 0
|b|=b for b ≤ 0
and
|−b|= b for b≤ 0
That is, for the positive number 2,
|2|=2
For the negative number -2,
|−2|= 2
6−12
The absolute value of is 2
3
6−12 −6
3
=| || |
3
=|−2|=2
Example:
Find the distance from the point (2, 1) to the line 4 x+ 2 y +7=0.
Solution:
d=
| ( 4 )( 2 ) + ( 2 ) ( 1 ) +7
√ 4 2 + 22 |
8+2+7
=
√ 20
17
=
2 √5
17 √ 5
¿
10

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Problem set 2.4
Find the distance from the given point to the given line
i) (5 , 2), 3 x− y +6=0
ii) (−2 , 5), 3 x+ 4 y −9=0
Alternative Method
We know that shortest distance between two points is a straight line. When
dealing with a point and a line, the shortest distance is the perpendicular line
connecting the point and the given line as shown below,
P(x 0 , y 0 )
A Q(x , y) B
Given that the equation of line AB in the figure above is y=mx+b , the
equation of the shortest distance will be given as y=−1/m( x−xo)+ yo. Since
line AB and line PQ meet at point Q, we equate the two lines to find the
coordinates of point PQ, that is,
−1
mx+ b=
m
( x −x o ) + y o , giving

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m y o+ x o −mb
x= 2
m +1
and
2
m y o+ m x o +b
y= 2
m +1
√ 2
The distance PQ is then given as ( x−x o ) + ( y − y o )
2
Example
Find the shortest distance between the line whose equation is given as
y=2 x +4 and the point
(4, 1).
Solution
Given the line y=2 x +4 , the slope m = 2, the slope of the line perpendicular
to this line is therefore – ½. The equation of the perpendicular line is given
y−1 −1
as =-1/2, which gives y= x +3. Equating the two lines to get the point
x−4 2
−1
of intersection, we have2 x+ 4= x+ 3. On solving we get x=−0.4 and y =
2
3.2, hence the shortest distance is given by:
D =√ ( 1−3.2 )2 + ( 4 +0.4 )2
= 4.92 units
2.5. Point of Intersection between two Points
The point of intersection between two lines is obtained by solving their

equations simultaneously.
Example
Find the point of intersection of two lines whose equations are given as
2 x+ 4 y−8=0 and3 x−2 y−4=0.
Solution
Equating the two lines and solving we get , 2 x+ 4 y=8
3 x−2 y=4
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On solving simultaneously we get y=1 and x=2, hence the point of
intersection is (2, 1)
2.6. Division of a Line Segment in a given ratio
Let P(x , y) be any point on the line through P1 ¿) and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) , we need to

determine the value of x and y such that
P1 P r 1
= ……………………i
P P2 r 2
To determine x , we draw a line segment through P1 and P2. Let (x , y ) be any

point on it, drop a perpendicular from P1, P and P2 to the x -axis and call the
pointsQ1, Q and Q2 respectively as shown below
r 1 P1 P Q 1 Q
= = …………….ii
r 2 P P2 Q Q 2
P2 (x 2 , y 2 )
P(x , y)
P1 (x 1 , y 1 )
Q1 (x 1 , 0) Q(x , 0) Q2 (x 2 ,0)

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Since when the three parallels are cut by transversals, the segment into
which the transversals are divided are proportional. That is Q1 Q and Q Q2 are
parallel to the x−¿ axis, hence
Q1 Q=x−x 1 and Q Q2=x 2−x ……………iii
Q1 Q x−x 1
Then =
QQ2 x 2−x
r 1 x−x 1
= ……………………………………...iv
r 2 x2− x
Solving equation (iv) gives r 1 x2 −r 1 x=r 2 x−r 2 x 1
r 2 x❑+r 1 x=r 1 x 2+ r 2 x 1
r 2 x 1 +r 1 x2
x= , provided that r 1 +r 2 ≠ 0
r 1 +r 2
r 2 y 1+ r 1 y 2
Similarly, y= ,provided that r 1 +r 2 ≠ 0
r 1+ r 2
If we letr 1=r 2, we get the mid points of a straight line, that is,
r 1 y 1 +r 1 y 2 ( y ¿ ¿1+ y2 )
=r 1 ¿, giving
r 1 +r 1 2r 1
x 1+ x 2
x=
2
y1 + y2
y=
2
Example
Determine the coordinates of the point (x, y) that divides the segment from
(2, 0) to (7, 10) in the ratio of 4 to 1
Solution

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Since the segment runs from (2, 0) to (7, 10), we let P1(2 , 0), P(x , y) and P2
(7 , 10), then r 1¿ 4 , r 2¿ 1 ,x1 = 2, x 2¿ 7 , y 1¿ 0 and y 2¿ 10. Substituting these values
into the formula we get;
4 (7 ) +1(2)
x= =6
4+1
4 ( 10 ) +1(0)
y= =8, hence the coordinates of
4+ 1
the point is given as (6, 8)
2.6. Problem set
1. Find the distance between the points P1 (- 3, - 2) and P2 (-7, I).

2. Find the midpoint of the line between P1 (-8/3, 4/5) and P2 (- 4/3, 6/5).
3. Find the slope of the line joining P1 (4, 6) and P2 (-4, 6).
4. Find the slope of the line parallel to the line joining P1 (7, 4) and P2 (4, 7).
5. Find the slope of the line perpendicular to the line joining P 1 (8, 1) and P2
(2, 4).
6. Find the obtuse angle between the two lines which have m1 = 7 and m2 =
- 3 for slopes.
7. Find the obtuse angle between the Y axis and a line with a slope of m = -
1/4.
8. Find the equation of the line through the points (-6, 5) and (6, 5).
9. Find the equation of the line whose y intercept is (0, 0) and whose slope
is 4.
11. Find the slope and y intercept of the line whose equation is 4y+8x=7.
12. Find the equation of the line that is 3/2 units away from the origin, if the
perpendicular from the line to the origin forms an angle of 210 0 from the
positive side of the X axis.
13. Find the equation of the line through (2, 3) and perpendicular to
3 x−2 y=7.
14. Find the equation of the line through (2, 3) and parallel to3 x−2 y=7 .
15. Find the distance from the point (3, - 5) to the line 2 x+ y+ 4=0.
16. Find the distance from the point (3, - 4) to the line 4 x+3 y =10.

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Topic Three: The Circle
Learning Outcome
By the end of this topic, the learners should be able to;
 Define a circle

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 Derive the equation of a circle
 Find center and radius given the equation of a circle
 Find equation of a circle given three points on it
 Convert the general form of the equation of a circle to standard form
Topic Time
 exercises [4 hours]
3.0 Introduction
A circle is a shape consisting of all points in a plane that are a given
distance from a given point, the center; equivalently it is the curve traced
out by a point that moves in a plane so that its distance from a given point is
a constant. We shall derive the equation of a circle. The general form will
also be considered and its conversion to standard form. As we shall see, not
all general forms represent real circles.
3.1 Definition and Derivation of Equation of Circle

3.1.1 Definition
A circle is the set of all points which are equidistant from a fixed point.
3.1.2 Derivation of equation of circle

Let the center be at the point (h,k) and radius equal to r. Let Q(x,y) be any
point in the circle.

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Then we have
QO= r (1)
Using distance formula
Substituting in (1) we find that
Squaring both sides we find that
(2)
Equation (2) is called the standard form of the equation of a circle with
centre (h,k) and radius r.
Example 3.1
Write the standard form of the equation of a circle with center at (2,-4) and
radius 4.
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Solution
A circle with radius r and center (h,k) has equation
Substituting (h,k)=(2,-4) and r=4, we get the equation
Example 3.2
Find the coordinates of the center and the radius of a circle whose equation
is
Solution
Comparing the given equation with the standard form
We find that h=-2, k=0, and r=3.
Therefore, center is at (-2,0) and radius r=3.
3.2 General Form of the Equation of a Circle

The general form of the equation of a circle is given by
(2)
Where .
Dividing equation (2) by A gives us the other form of the general equation
. (3)
Beginning with the standard form we can rewrite the equation in standard
form. The process involves completing the square in each variable.
Example 3.3

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Write the equation of the circle in standard form and find the center and
radius.
Solution
The equation can be rearranged as
Dividing all through by 3 we get
We then complete the square in x and y.
Which gives us
This is the equation of a circle with centre at (2,-3) and radius r= .
When the general form of the equation of a circle is given, it can be changed
into standard form by completing the square of the quadratic expression in x
and in y . After the square of each quadratic is completed, there will be a
constant term as the right member of the equation. There are three
possibilities
 We have a real circle if the constant is a real number.

 We have a point circle if the constant is zero.
 We have an imaginary circle if the constant is negative.
Example 3.4
Determine the kind of circle given by each of the following equations.
(i) .

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(ii) .
(ii) .
Solution
(i) We rearrange the equation as
We complete the squares in x and y
The equation represents a circle with center at (1,2) and radius r=4.
(ii) .
We rearrange the equation and complete the square
This implies that the equation represents a point circle.
(iii) .
Rearranging the equation and completing the square we get
Which does not represent a real circle.

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3.3 Equation of circle given three points
Given three points on a circle we can substitute in
equation (2) or (3) to get three equations in the constants. Solving the three
equations simultaneously gives us the general form. If we complete the
square of the resulting equation we obtain the centre and radius.
Example 3.5
Find the equation of a circle through the points (2,0), (4,2), and (5,1). What
is the center and radius.
Solution
We substitute the coordinates in the equation
Substituting (x,y)=(2,0) gives us
4+2G+I=0
2G+I=-4 (i)
16+4+4G+2H+I=0
4G+2H+I=-20 (ii)
25+1+5G+H+I=0
5G+H+I=-26 (iii)
(ii)-2(iii) gives us
-6G-I=32 (iv)
(i)+(iv)
-4G=28 G=-7.
Substituting G=-7 we find that

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I=-4-2(-7)=-4+14=10.
In equation (iii), making H the subject we get
H=-26-5G-I=-26-5(-7)-10=-1.
We have found that G=-7, H=-1, I=10. Substituting we find
We rearrange and complete the square in x and y.
Which is a circle with centre at and radius .
Topic Summary
We have learned that;
 The standard equation of a circle with center at (h,k) and radius r

is
 The general equation of a circle is
 The other form of the general equation of a circle is

.
 Given three points of a circle we can use the general form to find
the equation of a circle.

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Activity
In problems 1-5, find the standard equation of the circle satisfying the given
conditions.
1. Centre (-2,3); radius=5.
2. Centre (0,1); diameter= .
3. Centre (-4,8); circle is tangent to the x-axis.
4. Centre (-3,-4);circle passes through the origin.
5. A diameter has endpoints (6,1) and (-2,3).
In problems 6-8, determine whether the equation represents a circle, a point

or no graph.
6. .
7. .
8. .

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Topic Four: The Ellipse
Learning Outcome
 Define an ellipse.
 Derive the equation of an ellipse.
 Write equations of ellipses centered at the origin.
 Write equations of ellipses not centered at the origin.
 Identify the center,foci,vertices, and endpoints of major axis of an
ellipse given its equation.
Topic Time
exercises [7 hours]
4.0 Introduction
In this topic we will define an ellipse and derive the equation for the simplest
form. Below is a graph of an ellipse.

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If a string of length 2a is tied at the points indicated as focus, and while it is
fully stretched we mark round with a pencil we get the graph shown above.
The graph is an ellipse. Note that the length of the string remains the same
as we draw the curve. We get different curves as length of string is
increased or decreased. If we vary the distance between foci while keeping
the length of string constant, the shape of the curve varies. The meanings of
the constants a, b, and c will be explained in this topic.
4.1 Definition and derivation of equation of Ellipse

In this section we give the definition of an ellipse and derive the equation of
ellipse with foci at (-c,0) and (c,0).
4.1.1 Definition
An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points is a given positive constant.
Note:
(a) The two fixed points are called the foci. Foci is the plural of focus.
(b) The midpoint of the line segment joining the foci is called the centre of
the ellipse.
4.1.2 Equation of ellipse with center at origin and foci on x-axis

Let the foci be at (-c,0) and (c,0), i,e the distance between foci is 2c, and
also let the sum of distances be 2 . The sketch of the graph is given below:

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From the definition of ellipse we have
But and , substituting in the above

equation we find that
Squaring both sides we find that
Simplifying and rearranging we find that
Squaring this expression we get

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We open the brackets and simplify
Which simplifies to
This results in the simpler equation
(1)
It can be shown that and therefore we can let
(2)
Substituting in equation (2) we find that
(3)
In equation (3) it is important to note that the denominator of is greater

than the denominator of . If we substitute y=0 in equation (3) we find that
The points (-a,0) and (a,0) are called the endpoints of the major axis, and
they are also called vertices. The line from (-a,0) to (a,0) is called the
major axis which is an horizontal line in this case.
Now, if we substitute x=0 in equation (3), we find that

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This solution gives us the points (0,-b) and (0,b). The line from (0,-b) to
(0,b) is called the minor axis of the ellipse.
Equation (3) represents an ellipse with:
 Centre at (0,0).
 Foci at (-c,0) and (c,0).
 Major axis from (-a,0) to (a,0).
 Endpoints of minor axis at (0,-b) and (0,b).
Example 4.1
The equation of an ellipse is given by
Find the (i) foci
(ii) endpoints of major axis
(iii) endpoints of minor axis
Solution
(i) The equation
Is of the form
With .
Foci are at (-c,0) and (c,0) i.e at (-3,0) and (3,0). Note that the foci are
on the x-axis.
(ii) Endpoints of major axis are at i.e at (-5,0) and (5,0).

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(iii) Endpoints of minor axis at i.e at (0,-4) and (0,4).
4.2 Equation of ellipse with center at the origin and foci on the y-axis
Let an ellipse have foci at (0,-c) and (0,c), and sum of distances equal to
2 . This is shown in the figure below:
For any point Q(x,y) on the ellipse we have
Using the distance equation we get that
On simplifying this expression we find that

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(4)
Where .
When y=0, x=-b or b, this gives the points (-b,0) and (b,0) which are the
endpoints of the Minor axis.
When x=0, y=- or , which gives us the points (0, - ) and (0, ) which
are the endpoints of the Major axis.
In summary equation (4) represents an ellipse with:
 Centre at the origin.

 Foci at (0,-c) and (0,c).
 Endpoints of Major axis at (0,- ) and (0, ).
 Endpoints of Minor axis at (-b,0) and (b,0).
Example 4.2
The equation of an ellipse is given by
Find the (i) the foci
(ii) the endpoints of major axis
(iii) endpoints of minor axis.
Solution
(i) The equation
Is of the form
With foci on the y-axis at , where .

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the foci are at (0,-3) and (0,3).
(ii) Endpoints of major axis are at .
(iii) Endpoints of minor axis are at
4.3 Ellipse with center at (h,k) and horizontal major axis

Let an ellipse have center at (h,k) and foci at (h-c,k) and (h+c,k). Let the
sum of distances be 2a. This is shown in the figure below:
By definition of an ellipse
Using the distance formula we get
Simplifying this equation yields

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(5)
 Centre at (h,k)
 Foci at (h-c,k) and (h+c,k)
 Endpoints of major axis at (h-a,k) and (h+a,k)
 Endpoints of minor axis at (h,k-b) and (h,k+b)
Example 4.3
Find the equation of an ellipse with focus at , vertices at (-2,1) and

(10,1).
Solution
Line connecting focus and vertices is horizontal, therefore major axis is

vertical, this implies that the equation is of the form
Center =midpoint of line connecting vertices
That is h=4 and k=1.
2 =distance between vertices=12 =6.
=distance from center at (4,1) to focus at ( )= .
We know that .
Substituting we get the equation as

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4.4 Ellipse with center at (h,k) and vertical major axis
Let an ellipse have center at (h,k) and foci at (h,k-c) and (h,k+c). Let the
sum of distances be 2a. This is shown in the figure below:
Simplifying this equation gives us
(6)
Where .
 Centre at (h,k)
 Focus at (h,k-c) and (h,k+c)
 Endpoints of major axis at (h,k-a) and (h,k+a).
 Endpoints of minor axis at (h-b,k) and (h+b,k).
Example 4.4
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Find the equation of an ellipse with foci at (1,-5) and (1,7) and length of
minor axis 16.
Solution
Line connecting foci is vertical, therefore the major axis is vertical. The
equation of the ellipse is of the form
Length of minor axis=2b=16 8.
Distance between foci=2c=12 c=6.
We find the value of .
=64+36=100 =10.
The centre of the ellipse is the midpoint of the line segment joining the foci.
Centre .
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is
4.5 General equation of an ellipse

If we open the brackets of equations (5) and (6) and simplify, we get an
equation of the form
(7).
Now, given equation (7) we can complete squares in x and y to get the
standard form of the equation of an ellipse.
Example 4.5
Put the equation in standard form and identify the foci and endpoints of
major axis.
171
.
Solution
We rearrange the equation and complete the square in x and y.
Dividing by 36 we get
Which is the equation of an ellipse of the form
Foci are at i.e at (-1,3- ) and (-1,3+ ).
Vertices are at i.e at (-1,0) and (-1,6).
Summary
We have learned that:

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 The equation of an ellipse with centre at (h,k), foci (h c,k), and
endpoints of major axis at ( h a,k) has equation
Setting ( h,k)=(0,0) we get the equation
Where .
 The equation of an ellipse with centre at (h,k), foci ( h,k c,), and
endpoints of major axis at ( h,k a) has equation
Setting ( h,k)=(0,0) we get the equation
Where .
Activity
In problems 1-6, sketch the ellipse, label the foci and the ends of the major
and minor axes.

171
In problems 7-10, find the equation for the ellipse satisfying the given
conditions.
; ends of major axis

7. Ends of major axis
; ends of minor axis

8. Ends of major axis
9. Foci (2,1) and (2,-3); major axis of length 6.

10.Foci (1,2) and (1,4); minor axis of length 2.

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Topic Five: The Parabola
Learning Outcome
 Define a parabola
 Derive the equation of a parabola
 Determine the equation of a parabola given focus and vertex
 Determine the equation of a parabola given directrix and vertex or
focus.
 Find equation of parabola given its graph.
Topic Time
exercises [7 hours]
5.0 Introduction
A parabola is a curve determined by a fixed point and a fixed line. Tracing
points that are at an equal distance from the point and the fixed line gives
us the parabola. A parabola has an axis of symmetry which is the line
through the fixed point perpendicular to the fixed line. The graph below,
shows a parabola. On it is indicated a fixed point, called the focus. A fixed
line, called the directrix. Also shown is the axis of symmetry. A Parabola also
has a vertex which is indicated. This information is shown in the graph
below.

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5.1 Definition and Derivation of equation of Parabola with vertex at (0,0) and focus at
(a,0)
5.1.1 Definition
A parabola is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a
given line and a given point not on the line.
Note:
 The given line is called the directrix of the parabola

 The given point is called the focus of the parabola
5.1.2 Derivation of the equation of a Parabola

Let the focus be at the point ( ,o) and the directrix be the line x=- , and let
Q(x,y) be any point on the parabola as shown in the figure below.

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We want to find the relationship between x and y.
By definition of a parabola
Simplifying we find that
Equation (1) represents a parabola with:
 Vertex at (0,0)
 Focus at ( ,0)
 Directrix x=-
Note that the directrix is vertical.
Example 5.1
171
Find the focus and directrix of a parabola with equation
Solution
Comparing with the equation we find that
4 =4 =1.
The parabola with equation has:
Focus at ( ,0)=(1,0), and directrix x=-1.
Note:
If the parabola opens in the negative x-direction, then the equation is of the
form of equation (1) with <0.
Example 5. 2
Find the directrix and focus of a parabola with equation .
Solution
Comparing with the equation we find that
4 =-4 =-1
the parabola with equation has:
Focus at ( ,0)=(-1,0),
Directrix x= i.e. x=-1
5.2 Equation of parabola with center at origin and focus at (0, )

To derive the equation of a parabola with focus at (0, ) and directrix y=- ,
we let Q(x,y) to be any point on the parabola. This is shown in the figure
below.

171
By definition we have
 Vertex at (0,0)
 Focus at (0,a)
 Directrix y=-a
Note that the directrix of the parabola is horizontal. If the <0, then the
curve of the parabola opens in the negative y-direction with the equation
being of the form of equation (2).
Example 5.3
Find the focus and directrix of a parabola given by

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(i) (ii)
Solution
(i) Comparing with we find that
4 =8 =2.
Focus is at (0, )=(0,2).
Directrix is y=- i.e. y=-2.
(ii) We solve 4 =-8 =-2.
Focus is at (0, )=(0,-2).
Directrix is y=- i.e y=2.
5.3 Parabola with vertex at (h,k) and vertical directrix

Let a parabola have vertex at (h,k). Let the distance from the vertex to the
focus be equal to , then the coordinates of the focus are (h+a,k). Then the
directrix is the line x=h-a. Let Q(x,y) be any point on the parabola as shown
in the figure below.

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The equation of the parabola is found to be
 Vertex at (h,k)
 Focus at (h+a,k)
 Directrix x=h-a
In equation (3) if we substitute (h,k) =(0,0) we find that
Which is equation (1). Therefore, equation (1) is a special case of equation

(3).
In equation (3), if <0, then the graph opens in the negative x-direction.
Example 5.4
Find the equation of a parabola with focus at (1,6) and directrix x=7.
Solution

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Directrix is vertical, therefore equation is of the form
Our problem is to find the values of a, k, and h.
Focus is at (h+a,k) = (1,6), therefore
h+a =1 (i)
and k=6.
Directrix is:
x=h-a=7 (ii)
(i) +(ii) gives us 2h=4 h=2.
Substituting h=2 in (i) we find that a = -1.
The required equation is
5.4 Parabola with vertex at (h,k) and horizontal directrix

Consider a parabola with vertex at (h,k), focus at (h,k+a), and directrix
y=k-a . Let Q(x,y) be any point on the parabola as shown in the figure
below.

171
Using the distance formula and the definition of a parabola, it can be shown
that for any point Q(x,y) on the parabola the equation is given by
(4)
 Vertex at (h,k)
 Focus at (h,k+a)
 Directrix y=k-a
 Axis x=h
Example 5.5
A parabola has a vertex at (-1,-1) and directrix y=-2. Find:
(i) The equation of the parabola
(ii) The focus.

171
Solution
(i) The directrix is horizontal, therefore the equation is of the form
We find the values of h, a, and k using the given information.
Vertex is at (h,k)=(-1,-1) i.e. h=-1 and k=-1.
Directrix is y=k-a=-2 a=1.
The equation is
Topic Summary
 We have learned that if the equation of a parabola is given by
Then it has vertex at (h,k), focus at (h,k+a), directrix x=h-a axis is the
line y=k.
 We have also learned that if the equation of a parabola is given by:
Then it has vertex at (h,k), focus at (h,k+a), directrix y=k-a, axis is
X=h.
Activity
In problems 1-6, find the focus, vertex, and directrix. Sketch the parabola.
1. .
2. .
3. .

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In problems 7-14, find an equation for the parabola satisfying the given
conditions.
7. Vertex (0,0); direcrix x=4.
8. Vertex (0,0); focus (-4,0).
9. Vertex (0,0); focus (0,3).
10. Vertex (0,0); directrix .
11.Vertex (0,0); symmetric about the x-axis, passes through (2,2).
12. Focus (-3,0); directrix x=3.
13. Focus (0,6); directrix y=-6.
14. Axis y=0; passes through (-1,2) and (5,-4).

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Topic Six: The Hyperbola
Learning Outcome
 Define a hyperbola
 Derive the equation of a hyperbola
 Identify the center, foci, and vertices
 Identify the transverse axis and conjugate axis
 Write the equations of the asymptotes
 Be able to sketch the graph of a hyperbola
Topic Time
exercises [8 hours]
6.0 Introduction
A hyperbola is a curve consisting of two distinct and similar branches as
shown in the figures below. As you can see from the figure a hyperbola
has:
 A center
 Foci
 Vertices
 Co-vertices
 Transverse axis and conjugate axis
 Asymptotes

171
As shown in the figures below, a hyperbola can be horizontal or vertical.

171
6.1 Definition
A hyperbola is a set of all points in the plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed
points is a given positive constant.
Note:
The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola.
6.2 Equation of hyperbola with foci at (-c,0) and (c,0)

Let the foci be at (-c,0) and (c,0), and the difference of distances be 2a, and let Q(x,y) be any
point on the hyperbola as shown in the figure below.
By definition of a hyperbola we have
Using the distance formula we find that
Which can be rearranged as

171
We now square and simplify this expression
Dividing by -4a we get that
We square this equation
We divide both sides by to get
Which can be written as
(1)
Now, in triangle
is positive. We let
(2)
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Substituting in (1) we find that
(3)
Equation (3) can be written as
For large positive and negative values of x we have
The lines
Are called the asymptotes of a hyperbola given by equation (3).
To summarize we can say that equation (3) represents a hyperbola with:
 Centre at (0,0)
 Foci at (-c,0) and (c,0)
 Vertices at (a,0) and (a,0)
 Asymptotes
The sketch for the hyperbola given by (3) is given below.
Example 6.1
A hyperbola has equation given by
(i) Find the foci (ii) Find the vertices (iii) Find the asymptotes

171
Solution
(i) Comparing the equation with (3) we find that
Foci are at (-c,0) and (c,0) i.e at (-5,0) and (5,0).
(ii) Vertices are at (-a,0) and (a,0) i.e at (-4,0) and (4,0).
(iii) Asymptotes are
6.3 Equation of Hyperbola with foci at (0,-c) and (0,c)

Consider a hyperbola with foci at (0,-c) and (0,c), and difference of
distances equal to 2a. Let Q(x,y) be any point on the hyperbola as shown
below.
From the definition of a hyperbola we have

171
On simplifying this equation we find that
(4)
where .
Equation (4) represents a hyperbola with:
 Foci at (0,-c) and (0,c).

 Vertices at (0,-a) and (0,a).
 Asymptotes are .
Example 6.2
A hyperbola has equation given by
(i) Find the foci.
(ii) Find the vertices.
(iii) Find the asymptotes.
Solution
(i) Comparing with equation (3) we find that
Foci are at i.e at (0,-5) and (0,5).
(ii) Vertices are at i.e at (0,-4) and (0,4).

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(iii) Asymptotes are
6.4 Hyperbola with foci at (h-c,k) and (h+c,k)

Let a hyperbola have foci at and difference of distances 2a. Let
Q(x,y) be any point on the hyperbola as shown below.
Then, by definition we have
Using the distance formula we get
It can be shown that this equation simplifies to

171
(5)
We summarize that equation (5) represents a hyperbola with
 Centre at (h,k).
 Foci at (h-c,k) and (h+c,k).
 Vertices at (h+a,k) and (h+a,k).
 Asymptotes are
Example 6.3
Find the equation of a hyperbola with foci at (-12,1) and (8,1) and having
vertices 4 units apart.
Solution
Line connecting foci is horizontal, therefore the equation is of the form
We find the values of a, b, h, and k.
Center (h,k) = midpoint of segment joining foci =
2c = distance from (-12,1) to (8,1) = 20
c = 10.
2a = distance between vertices = 4
a = 2.
The equation is given by

171
6.5 Hyperbola with foci at (h,k-c) and (h,k+c)
Let a hyperbola have foci at and difference of distances 2a. Let
Q(x,y) be any point on the hyperbola as shown in the figure below.
Then, by definition we have
Using the distance formula we find that
Upon simplification this equation reduces to
(6)
Where .

171
So, to summarize, equation (6) represents a hyperbola with:
 Centre at (h,k).
 Foci at .
 Vertices at
 Asymptotes .
Example 6.4
Find the equation of a hyperbola with vertices at (-3,4) and (-3,0) and
having foci 6 units apart.
Solution
Line connecting vertices is vertical, therefore, the equation is of the form
(h,k ) = midpoint of segment joining (-3,0) and (-3,4) =
2c = distance between foci = 6
c = 3.
2a = 4 a = 2.
Therefore the equation is
6.6 General equation of a hyperbola

Opening the brackets of equations (5) and (6) and simplifying we get an
equation of the form

171
(7)
This is the general equation of a hyperbola. Starting with equation (7), we

can complete the squares in x and y and identify the important features of
the hyperbola it represents.
Example 6.5
Find the foci and asymptotes of a hyperbola given by
Solution
We rearrange the equation and complete the squares in x and y.
Dividing by 64 we get
Which is the equation of a hyperbola of the form
With and
Foci are at .
The asymptotes are

171
.
Summary
We have learned that:
 The equation
Represents a hyperbola with center at (h,k), foci at ( ), vertic-
es at ( ), and asymptotes .
When the center is at the origin (0,0), the equation reduces to
 The equation
Represents a hyperbola with center at (h,k), foci at ( ),
vertices at , and asymptotes .

When the center is at the origin (0,0), the equation reduces to
Activity
In problems 1-6, find the coordinates of the vertices and foci and find
equations for the asymptotes.Sketch the hyperbola.
1. .

171
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
In problems 7-10, find an equation for the hyperbola satisfying the given
conditions.
7. Foci ; vertices .
8. Vertices (-3,4) and (-3,0) and foci 6 units apart.
9. Vertices ; asymptotes .
10. Foci (8,1) and (-12,1); vertices 4 units apart.

171
Topic Seven: Vector Operations
Learning Outcome
 Add and subtract vectors

 Find the magnitude of a vector
 Find the unit vector of a vector
 Find dot product
 Apply dot product in mechanics
 Find cross product
 Apply cross product in mechanics and surfaces
Topic Time
exercises [15 hours]
7.0 Introduction
171
Vectors are used in representation of physical quantities such as position and
momentum in more than one dimension. Therefore we define vector as an
element of vector space. It’s mostly applied in mechanics and also in other
areas where concept of direction plays a key role. We define vector as a
quantity that has both the magnitude and direction. Geometrically, we
picture vector as a directed line segment, whose length is the
size/magnitude of the vector and an arrow indicating the direction. The
direction of the vector is from its tail also called the initial point to its head
also called the terminal or the end point.
7.1 Types of Vectors

Vectors are categorized based on their initial and terminal points and also on
their magnitude. There are three types of vectors and that is; i) Position
vectors ii) Column vectors and iii) Unit vectors. We proceed to discuss each.
7.1.1 Position Vectors
A vector is either an ordered pair or triplet of numbers. On a two
dimensional plane for instance any point (a,b) is a vector that is called
position vector. Graphically, we often represent such a vector by drawing an
171
arrow from the origin to the point, with the tip of the arrow resting at the
point. The situation for three dimension vectors is the same where the
ordered triplet (a,b,c) is represented with an arrow from the origin to the
corresponding point. It should be understood that the initial point of a
position vector is the origin which is O(0 , 0 ,) in 2-dimension and O ( 0,0,0 ) in 3-

dimension.
Example 7.0
Find the position vector of point A ( 2,−7 ) .

Solution
→
The position vector in this case is given by OA
→
OA = ¿ ( 2 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
Where i is a unit vector along the x-axis, j is a unit vector along y-axis and
k is a unit vector along the z-axis.
Example 7.1
Find the position vector of point M (−3,9,−11) .

Solution
→
The position vector in this case is given by OM

171
→
OM =¿ (−3 ¿ ) ( 9 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
We therefore note that the unit vector of any P(a , b , c ) point is given by
→
OP =ai+bj+ck
Activity 7.0
Find the position vector of the following points
i) B ( 3,−5, ) ii) A ( 1,3,−8, ) iii) N ( 0,−4,−12, ) iv) D (−2,−10,8, )

7.1.2 Column Vectors
A column vector is directed from a certain point A ( a , b ) to another point

B ( c , d ) . It should be noted that the initial point A ( a , b ) can be any point and
not necessarily the origin. If the initial point A ( a , b ) is the origin then the
column vector is called the position vector. Therefore position vector is a
type of column vector whose initial point must be the origin.
Example 7.2
Given points A ( 3,0,−2 ) and B (−3,−7,1 ) , find the column vector of line segment;
→ →
i) AB ii) BA
Solution
→
AB=¿ ( 3 ¿ ) ( 0 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→
AB=¿ (−3 ¿ ) (−7 ¿ ) ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
From this example we note that whenever we are given two points P ( a , b , c )
→
andQ ( d , e , f ) , the column vector PQ is given by;

171
→
PQ =( d −a ) i+ ( b−e ) j+ ( c−f ) k
Activity 7.1
Find the column vectors in each of the following cases;
→
i) Given points A (−2,−6 ,5 ) and B (−3,7 ,−9 ) , find AB
→
ii) Given points M ( 0,6 ,−5 ) and N ( 3,−7,10 ) , find NM
→
iii) Given points S ( 4 ,−1,−3 ) and B ( 2,9,−19 ) , find BS
7.1.3 Magnitude of a Vector
We consider two points A ( 2,3 ) and B ( 8,11 ) .
11
B(8,11)
3
A(2,3) C(8,3)
2 8 X
→
→
We proceed to find the column vector AB and then find its magnitude
|AB|
which is given by the length of the line connecting points A and B.
→
AB=( 8−2 ) i+ ( 11−3 ) j
→
AB=6 i+8 j (1)

171
→
|AB|= √ AC 2+CB 2
→
|AB|= √6 2+8 2=10 (2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we note that the magnitude of any vector
→
P=ai+bj is given by|P|=√ a +b . Likewise if M =ai+bj+ck then
→ 2 2 →
→
|M|=√ a2+b2+c2
Example 7.3
→
Find the magnitude of the vector N =3i−5 j
Solution
→
|N|=√ 32+(−5 )2=4
Example 7.4
→
Find the magnitude of the vector Q =i+4 j−2 k
Solution
→
|N|=√ 12+42+ (−2 )2= √21
Activity 7.2
Find the magnitude of the vectors;
→ → → →
i) Q =i+4 j−2 k ii) P=3 i−7 j iii) M =8 i− j−6 k iv) Q =5 i+4 j
7.1.3 Unit Vectors
→
It’s a vector whose magnitude is one. It’s normally abbreviated with letter n .
→
A unit vector of any given vector A is given by;

171
→
→ A
n= →
|A|
Hence whenever we divide a vector by its magnitude, we always get a unit
vector.
Example 7.5
→
Find the unit vector of the vector Q =i+4 j−2 k
Solution
→
→ Q
n= →
|Q|
→
|Q|=√ 12+4 2+ (− 2 )2= √21
→ i+ 4 j−2 k
n=
√ 21
→ 1 4 2
n= i+ j− k
√21 √ 21 √ 21
Activity 7.3
Find the unit vector of the vectors;
→ → → →
i) Q =i+4 j ii) P=3 i−7 j+k iii) M =2 i−3 j−4 k iv) Q =i−7 k
7.2 Addition and Subtraction of vectors
→ →
We consider two vectors P=ai+bj+ck andQ =di+ej+fk . We find that;
→ → → →
i) P +Q = ( a+d ) i+ ( b+e ) j+ ( c +f ) k ii) P +Q = ( a−d ) i+ ( b−e ) j+ ( c−f ) k
→
We also note that if λ is a constant, then for any given vector P=ai+bj+ck
→
we get λP =λ ai+λj+λk
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Example 7.6
→ →
Given two vectors P=3 i− j+2 k andQ =i+2 j−k ,find;
→ → → → → → → → → →
i) P +Q ii) P−Q iii) 3 P +2 Q iv) P−2 Q V) Unit vector for 2 P +Q
Solution
→ → → → → →
i) P +Q=4 i+ j+k ii) P−Q =2 i−3 j+3 k iii) 3 P +2 Q =11i+ j+4 k
→ →
iv) P−2 Q=i−5 j+4 k
→ →
→ 2P +Q
n= → →
v) |2P +Q|
→ 7 i +3 k
n=
√ 49+9
→ 7 i+3 k
n=
√58
→ 7 3
n= i+ j
√58 √ 58
Activity 7.4
→ →
Given two vectors A =−2i+4 j−2k and B=5 i− j−3 k ,find;
→ → → → → → → →
i) 2 A +B ii) A −3 B iii) A +4 Q iv) Unit vector for 2 A +B
→ →
v) Unit vector for A −3 B
7.3 Dot Product

→ →
The dot product of two vectors A and B is defined as;
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ

171
→ →
The above equation is read as; vector A dot vector B is equal to the
→
magnitude/modulus of vector A multiply by the magnitude/modulus of vector
→
B multiply by cosine theta.
→ →
Theta ( θ ) is the angle between vector A and vector B .
→
A
→
B
0
It’s very clear from the above figure that angle θ is greater or equal to 0
0 0 0
and is less or equal to180 . Mathematically we say that0 ≤θ≤180 .
From definition we note that dot product of two vectors will always give a
scalar quantity and not a vector.
→ → → → → → → →
We also note that
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ
while
B⋅A =|B||A|cosθ
. The right hand side of
these two equations is the same and therefore dot product of two vectors
→ → → →
obeys commutative law i.e A⋅B =B⋅A
→ →
We consider two vectors A =ai+bj+ck and B=di+ ej+ fk . We find that;
→ →
A⋅B =(a )(d )+(b )(e )+(c )(f )

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Example 7.7
→ → → →
Given two vectors P=3 i− j+2 k andQ =i+2 j−k ,find P⋅Q .
Solution
→ →
P⋅Q =(3 )(1)+(−1)(2 )+(2 )(−1)=−1
Example 7.8
→ → → →
Given two vectors A =−5 i+2 j−4 k and B=6 i+8 j−7 k ,find A⋅B .
Solution
→ →
A⋅B =(−5)(6)+(2 )(8)+(−4 )(−7 )=14
Example 7.9
→ →
Given two vectors A =−i+2 j−3 k and B=4 i+2 j+7 k ,find the angle between
the two vectors.
Solution
→ → → →
From definition
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ
→ →
|A|=√ 1+4+9=√14 |B|=√16+4+49=√ 69
→ →
A⋅B =(−1)( 4 )+(2)(2 )+(−3)(7 )=−21
−21= ( √14 ) ( √ 69 ) cosθ

cosθ=−0 . 6757
θ=132. 50 or 227 .5 0
θ=132. 50 since 0 0≤θ≤1800
Activity 7.5
Find the angle between the vectors;
→ → → →
i) A =−3 i+ j−4 k and B=4 i+3 j−5 k ii) P=4 i+2 j−k andQ =i−3 j+5 k
171
→ → → →
iii) M =i+6 j−k and B=4 i+3 j+9 k iv) A =−2i−3 j+4 k and B=4 i+3 j+3 k
7.3.1 Perpendicular vectors

→ →
Two vectors A and B are said to be perpendicular if the angle between
0
them is 900. Hence θ=90
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cos 900 0
But cos 90 =0
→ →
Hence we get A⋅B =0
Conclusion
Two vectors are said to be perpendicular if and only if their dot product is
equal to zero.
Example 7.10
→ →
Prove that vectors M =−i+2 j+4 k and N =4 i+6 j−2 k are perpendicular.
Solution
→ →
A⋅B =(−1)( 4 )+(2)(6 )+( 4 )(−2)
→ →
From definition A⋅B =−4 +12−8=0
Activity 7.6
→ →
Prove that vectors M =5 i− j+9 k and N =3i+6 j−k are perpendicular.
NOTE
On the Cartesian plane, the unit vectors i, j and k are perpendicular to one
another and therefore;
i⋅j = j⋅i=0
i⋅k =k⋅i=0
j⋅k=k⋅j =0
7.3.3 Parallel Vectors
171
→ →
Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel and facing in the same
0
direction if the angle between them is 00. Hence θ=0
From definition we get;

→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cos0 0
0
But cos 0 =1
Hence we get
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|
→ →
Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel and facing in the opposite
0
direction if the angle between them is 1800. Hence θ=180

→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cos180 0
0
But cos 180 =−1
Hence we get
→ → → →
A⋅B =−|A||B|
7.3.3 Dot Product of Similar Vectors
→ → →
We proceed to find the dot product of vector A and A . We note vector A and
→
A are similar and facing in same direction (they are collinear). Hence the
0
angle between them is 00 and thereforeθ=0 .

→ → → →
A⋅A =|A||A|cos0 0
171
0
But cos 0 =1
Hence we get
→ → → →
A⋅A =|A||A|
→ → →
A⋅A =|A|2
We noted that the magnitude of a unit vector is equal to one and therefore
|i|=|j|=|k|=1 . Hence we find that;
i⋅i=|i|2 =1
j⋅j=|j|2 =1
k⋅k=|k|2 =1
Example 7.11
→ →
Given two vectors A =ai+bj+ck and B=di+ ej+ fk prove that
→ →
A⋅B =(a )(d )+(b )(e )+(c )(f )
Solution
→ →
A⋅B =( ai+bj+ck )⋅( di+ ej+fk )
→ →
A⋅B=(a )(d )(i⋅i)+( a)(e )(i⋅j)+( a)( f )(i⋅k )+(b )(d )( j⋅i)+(b )( e )( j⋅j)+
(b )(f )( j⋅k )+( c )(d )( k⋅i)+( c )(e )(k⋅j)+(c )(f )(k⋅k )
i⋅i=|i|2 =1
i⋅j = j⋅i=0
i⋅k =k⋅i=0 j⋅j=|j|2 =1
2
But j⋅k=k⋅j =0 and k⋅k=|k| =1
Therefore we get;
→ →
A⋅B =(a )(d )+(b )(e )+(c )(f )

171
7.4 Application of Dot Product
7.4.1 Work done

→
Work done on a particle that moves a displacement r after being acted by
→ →
the force f , is simply defined as the dot product of force f and the
→
displacement r .
Example 7.12
→
The displacement of a particle due to force f =3i−4 j+6 k is given by
→
r =i+2 j+3 k . Find the work done on the particle.
Solution
→→
Work done=f ⋅r
Work done=(3)(1 )+(−4 )(2)+(6 )(3 )=13 joules
Activity 7.7
→
The displacement of a particle due to force f =i+8 j−6 k is given by
→
r =4 i+2 j+3 k . Find the work done on the particle.
7.4.1 Kinetic energy

→
The kinetic energy (K.E) of a particle of mass m kg moving at a velocity v
at a given time t =a is given by;
1 →→
K . E= m ( v⋅v )
2
Example 7.13
The displacement of a particle of mass 400g varies with time t and is given
→
by r =t 3 i−6 tj+(t 2 −3t )k . Find the kinetic energy of the particle at t =2 s .
Solution

171
From definition
1 →→
K . E= m ( v⋅v )
2
→
→ dr
v = =3 t 2 i−6 j+ ( 2 t−3 ) k
dt
→
At t=2 we get v =12i−6 j+k
→ →
v⋅v =144 +36+1=181
K . E= ( )
1 400
2 1000
( 181 )=36 . 2 joules
Activity 7.8
The displacement of a particle of mass 200g varies with time t and is given
→
by r =2ti−( 3 t+t 4 ) j+(7 t 2 −2 t )k . Find the kinetic energy of the particle at t=1 s .
7.5 Cross Product

→ →
The cross product of two vectors A and B is defined as;
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n ] →
→ →
The above equation is read as; vector A cross vector B is equal to the
→
magnitude/modulus of vector A multiply by the magnitude/modulus of vector
→ → →
B multiply by sine theta multiply by unit vectorn . Unit vectorn is
→ →
perpendicular to the plane where vectors A and B lies. We also say that unit
→ → →
vectorn is perpendicular to the plane spanned by the vectors A and B .
→ →
Therefore unit vectorn is perpendicular to vector A and it’s also
→
perpendicular to vector B .

171
→ →
Theta ( θ ) is the angle between vector A and vector B .
→
A
→
n
θ
→
B
0
It’s very clear from the above figure that angle θ is greater or equal to 0
0 0 0
and is less or equal to180 . Mathematically we say that0 ≤θ≤180 .
From definition we note that cross product of two vectors will always give a
vector quantity.
It should be noted that if;

→ → → →
A ×B =C then B× A =−C
→
→
C A
→ →
A ×B =
θ
→
B
171
→
A
→ → θ
B× A =
→
B
→
−C
→ → → →
We therefore find that A ×B =−B× A and thence cross product does not obey
commutative law.
→ →
We consider two vectors A =ai+bj+ck and B=di+ ej+ fk . We find that;
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||a b c¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
Example 7.14
→ → → →
Given two vectors P=3 i− j+2 k andQ =i+2 j−k ,find P×Q .
Solution
→ →
P×Q=¿|i j k¿||3 −1 2¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
P×Q =¿|−1 2 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿

171
→ →
P×Q =−3 i+5 j+7 k
Example 7.15
→ → → →
Given two vectors A =4 i+5 j−k and B=−2 i−3 j+6 k ,find A ×B .
Solution
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||4 5 −1¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =¿|5 −1 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =27 i−22 j−2k
Activity 7.9
Find the cross product of the following vectors;
→ → → →
i) A =−3 i+ j−4 k and B=4 i+3 j−5 k ii) P=4 i+2 j−k andQ =i−3 j+5 k
→ → → →
iii) M =i+6 j−k and B=4 i+3 j+9 k iv) A =−2i−3 j+4 k and B=4 i+3 j+3 k
7.4.1 Parallel Vectors
→ →
Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel and facing in the same
direction if the angle between them is 00or 1800. Hence θ=00 or θ=1800
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n ] →
But sin 00 =0 and sin 180 0=0
Hence for parallel vectors we get;

→ →
A ×B =0
171
Conclusion
Two vectors are said to be parallel if and only if their cross product is
equal to zero.
7.4.2 Cross Product of Similar Vectors

→ → →
We proceed to find the cross product of vector A and A . We note vector A
→
and A are similar and facing in same direction (they are collinear). Hence the
0
angle between them is 00 and thereforeθ=0 .
→ →
[ → →
] →
A ×A = |A||A|sinθ n But sin 00=0
→ →
Hence we get A ×A =0
We also find that
i×i=0
j× j=0
k ×k =0
7.4.3 Perpendicular vectors
→ →
Two vectors A and B are said to be perpendicular if the angle between
0
them is 900. Hence θ=90
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sin90 n 0
] →
0
But cos 90 =1
Hence we get
→ →
[ ] → → →
A ×B = |A||B| n
171
NOTE
On the Cartesian plane, the unit vectors i, j and k are perpendicular to one
another and therefore;
i× j=k ⇒ j×i=−k
j×k =i ⇒ k× j=−i
k ×i= j ⇒i×k=− j
Example 7.16
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||a b c¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
Given two vectors A =ai+bj+ck and B=di+ ej+ fk . Prove that
Solution
→ →
A ×B =( ai+bj+ck )×( di+ej+fk )
→ →
A ×B=(a )(d)(i×i)+(a)(e)(i× j )+(a)(f )(i×k )+(b )(d )( j×i)+(b )( e)( j× j)+
(b )(f )( j×k)+(c)(d )(k×i)+(c)(e)( k× j)+(c )(f )(k×k)
i×i=0 i× j=k ⇒ j×i=−k

j× j=0 j×k =i ⇒ k× j=−i
But we have k ×k =0 and k ×i= j ⇒i×k=− j
→ →
A ×B =( a)(e)k−(a )( f ) j−(b)(d )k+(b)( f )i+(c )( d ) j−(c)(e)i
→ →
A ×B =( bf −ce ) i−( af −cd ) j+ ( ae−bd ) k
→ →
A ×B =¿|b c ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||a b c¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
Example 7.16

171
→ →
The dot product of two vectors A and B is -9 while the cross product is
5 i−4 j+k . Find the angle between the two vectors.
Solution
From definition
→ → → →
A⋅B =|A||B|cosθ=−9 (1)
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n =5i−4 j+k ] →
(2)
From (1) we get;

→ →
|A||B|cosθ=−9 (3)
From equation (3) we get;

→ → −9
|A||B|=
cosθ (4)
From (2) we get;
[|A||B|sinθ] n=5i−4 j+k

→ → →
(5)
Taking the modulus on both sides of equation (5) yields;
[ ]→ → →
| |A||B|sinθ n|=|5i−4 j+k|
|[|A||B|sinθ ]||n|=|5i−4 j+k|

→ → →
(6)
The modulus of constant c is equal to c and therefore;
[ → →
] → →
| |A||B|sinθ |=|A||B|sinθ (7)
171
The modulus of a unit vector is equal to one and therefore;
→
|n|=1 (8)
We also find that;
|5i−4 j+k|=√ 25+16+1=√ 42 (9)
Substituting (7), (8) and (9) in (6) yields;

→ →
|A||B|sinθ=√ 42 (10)
From equation (10) we get;

→ → 6.48
|A||B|=
sin θ (11)
Comparing (4) and (11) yields;
−9 6 . 48
=
cos θ sin θ
sin θ −6 . 48
=
cos θ 9
tanθ=−0 . 72
θ=144 . 250
Activity 7.10
→ →
a) The dot product of two vectors A and B is 7 while the cross product is
−4 i+3 k . Find the angle between the two vectors.
→ →
b) The dot product of two vectors A and B is -11 while the cross product is
4 i− j+2 k . Find the angle between the two vectors.
7.6 Application of cross Product
7.6.1 Vector perpendicular to a plane

171
→ → → →
If two vectors A and B lie on a given plane, their cross product ( A ×B ) will
always give a vector perpendicular to that plane.
Example 7.17
→
Find a vector perpendicular to a plane spanned by the vectors A =5i+ j−2 k
→
and B=i−2 j+3 k
Solution
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||5 1 −2¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =¿|1 −2 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−i−17 j−11k
Example 7.18
Find a unit vector perpendicular to a plane spanned by the vectors

→ →
A =i+2 j−k and B=2 i− j+3 k
Solution
Vector perpendicular to the plane is given by;
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||1 2 −1¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =¿|2 −1 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =5i−5 j−5k
Unit vector perpendicular to the plane is given by;

171
→ →
→ A ×B
n= → →
|A ×B|
→ →
|A ×B|= √25+25+25=√ 75=5 √3
→ 1 1 1
n= i− j− k
√3 √ 3 √3
Activity 7.11
a) Find a unit vector perpendicular to a plane spanned by the vectors

→ →
A =4 i+ j−3 k and B=i−3 j+3 k
b) Find a unit vector perpendicular to a plane spanned by the vectors

→ →
A =−5 i+2 j−k and B=4 i− j+3 k
7.6.2 Equation of a plane
We can easily obtain the equation of a plane using cross product when
given;
i) Two vectors and a point on the plane.
ii) Three points on the plane.
Example 7.19
→
Find the equation of a plane that contain the vectors A =4 i+ j−3 k and
→
B=i−3 j+3 k , and the point C(2,-1,3).
Solution
We first obtain the vector perpendicular to the plane
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||4 1 −3¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
171
→ →
A ×B =¿|1 − 3 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−6i−15 j−13k (1)
→
We introduce a point P ( x , y , z ) on the plane. Therefore vector PC lies on the
→ →
plane and hence it’s perpendicular to vector A ×B . Therefore;
→ → →
PC⋅A ×B=0 (2)
→
PC =( x−2 ) i+ ( y +1 ) j+ ( z−3 ) k (3)
Substituting (1) and (3) in (2) yields;
−6 ( x−2 ) −15 ( y+1 )−13 ( z−3 )=0
6 x +15 y +13 z=36

Example 7.20
Find the equation of a plane containing points A ( 0,−1,4 ) , B (3,5,−2) and C ( 4,0,−3 ) .
Solution
We first compute any two vectors on the plane

→
AB=3 i+6 j−6 k
→
AC =4 i+ j−7 k
The vector perpendicular to the plane is;
→ →
AB×AC=¿|i j k¿||3 6 −6¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
AB× AC=−36i−3 j−21k (1)

171
→
We introduce a point P ( x , y , z ) on the plane. Therefore vector PC lies on the
→ →
plane and hence it’s perpendicular to vector AB× AC . Therefore;
→ → →
PC⋅AB × AC =0 (2)
→
PC =( x−4 ) i+ yj+ ( z +3 ) k (3)
−36 ( x−4 ) −3 y−21 ( z+3 )=0
12 x+ y +7 z=27
Activity 7.12
→
a) Find the equation of a plane that contain the vectors A =3i+ j−8 k and
→
B=2 i− j+k , and the point C(-2,-1,1).
→
b) Find the equation of a plane that contain the vectors A =i+4 j−2 k and
→
B=2 i−3 j+k , and the point C(0,-2,3).
c) Find the equation of a plane containing points

A ( 1,−1,0 ) , B (−2,5,−2) and C (−4 ,2,−3 ) .
d) Find the equation of a plane containing points

A ( 2,0,−4 ) , B (−3,4 ,−2) and C ( 4 ,−1,3 ) .
7.6.3 Area of a Parallelogram
We consider a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are formed by the vectors

→ →
→ →
A and B . The length of adjacent lines are therefore given by |A| and|B|.

171
→
|A|
→
A
θ
→ →
B
|B|
1 → →
2 |A||B|sinθ
Area of parallelogram= 2
( )
→ →
Area of parallelogram=
|A||B|sinθ (1)
From definition of cross product we have;
→ →
[ → →
A ×B = |A||B|sinθ n ] →
(2)
Taking the modulus on both sides of equation (2) yields;
→ →
[ ] → →
|A ×B|=| |A||B|sinθ n|
→
|A ×B|=|[|A||B|sinθ ]||n|
→ → → → →
→ → → →
|A ×B|=|A||B|sinθ (3)
Comparing equations (1) and (3) we get;

→ →
|A ×B|
Example 7.21

171
Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are formed by the
→ →
vectors A =i+4 j−2 k and B=2 i−3 j+k .
Solution
→ →
|A ×B|
→ →
A×B=¿|i j k¿||1 4 −2¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−2i−5 j−11 k
→ →
|A ×B|= √ 4+25+121=12.25
Area of parallelogram=12.25 square units.
Example 7.22
Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are A ( 2,0,−4 ) , B (−3,4 ,−2) and C ( 4 ,−1,3 )
Solution
C ( 4,−1,3 )
→
AC
θ
A ( 2,0,−4 ) → B (−3,4,−2 )
MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRYAB PAGE 117 OF
171
We note from the figure above that;
Area of parallelogram=twice area of triangle

→ →
|AC ×AB|
→
AC =2i− j+7 k
→
AB=−5 i+4 j+2 k
→ →
AC×AB=¿|i j k¿||2 −1 7¿|¿ ¿¿
¿
→ →
A ×B =−30 i−39 j+3k
→ →
|A ×B|= √900+1521+9=49.3
Area of parallelogram= 49.3sq units
1
( 49 . 3 )=24 .65
Area of a triangle= 2 sq units
Activity 7.13
a) Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are formed by the
→ →
vectors A =2i−3 j+2 k and B=5 i+ j+6 k .
b) Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are

A ( 1,−3,4 ) , B(−3,0,−2) and C ( 4 ,5,−3 )
Topic Summary
We have noted that the magnitude of a unit vector is one. The dot product of
two vectors is a scalar quantity. The cross product of two vectors is a vector.
Work done is given by dot product of force and displacement.

171
TOPIC EIGHT- VECTOR AND CARTESIAN EQUATION OF A LINE
Learning Outcome
 Find the vector equation of a line

 Find the Cartesian equation of a line
Topic Time
8.0 Introduction
This topic will focus on how to write the vector and Cartesian equation of a
line in three dimensions. Finding the point of intersection of two lines in
three dimensions and perpendicular distance between a point and a line will
also be discussed.

171
8.1 Vector Equation of a Line
To obtain the vector equation of a line we must be provided with;
i) A known point on the line Pk ( a , b , c ) and ii) A known vector on the line
→
B=ei+fj+gk
We therefore proceed to find the vector equation of a line that contains the
→
point Pk ( a , b , c ) and the vector B=ei+fj+gk .
→
Let P M ( x , y , z ) be any on the line. We also let A to be the position vector of
→
the known point Pk ( a , b , c ) and r to be the position vector of P M ( x , y , z ) . All
these is demonstrated in the figure below.
We note that;

171
→
A =ai+bj+ck (1)
→
r =xi+ yj+zk (2)
→ →
P P
Vectors k M and B lie on the same line and hence they are collinear.
Therefore;
→ →
Pk P M = λ B (3)
We note that;
→ → →
OP M =OP k +Pk P M (4)
Substituting (3) in (4) yields;

→ → →
r= A + λ B (5)
→
r =ai+ bj+ ck + λ ( ei+ fj+ gk ) (6)
Equation (6) is called the vector equation of line.
Example 8.1
→
Find a point and a vector on the line r =2i−3 j+4 k + λ (−i+2 j−7 k )
Solution
The vector equation of a line is given by;

→
r =ai+ bj+ ck + λ ( ei+ fj+ gk )
→
where ( a , b , c ) is a point on the line and B=ei+fj+gk is a vector on the line.
We find that a=2 , b=−3 c=4
Hence point on the line is ( 2,−3,4 )
We find that e=−1 , f =2 g=−7

171
→
Hence vector on the line is B=−i+2 j−7 k
Activity 8.1
Find a point and a vector on the line;

→ →
i) r =−4 i+6 j−k +λ (3 i+2 j+9 k ) ii) r =−i−4 j+8 k +λ (−10 i−13 j+5 k )
→ →
iii) r =7 i+4 j−11k +λ ( 2 j−7 k ) iv) r =2i+5 k +λ (−i−12 j )
Example 8.2
Find the vector equation of line if point (−5 , 2, 9 ) and vector3 i−4 j−7 k lie on it.
Solution
The vector equation of a line is given by;

→
→
We find that a=−5 , b=2 c=9 , e=3 , f =−4 g=−7
Hence the vector equation is;

→
r =−5i+2 j+9 k + λ ( 3 i−4 j−7 k )
Activity 8.2
Find the vector equation of line L if point ( 3,−2,−4 ) and vector−2 i+ j−9 k lie
on it.
8.2 Cartesian Equation of a Line
Equation (6) can be expressed in column form as;

171
→
r=¿ ( a¿)( b¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿ (7)
Substituting (2) in (7) we get;
( x¿ )( y ¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿
x=a +λe
y=b+λf
z=c +λg
λe=x−a
λf = y−b
λg=z−c
x−a
λ=
e
y−b
λ=
f
z−c
λ=
g (8)
Equation (8) yields;
x−a y−b z−c

= =
e f g (9)
Equation (9) is called the Cartesian equation of a straight line. It’s observed
in this equation that from the numerator we see known point on the line and
from denominator we see known vector on the line.
Example 8.3
x−1 y +3 2 z−6
= =
Find the point and the vector on the line 5 −2 4
Solution
171
x+ s x−(−s ) s−x −( x−s ) x−s
= = =
Recall that; i) t t ii) t t −t
ax +s
=
( as ) = {a ( x + as )} 1a = x + as
a x+
t( )
t t 1 t
iii) a a
Rearranging the second part of the given equation
y+ 3 y−(−3 )
=
−2 −2
Rearranging the third part of the given equation
2 z−6 2 (z −3) z−3

= =
4 4 2
Hence the given equation yields;
x−1 y −(−3) z−3

= =
5 −2 2 (2)
The Cartesian equation of a line is given by;
x−a y−b z−c

= =
e f g (3)
→
Comparing (2) and (3);
We find that a=1 , b=−3 c=3
Hence point on the line is ( 1,−3,3 )
We also note that e=5 , f =−2 g=2

→
Hence vector on the line is B=5 i−2 j+2 k
Example 8.4

171
3−x 8−3 z
=2 y−3=
Find the point and the vector on the line 5 7
Solution
Rearranging the first part of the given equation
3−x −( x−3 ) x −3
= =
5 5 −5
Rearranging the second part of the given equation
2 y−3 2 ( y−1 .5 ) y −1. 5

2 y−3= = =
1 1 0 .5
Rearranging the third part of the given equation
8−3 z −( 3 z −8 )
= =
( ) = z− 83
−3 z−
8
3
7 7 7 −7
3
Hence the given equation yields;
8
z−
x−3 y−1 .5 3
= =
−5 0.5 −7
3
Point on the line

( 3 , 1. 5 , )
8
3
→ 7
B=−5 i+0 .5 j− k
Vector on the line 3
Activity 8.3
Find the point and the vector on the line;
x−7 y−1 2 x−12 y 3−z

= =z−8 = =
i) −3 4 ii) −3 4 2

171
4 x−1 7−2 y 3+2 z 3x 6 z +5
= = =5−2 y=
iii) 9 4 8 iv) 2 2
Example 8.5
→
Prove that point ( 1,−9,1 ) lies on the line r =3i+3 j−k +λ ( i+6 j−k )
Solution
We are given;
→
r =3i+3 j−k +λ ( i+6 j−k )
→
But r =xi+ yj+zk where ( x , y , z ) is any point on the line
→
We therefore substitute r in the given equation to get;
xi+ yj+ zk=3i+3 j−k + λ (i+6 j−k ) (1)
Substituting the given point in (1)
i−9 j+k=3 i+3 j−k +λ ( i+6 j−k )
i−9 j+k=( 3+ λ ) i+ ( 3+6 λ ) j+ (−1−λ ) k
3+λ=1
3+6 λ=−9
−1− λ=1 (2)
After solving equation (1) the value of λ must be the same in all the three
equations if the given point lies on the given line.
Solving equations (2) we get;
λ=−2 in part (i) λ=−2 in part (ii) and λ=−2 in part (iii)
Since the value of λ is the same, then the given point lies on the line.
Example 8.6

171
→
Prove that lines r =17 i+2 j−6k+λ (−9i+3 j+9k ) and
→
r =2i−12 j−k +λ (−3 i+ j+3 k ) are parallel
Solution
→
r
We first distinguish the two lines by naming the first line as 1 and its
→
r
parameter λ 1 and then the second line as 2 and its parameter λ 2
Hence we get;
→
r 1 =17 i+ 2 j−6 k + λ1 (−9 i+3 j+9 k )
→
r 2 =2 i−12 j−k + λ2 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
→
r
The two lines can only be parallel if the vector on line 1 is parallel to the
→
r
vector on line 2 .
→ →
r B =−9 i+3 j+9 k
Vector on line 1 is 1
→ →
r B =−3 i+ j+ 3 k
Vector on line 2 is 2
→ →
B B
Therefore the two lines are parallel if 1 is parallel to 2 .
→ → → →
B1 is parallel to B2 if B1 =t B 2
→
B1 =−9 i+3 j+9 k=3 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
→ →
We find that; B1 =3 B2
→ →
B B
Therefore 1 is parallel to 2 and hence the two lines are parallel.
Example 8.7

171
→
Find the point of intersection of the lines r =2i−3 j+4k+ λ ( 6 i+7 j−k ) and
→
r =2i−12 j−k +λ (−3 i+ j+3 k ) .
Solution
→
r
We first distinguish the two lines by naming the first line as 1 and its
→
r
parameter λ 1 and then the second line as 2 and its parameter λ 2
Hence we get;
→
r 1 =2 i−3 j+4 k +λ 1 ( 6 i+7 j−k )
→
r 2 =2 i−12 j−k + λ2 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
Let ( m ,l , n ) be the point of intersection. This point must lie on the two lines at
the point of intersection.
→
r
From line 1 we have;
→
r 1 =2 i−3 j+4 k +λ 1 ( 6 i+7 j−k )
xi+ yj+ zk =2i−3 j+ 4 k + λ1 ( 6 i +7 j−k )
Substituting point ( m ,l , n )
mi+ lj+nk =2i−3 j+ 4 k+ λ1 ( 6 i +7 j −k )
mi+ lj+nk =( 2+6 λ 1 ) i+ (−3+7 λ 1 ) j + ( 4−λ 1 ) k
m=2+6 λ1
l=−3+ 7 λ1
n=4−λ 1 (1)
→
r
From line 2 we have;
→
r 2 =2 i−12 j−k + λ2 (−3 i+ j+3 k )
171
xi+ yj+ zk =2i−12 j−k + λ 2 (−3 i+ j +3 k )
Substituting point ( m ,l , n )
mi+ lj+nk =2i−12 j −k + λ 2 (−3 i+ j +3 k )
mi+ lj+nk =( 2−3 λ 2 ) i + (−12+ λ 2 ) j + ( −1+3 λ2 ) k
m=2−3 λ2
l=−12+ λ2
n=−1+3 λ2 (2)
Comparing (1) and (2) yields;
2+6 λ 1=2−3 λ2
−3+7 λ 1=−12+ λ2
4− λ1 =−1+3 λ2
6 λ 1 +3 λ2 =0
7 λ 1−λ 2 =−9
λ 1 +3 λ2 =5 (3)
Solve any two equations simultaneously to get λ 1 and λ 2
2 λ1 + λ2 =0
7 λ 1−λ 2 =−9 (4)
Solving (4) yields;
λ 1=−1 , λ2 =2 (5)
We substitute (5) in either (1) or (2) to get the point of intersection ( m ,l . n )
After substituting we get m=−4 , l=−10 , n=5 . Hence the point is(−4,−10,5 )
Example 8.8
Find the perpendicular distance between the point A ( 4 ,−3,10 ) and the line

171
→
r=¿ (1 ¿)( 2¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
Solution
We let Q(l , m, n ) to be a point on the given line such that AQ is perpendicular

to the line.
A ( 4 ,−3,10 )
→
r
Q ( l, m , n )
In column form the given line can be written as;
→
r=¿ (1 ¿)( 2¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
( x ¿ )( y ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
Point Q(l , m, n ) must satisfy this equation because it lies on the line.
( l ¿ )( m ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
171
l=1+3 λ
m=2−λ
n=3+2 λ
Hence point Q(l , m, n ) can be expressed as;
Q(1+3 λ , 2−λ ,3+2 λ ) (1)

→
The column vector AQ is therefore given by;
→
AQ =( 3 λ−3 ) i+ (− λ+5 ) j+ ( 2 λ−7 ) k (2)
Vector on the given line is;

→
B=3 i− j+2 k (3)
→ →
Vectors AQ and B are perpendicular and therefore;
→ →
AQ⋅B =0 (4)
3 ( 3 λ−3 )−1 (−λ+5 )+2 ( 2 λ−7 ) =0

λ=2 (5)
Q ( 7,0,7 )
→
AQ =3 i+3 j−3 k
→
|AQ|= √27
Activity 8.4
→ →
a) Prove that lines r =i−5 j−2 k+λ (2 i− j+4 k ) and r =9i+2 j−k +λ ( 4 i−2 j+8 k )
are parallel
171
b) Find the point of intersection of the lines;
→ →
i) r =3i−2 j−k+λ (−i+3 j+4 k ) and r =2i−4 j+k +λ (−i−2 k ) .
→ →
ii) r =3i−2 j−k+λ (−i+3 j+4 k ) and r =−2i+ j+ λ ( 2i−3 j+3k )
y−2 x−1 y +3
x= =1−z = =z −2
iii) 2 and −3 −3
c) Find the angle between the lines;

→ →
i) r =2i−3 j+4k+ λ ( 6 i+7 j−k ) and r =2i−12 j−k +λ (−3 i+ j+3 k ) .
→ →
ii) r =3i−2 j−k+λ (−i+3 j+4 k ) and r =−2i+ j+ λ ( 2i−3 j+3 k )
y−2 x−1 y +3
x= =1−z = =z −2
iii) 2 and −3 −3
Hint; Think of dot product of vectors on the lines.
TOPIC SUMMARY
We have noted that the vector equation of a line is given by;

→
→
We have also noted that the Cartesian equation of a line is given by;
x−a y−b z−c

= =
e f g
It’s observed in this equation that from the numerator we see known point
on the line and from denominator we see known vector on the line.
TOPIC NINE-VECTOR AND CARTESIAN EQUATION OF A PLANE

171
Learning Outcome
 Find the vector equation of a plane

 Find the Cartesian equation of a plane
Topic Time
9.0 Introduction
This topic will focus on how to write the vector and Cartesian equation of a
plane. Finding the line of intersection of two planes and angle between a line
and a plane will also be discussed.
9.1 Vector Equation of a plane

To obtain the vector equation of a plane we need a known point on the plane
and a vector perpendicular to the plane.Let A( a ,b , c) be a known point on the

→
plane and H =li+mj+nk be a vector perpendicular to the plane.
→
H =li+mj+nk
Plane
A ( a , b, c ) Q ( x, y , z )
→ →
W r
O ( 0,0,0 )
171
→
We let Q ( x, y , z ) to be any point on the plane. We also let W to be the position
→
vector of A ( a , b, c ) and r to be the position vector ofQ ( x, y , z ) .
Therefore;
→
r =xi+ yj+zk (1)
→
W =ai+bj+ck (2)
→
We note that vector AQ lies on the plane and it’s therefore perpendicular to
→
the vector H . We find that;
→ → →
AQ = AO +OQ
→ → →
AQ =r −W (3)
→ →
AQ⋅H =0 (4)
Substituting (3) in (5)
→ → →
( r −W )⋅H =0
→ → → →
r⋅H −W⋅H =0
→ → → →
r⋅H =W⋅H
→ →
r⋅H =d
→ →
where d=W⋅H (5)
Equation (5) is called the vector equation of a plane. In column form,

equation (5) can also be written as;

171
→
r⋅¿ (l ¿)(m ¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿ (6)
Equation (6) is the vector equation of a plane in column form.
Example 9.1
( 3,−2,5 ) and is
Find the vector equation of plane that contains point
perpendicular to the vectori+4 j−2 k
Solution
The vector equation of plane is given by;

→ →
r⋅H =d
→ →
where d=W⋅H
→
H =li+mj+nk is a vector perpendicular to the plane
→
W =ai+bj+ck is the position vector of known point on the plane A ( a , b, c )
Hence
→ →
H =i+4 j−2 k W =3 i−2 j+5 k
d=(1)(3 )+( 4 )(−2 )+(−2)(5 )=−15
→
→ r⋅¿ ( 1 ¿ )( 4 ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
r⋅( i + 4 j−2 k )=−15 or ¿
Activity 9.1
(−4,−1,8 ) and is
a) Find the vector equation of plane that contains point
perpendicular to the vector2 i−3 j+k

171
b) Find the vector equation of plane that contains a point whose position
6 i−2 j+4 k and is perpendicular to the vector−i+7 j−9 k
vector is
9.1 Cartesian Equation of a plane
We noted that the vector equation of plane is given by;
→
r⋅¿ (l ¿)(m ¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿ which can also be written as;
→
r⋅( li+ mj+nk )=d (1)
→
But r =xi+ yj+zk (2)

→ →
lx+my +nz=d where d=W⋅H (3)
Equation (3) is called the Cartesian equation of plane.
Example 9.2
Find the Cartesian equation of plane that contains point ( 3,−2,5 ) and is
perpendicular to the vectori+4 j−2 k
Solution
The Cartesian equation of plane is given by;

→ →
lx+my +nz=d where d=W⋅H
→
H =li+mj+nk is a vector perpendicular to the plane
→
W =ai+bj+ck is the position vector of known point on the plane A ( a , b, c )
Hence
171
→
H =i+4 j−2 k Hence l=1 , m=4 , n=−2
→
W =3 i−2 j+5 k
d=(1)(3 )+( 4 )(−2 )+(−2)(5 )=−15
x +4 y−2 z=−15
Example 9.3
Find the vector perpendicular to a plane 3 x+7 y−4 z=12
Solution
Equation of a plane is given by;

→ →
Therefore from the given plane we have;
l=3 , m=7 , n=−4 , and d=12

→
H =li+mj+nk is a vector perpendicular to the plane. Therefore;
→
H =3 i+7 j−4 k
Example 9.4
→
Find the point of intersection of the line r =5 i+3 j−k +λ ( i−4 j+2 k ) and the
→
plane r⋅( 2 i+ j+3 k )=12 .
Solution
We let ( e , f , g ) to be the point of intersection and hence it must satisfy both

the equation of a plane and that of the line.
From the equation of the line we have;

171
→
r =5 i+3 j−k +λ ( i−4 j+2 k )
xi+ yj+zk =5i+3 j−k +λ (i−4 j+2 k )
Since point( e , f , g ) must satisfy this equation we substitute to get;
ei+ fj+ gk=5 i+3 j−k + λ ( i−4 j+2 k ) (1)
In column form, equation (1) yields;
( e ¿ )( f ¿ ) ¿ ¿¿
¿
e=5+ λ
f =3−4 λ
g=−1+2 λ (2)
From the equation of the plane we have;

→
r⋅( 2 i+ j+3 k )=12
( xi+ yj+ zk )⋅( 2i+ j+3 k )=12
Since point( e , f , g ) must satisfy this equation we substitute to get;
( ei+ fj+ gk )⋅( 2 i+ j+3 k ) =12

2e+ f +3 g=12 (3)
2 ( 5+λ )+ (3−4 λ ) +3 (−1+2 λ ) =12

1
λ=
2 (4)
e=5 . 5 , f =1, g=0 Required point ( 5.5,1,0 )

171
Example 9.5
→ →
Show that the line r =3i+3 j−2 k +λ ( i+ j−k ) lies on the plane r⋅( 3 i−2 j+k )=1
Solution
Method I
→
If the given line lies on the given plane, then the vector on the line B must
→ →
be perpendicular to vector H .Recall H is the vector perpendicular to the
plane.
Therefore;
→ →
B⋅H =0
From the given equation of a line we get;
→
B=i+ j−k
From the given equation of a plane we get;
→
H =3 i−2 j+k
→ →
B⋅H =(1)(3 )+(1)(−2 )+(−1)(1)=0
Method II
If the given line lies on the given plane, then the point on the line must also
lie on the plane.
From the given equation of a plane we note that;
d=1
From the given equation of a line we get point on the line as;
( 3,3,−2 ) . This point also lies on the plane and hence;

→
W =3 i+3 j−2 k

171
From the given equation of a plane we get;
→
H =3 i−2 j+k
→ →
Recall d=W⋅H
→ →
W⋅H =(3)(3 )+(3)(−2)+(−2)(1)=1
Example 9.6
Find the Cartesian and vector equation of a line that is formed by

intersection of the planes 7 x−4 y +3 z=−3 and4 x+2 y +z=4
Solution
Step 1
Eliminate y by solving the two equations simultaneously and then make x

the subject;
7 x−4 y +3 z=−3
4 x+ 2 y + z=4
42x−24 y+18z=−18¿ }¿¿+

¿
90x+30z=30
3 x+ z=1
1−z
x=
3 (1)
Step 2
Eliminate z by solving the two equations simultaneously and then make x

the subject;
7x−4 y+3z=−3¿ }¿¿−

¿
5x+10z=15
x +2 y=3
171
3−2 y
x=
1 (2)
Combining equations (1) and (2) yields;
3−2 y 1−z
x= =
1 3
x−0 y−1 .5 z−1

= =
1 −0 . 5 −3 (3)
Equation (3) is the required Cartesian equation of the line.
Vector equation is;

→
r =1 . 5 j+k +λ (i−0 .5 j−3 k )
Example 9.7
x+1 y−2 z−3

= =
Find the acute between the line 4 −1 −1 and the plane 3 x−5 y +4 z=5
Solution
Vector perpendicular to the plane is;

→
H =3 i−5 j+4 k
Vector on the line is;
→
B=4 i− j−k

171
From definition of dot product we get;
→ → → →
H⋅B=|H||B|cos00
→ →
H⋅B=(3)( 4 )+(−1)(−5 )+(−1 )(4 )=13
→
|H|=√ 9+25+16=7.07
→
|B|=√16+1+1=4.24
13=(7 . 07)( 4 . 24 )cos θ
cos θ=0 . 4337
θ=64 . 30
Let α be the angle between the plane and the line. We get;

171
α=180 0−( 900 + 64 .3 0 )
α=25 . 70
Activity 9.3
Find the Cartesian equation of plane that contains point ( 2,4,−5 ) and is
a)
perpendicular to the vector2 i−6 j+7 k
b) Find the vector perpendicular to a plane −2 x+6 y−8 z=12

→
c) Find the point of intersection of the line r =3i+ j−3 k +λ (−i+2 j+4 k ) and the
→
plane r⋅( 3 i− j+ 2 k )=8 .
→
d) Show that the line r =i+4 j+10 k + λ ( 2i−3 j+k ) lies on the plane
→
r⋅( 3 i+ j−3 k )=−23
e) Find the Cartesian and vector equation of a line that is formed by
intersection of the planes x−2 y +3 z=5 and3 x+ y+2 z=3
x−3 y+ 5 z−1
= =
f) Find the angle between the line 2 4 5 and the plane x− y +4 z=7
x+1 z−3
= y −2=
g) Find the angle between the line 4 −1 and the plane
→
r⋅( 3 i−5 j+4 k )=5
h) Show that point ( 1,−2,−3 ) lies on the plane 3 x−5 y +4 z=5 .

→
i) Find the point of intersection of the line r =2i− j+3 k +λ ( 5 i+3 j+2 k ) and the
plane x +2 y−z=15 .
→ →
j) Find the angle between the planes r⋅( i− j +k ) =7 and r⋅( 2 i−3 j+3 k )=10
k) Find the angle between the planes 6 x +2 y+5 z=4 and x−4 y +3 z=9
9.1 Perpendicular Distance between a Plane and a Point

171
We state without proof that the perpendicular distance L between a plane
ax +by + cz+ d=0 and the point ( e , f , g ) is given by;
ae +bf +cg +d
L=
√ a2 + b2 + c 2
Example 9.8
→
Find the perpendicular distance between the plane r⋅( 2 i−3 j+3 k )=10 and the
point ( 1,−2,−3 ) .
Solution
We first find the equation of the plane in Cartesian form where we get;
2 x−3 y +3 z=10 (1)
We express equation (1) in the formax +by + cz+ d=0 which gives;
2 x−3 y +3 z−10=0
Therefore;
a=2 , b=−3 , c=3 , d=−10 , e=1 , f =−2, g=−3

Perpendicular distance L is given by;
(2 )(1)+(−3 )(−2 )+(3 )(−3 )−10

L=
√ 22+(−3 )2+32
L=−2 . 35 ignore negative because it’s distance.
L=2 . 35
Activity 9.4
→
Find the perpendicular distance between the plane r⋅(−4 i+7 j+k )=6 and the
point ( 3,9,−2 ) .
TOPIC SUMMARY

171
We have noted that the vector equation of a plane is given by;
→ →
r⋅H =d
→ →
where d=W⋅H
→
r⋅¿ (l ¿)(m ¿) ¿ ¿¿
The equation can also be written in column form as ¿
The Cartesian equation of plane is given by
→ →

171
10: POLAR COORDINATES
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this topic a student should be to:
 Plot points using polar coordinates.

 Convert from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.
 Convert from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates.
 Transform equations between polar and rectangular forms.
 Identify and graph polar equations by converting to rectangular
equations.
Topic Duration:
 Compulsory online reading, activities and self-assessments and
practice: 5 Hours
 Optional further reading: 3 Hours
 Total student input: 8 Hours
Topic Learning requirements:
Reading the notes, paying close attention to examples given and attempting
all the exercises and activities given.
Introduction
The polar coordinate system is a new coordinate system that locates points
by their distance from the origin and direction in standard angle measure is
an alternative way to describe the graphs of equations. The advantage of
using this new system is that many equations become simpler in these
coordinates, and there are also many beautiful graphs that arise that you
wouldn’t think of using x-y coordinates.
Big skill:. You should be able to switch between polar and rectangular
coordinates for a point on the plane, and sketch the graphs of polar
equations.
Rectangular coordinates: In Cartesian(Rectangular) coordinate system,

the coordinates are numbers called the abscissa and the ordinate, and these
numbers are directed distances from two fixed lines.

171
abscissa; ordinate
Thus the coordinate system describes how to “get to” a point from the origin
by walking East-West, then North-South. For example, to get to the point
(2, 1) from the origin, walk 2 units east, then 1 unit north:
(2, 1)
Polar coordinates: In polar coordinate system, the coordinates consist of a

distance and a measure of an angle relative to a fixed point and fixed ray (or
half line). The fixed point is called the pole or origin, and is denoted by letter
The fixed ray is called the polar axis (or polar line), which we label .
The ray is usually drawn horizontally and to the right, and it extends
indefinitely.

171
Thus, polar coordinates describe how to “get to” a point from the origin “as
the crow flies;” that is, by turning toward the correct direction, and then
walking straight to the point. For example, to get to the point (2,1) from the
origin, turn through an angle radians (as measured from

the standard position), and then walk a distance of
units along that direction:
Thus, the location of a point on the plane can be represented by the

coordinates (x, y), or the coordinates (r, ), and the relationship between
rectangular coordinates and polar coordinates is based on trigonometry:
Plotting Polar Coordinates

Consider the following examples:
Example:
(a) Sketch a plot of

Procedure:

171
We measure angle of from the polar axis in the counterclockwise
direction, and then measure 1 unit from the origin to the point
corresponding to the angle. Hence, we have:
Practice: Plot the following: (a) (b) (c)
Converting from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates:
 Plug into the equations

Example: Convert the following polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates:
(a)
Solution:
Observe that:
Hence, the required rectangular coordinates are given by:
(b)
Solution:
Take note that:

171
Then the required rectangular coordinates are given by:
Practice: Plot and find rectangular coordinates for the polar points ,
, , and .
y

x
        


Converting from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates:
 Plug into the equations , then solve for r and .

 Keep in mind that r could be positive or negative.
 Keep in mind that  is only defined to within multiples of 2.
 Keep in mind that since the domain of the arctangent function is
, you have to work a little harder to get the correct angle for when 
is in quadrants II or III by either:
o looking at the graph and using reference angles
o using the simple computer science trick: when x <

0.
171
Example: Covert the following rectangular coordinates into polar
coordinates so that and :
(a)
Solution:
Recall that
Then the required polar coordinates is given by:

(b)
Solution:
Like in the example above, we see that
Then the required polar coordinates is:

Practice: Find the polar coordinates of the rectangular points (3, 3), (-2, 1),
(-1, -2), and (2, -2).
y

x
        



171
Converting an equation from rectangular coordinates to polar
coordinates:
 Make the substitutions

Example
Write a polar equation of the line through the points with the rectangular
coordinates and .
Solution:
The equation of the line in rectangular coordinates is calculated as follows:
The slope,
Hence the equation of the line in rectangular coordinate form is:
We know that
Hence the polar equation of the line is:

In conclusion, the graph of the equation is a line through the pole
forming an angle
of measure with the polar axis. Furthermore, all points of the form, for
instance for any value are 2 units from the pole and, therefore,
determine a circle with center and radius Thus the graph of the polar
equation r = 2 for all is a circle
Practice: Convert the equations x2 + y2 = 9 and y = 2x into polar

coordinates.

171
Converting an equation from Polar coordinates to Rectangular
coordinates form:
Consider the example below.
Example: Show that is the equation of a circle by converting to

rectangular coordinates form.
Solution:
Note that:
Putting the above into the given polar equation leads to:
Which by completing square method leads to:
Which is equation of a circle, center and radius, .

171
Example: Covert the following polar equation into rectangular coordinate
form and identify the curve

Solution:
Which is the equation of a parabola with directrix and focus .
Sketching a polar coordinate equation r = f():

 Make a table of values
 Make a graph of y = f(x), identify intervals of increase/decrease, then
make a table that describes how the radius changes over those intervals.
 You may also do it by converting the equation to rectangular coordinates.
However, that is likely complicate issues in some instances.
 You could also plug the function into Winplot or your calculator and be
done with it already…
Practice:
Sketch the graph of r = sin().
y =y sin(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283185


x
   


171
Sketch the graph of r = .
Sketch the graph of r = 3 + 2 cos().
y


y = 3 + 2cos(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190
x
   


171
Sketch the graph of r = 2 – 2sin().
y

y = 2 - 2sin(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190

x
   

Sketch the graph of r = 1 – 2sin().
y y = 1 - 2sin(x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190


x
   


171
Sketch the graph of r = sin(2).
x
   

y = sin(2x); 0.000000 <= x <= 6.283190
Activity
Attempt the following questions

1. Plot the following polar coordinates
(a) (b) (c)
2. Show that the polar coordinates and communicate one

and the same point. Give other polar coordinates that communicate the
same. What is your conclusion about polar coordinates as opposed to
rectangular coordinates?
3. Convert the following polar coordinates into rectangular coordinates
(a) (b)
4. Convert the following rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates
(a) (b) (c)

5. Sketch graph of the equations:
171
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
6. Convert the following equations to polar form
(a) to the simplest polar form
(b)
(c)
(d)
7. Convert the following polar forms into rectangular forms
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(f)
(g)

171
11: INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS
Lesson of Objectives:
At the end of the course topic a student should be able to:
 Define, identify and denote a complex number;
 Understand the geometric interpretation, and sketch a complex
number in the complex plane;
 Perform basic algebra involving complex numbers(Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication and Division);
 Derive and apply De’Moivre’s Formula
 Use complex theory to find nth roots of complex numbers as well as
find solutions to simple polynomial equations.
Topic Duration:
 Compulsory online reading, activities and self-assessments and
practice: 5 Hours
 Optional further reading: 3 Hours
 Total student input: 8 Hours
Topic Learning requirements:
Reading the notes, paying close attention to examples given and attempting
all the exercises and activities given
Introduction- Imaginary Unit:

Up to this point we know that it is not quite possible to find the roots of
negative numbers. Well, it is possible. The imaginary unit represent a
number whose square root is . That is, . Observe that a problem
such as has no solutions, since for any real number the square
is nonnegative. Therefore, can never be less than . However, the
facility comes to the rescue and often leads to very useful results.
Hence, we easily find that . This, therefore, means that .
We could also have or

.
Hence, we see that:
171
2
i =( √−1 ) =−1
2
3 2
i =( √−1 ) =( √−1 ) ( √−1 )=−1⋅i=−i
3
4 2 2
i =( √−1 ) =( √−1 ) ( √−1 ) =−1⋅−1 =+1
4
Definition of Complex Numbers:

A complex number is a number of the form , where and
are real numbers and is the imaginary unit defined by . Note, is
called the real part of denote by and is the imaginary part
of , denoted by .
Traditionally the letters and are used to stand for complex numbers.
Operations on Complex Numbers:
Addition and Subtraction: This similar to grouping like terms where real
parts are combined with real parts and imaginary parts are combined with
imaginary parts.
Example:
Express in the form of a complex number .
1.
2.
3.

171
4.
Multiplication of Complex Numbers
The multiplication of two complex numbers is performed using properties

similar to those of the real numbers (FOIL) and distributive property.
Remember that.
Example
Simplify each expression and express in the form of a complex number
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Division of Complex Number
In geometry and simple algebra we are already aware of how rationalize the
denominator of an expression like the expression below. Generally, We
multiplied numerator and denominator by the “conjugate” of the
denominator, : That is,
Consider the complex number arrangement and express it in its standard
form,
171
. In this case the conjugate of the denominator is . Hence, we
have
Attempt the following questions:
Simplify each radical using imaginary numbers.
1. 2. √−7 3. 4.
5. √−16⋅√−2 6. i³ 7. i
5
8. i
6
Simplify and write final answer in standard form (a +bi).

1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Write the following quotients in standard form.
1. 2. 3.
Simplify each radical using imaginary numbers.

171
1. 2. √−7 = 3. 4.
5. √ −16⋅√−2
5 6
6. i³ 7. i 8. i
Simplify and write final answer in standard form (a +bi).
2. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Write the following quotients in standard form.
2. 2. 3.
Graphical Illustration of Complex Numbers

Since any complex number is specified by two real numbers one can
visualize them by plotting a point with coordinates in the plane for a

complex number . The plane in which one plot these complex numbers
is called the Complex plane, or Argand plane.
Figure 1: Argand diagram for a Complex Number
Argument and Absolute Value

171
Given any complex number , the absolute value or modulus of is
given by:
So that is the distance from the origin to the complex number in the
complex plane such as in the figure above.
The angle is called the argument of the complex number . This is

denoted by
. Note, the argument is defined up to a multiple of . That is, for

instance, the argument of could be So that one could say that:
, where is an integer.
Now, trigonometry, we know that for any complex number we have
and
This implies that any complex number can also be expressed in terms of its
argument and modulus. That is:
Denoting , where , then
And
Example: Find the modulus and the argument of ; hence express

the complex number in terms of modulus and argument.
Solution:

171
The modulus, . Observe that lies in the first quadrant, and
hence the argument will be angle between and . And now, from
we find that .
Hence, we have ………you may simplify.
Observe that if and , then
, thus and
Given a complex number , then is referred to as the

complex conjugate of . Note that
Also take that: Given and , where , and
then
and
De’Moivre’s Formula
Assume that for some complex number , and then
From the formula obtained above we observe that
………. (De’Moivre’s Formula)
Hence, note:
and

171
So that, for instance, if and
Then, by De’Moivre’s formula we see that:
Exercise: Use De’Moivre’s formula to show that
(i)
(ii)
The Complex Exponential Function
Consider the complex exponential quantity , and let consider first a case
where . The we know that for any ,
Hence, if then
The above formula gives a relation between five very important quantities in
mathematics, and . It is referred to us the Euler Identity.
Figure 2: Euler Identity
It is, therefore, also important to remember the above presentation that:

171
Which naturally implies that
Complex Roots of Number
For any given number there is a method for finding all the complex
solutions of the equation:
, for being a integer.
To find the solutions, we rewrite in polar form, that is we find and

such that
. Then
is a solution of the equation
But that is not the only solution since, the is not unique; it is determined
only up to multiples of . Therefore, if we have one angle for which
indeed , then we can also write
This then implies that
For the roots of the problem .
So the solutions take the pattern
The solutions form a polygon of sides.
Example: Find all the six (6) roots of the equation .

171
Solution:
We solve the problem .
If we rewrite is the standard complex number form, we have .
Hence and
This implies that
For
Remember that the roots of complex numbers occur in conjugates. That is, if
is a root then is also a root.

171
Figure 3: All the 6 roots of 1 forming a hexagon
Activity: Attempt the following exercises
1. Sketch the following complex numbers, hence or otherwise compute their

respective modulus:
(a) and
(b)
(c)
(d)
2. Find and draw all the roots of:

171
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3. Determine all the complex numbers satisfying the equation: ,

where is the complex conjugate of
4. Find all the complex numbers such that and , is

complex conjugate of
5. The complex numbers and are given by , where

is an integer. Find
(a) in the form
(b) Given that find the possible values of .
6. Given than . Find
7. Given . Find if is real number.
8. Solve the equation , giving your answers in the form
9. Use De’Moivre’s formula to prove that
(a)
(b)

171
(c)
10. If , show that
(a)
(b)
(c)
11. using the concept of complex numbers show that:
(a)
(b)

171

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THE E-CAMPUS

E-LEARNING COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEMPLATE

This is the Egerton University e-Learning course development template. It

Each course contains standardized information on course preliminaries that

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 1 OF 171

COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

MAIN INFORMATION PAGE

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 2 OF 171

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Is this course for you?

This course is compulsory for first year students taking mathematics as a

Introduction to the course

This course gives the basic information on the mathematical operations of

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 3 OF 171

Topic One: Coordinate Geometry

Topic Two: Equation of a Straight line

Topic Three: Equation of a Circle

Topic Four: Equation of a Parabola

Topic Five: Equation of an Ellipse

Topic Six: Equation of Hyperbola

Topic Seven: Vector Operations

Topic Eight: Vector and Cartesian Equation of a Line

Topic Nine: Vector and Cartesian Equation of a Plane

Course Learning Outcomes

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 4 OF 171

Course Study Skills

As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 5 OF 171

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 6 OF 171

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 7 OF 171

Course Learning Requirements

 Timely submission of the assignments

Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 8 OF 171

Topic Learning Requirements

 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

i) Locate a point on the plane

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 9 OF 171

1.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATES

In order to determine the position of a point in the plane, we establish a one

The point of intersection of the X and Y axes is called the origin. It is

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 10 OF

3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

1.2. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE

b) If A(-8, 0) and B(x, 0), find x if the distance between A and B is 14

If a particle moves from a point A to a point B where the abscissa of the

Distance PR is given as ∆ x=x 2−x 1 and the distance RQ is given as∆ y = y 2− y 1.

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 12 OF

Distance AB = √ ( 12−9 )2+ ( 18−4 )2

Squaring both sides of (i), we get

The distance between the points A(x, 9) and B(6, 21) is 13

13=√ ( 6−x ) + ( 21−9 ) . . .

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 13 OF

From the statement of the problem,

Squaring both sides, we get

The length of sides,

f) Prove analytically that the lengths of diagonals of a rectangle are

MATH 132: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY PAGE 14 OF

We want to prove that the diagonals OB = AC.

Since length OB = length CA, the diagonals are