ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S NEW LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS ANIL COLLEGES FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR EDITED BY J.B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE A. A, HOWARD BENJ. L. D’;OOGE Bostox, U.S.A., AND Lonponx GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS The Atheneum Press 1903Enrekey av Sravionuns’ Hatt Corvrianr, 1888, by J.B. GREENOUGH awp J. H. ALI CorviagnT, 1993, 8Y GINN & COMPANYPREFACE Tue present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888. This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance with principles that met with his full approval. The renum- bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer- tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former edition, Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough’s Gram- mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis- factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement seemed possible. In the matter of “ hidden quantity” the editors have been even more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi- gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts itiiv PREFACE are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of comparatively slight interest except to special students of the arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the evidence seemed practically decisive. The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and assistance of Professor I. 8. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer- sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has codperated in the revision throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point. Serremnen 1, 1908.CONTENTS PART I1— WORDS AND FORMS pace Lerrers axp Soexps ve EMO ‘Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds.) |) Lng Orthography, Syllables, Protunciation . 2.) gs Quantity and Accent). 2 2 Combinations; Phondtic Changes. . . . . . . TAO Wonns axp rar Fornis se oo TG Parts of Speech . . . toe a .. . 1 Inflection; Root, Stem, and Base... to 1 Gender, Number, and Case... 1h Drcusxsiox or Nouxs 1 a6 General Rules of Declension . . to woe ia First Declension. 2 2 0. 2 2. eee ee eee. 18-80 Second Declension. 2 2) 90-28 Third Declension Se 8487 Mute Stems... 0 0 1. Fo es 25,26 Liquid and Nasal Stems... ee, 87,88 PueiStems 29, 30 MixediStems. 2) 2 11, tee 80,81 Irregular Noms 6... 1. BB, 34 Greck Nows 2 ee 886 Rules of Gender gg 37 Fourth Declension . | : re) Fifth Declension. oo So 2 89,40 Defective and Variable Nous |. ts dO Names of Persons . . 2. . oe es 45 Ixeuuenion ov Avsnctives ee, 4682 First and Second Declensions . . . 1). ). 46-49 Third Declension 2. LS aon Comparison td De Numerals. 0... Pt Ixeuwction or Proxouns Ce RTL Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative. | | |) |). 68-87 Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite... . . . . . . . O8TL Gorrlatves (Pronouns and Advert) Pa Coxsucariow or Venns ., Be tp tes Inflection. 2. ae Signification: Voice, Mood, Tense... 2... 1... TRB Personal Endings 2... 1877vi CONTENTS Forms: Stem and Verb-Endings The VerbSum . 0. ee Regular Verbs. coe : The Four Conjugations ; Principal Parts Formation of the ‘Three Stems Synopsis of the Verb. Peculiarities of Conjugation First Conjugation Second Conjugation . ‘Third Conjugation Fourth Conjugation Lo Verbs in -i5 of the Third Conjugation . Deponent Verbs . Periphrastie Conjugations Invegular Verbs Defective Verbs Impersonal Verbs Classified Lists of Verbs Parricnes Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions . Interjections Formarion of Wouns « Roots and Stems be Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings Derivation of Nouns Derivation of Adjectives Nouns with Adjective Sufi Derivation of Verbs. Compound Words ; hregular Derivatives PART J1— SYNTAX Irroncerory Nore ‘Tur Sexrence . Le Definitions : Subject and Pred Agreement: the Four Concords Apposition; Predicate Agreement pOVIVES ee Rules of Agreement Special Us Pronouns oe : : Personal and Demonstrative . . Reflexive... eee . soe eee Possessive . cate, Modification, ete. PAGE 71-81 + 81-88 84-103 . 84,85 » 85-89 90 . oh + 92-95 » 96,97 . 98,99) 100, 101 102, 108 103-106 106-108 108-115 116-119 119, 120 121-125 126-189 126-180 130-136 137-139 139 140-162 140, 141 M1143 143-148 148-154 154-156 156-159 160-162 163 164-208 164-168 168 168-170 170-175 471,172 172-175 176-192, 176-180 180-183 188, 184CONTENTS: Relative 2 0 Indefinite oe sone : Alius and alter Verbs - Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences Panricnps: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives . Quasri0Ns Construction oF Cases Introductory Note Nominative Ca! . Vocative Case Gesitive Case : Genitive with Nouns Possessivé Genitive . Genitive of Material, of Quality Partitive Genitive Objective Genitive Genilive with Adjectives . Genitive with Verbs Verbs of Rementbering and Forgetting Verbs of Reminding . Verbs of Accasing, Condenming, and Acquituing Verbs of Feeling . Interest and réfert Se Verbs of Plenty and Want; Special Ver! Peculiar Genitives: Exclamatory, ete. Darive Case. coe Indirect Object with Transitives Indirect Object with Intransitives Dative of Possession Dative of the Agent Dative of Reference Ethical Dative . Dative of Separation Dative of the Purpose or nd Dative with Adjectives Accusative Case Direct Object Cognate Accusative Two Accusatives Idiomatic and Special ses Asrative Case . Uses of the Ablative Pr oper . Ablative of Separation ADlative of Souxce and Material « Ablative of Cause vii PAGE 184-189 189-191 19 198-19 198-195 196-204 205-208 209-275 209 210 210 210-294 211-216 211,212 218 213-216 215, 216 246, 217 218-223 218, 219 219 220 221 221, 292 234-236 236 286, 237 237 238, 234 24-248 (240-242 242-244 244-246 247, 248 248-205 249-255, 249, 250 250-252 259, 258vili CONTENTS PAGE Ablative of Agent 2 6... fee. 258, 254 Ablative of Comparison. . 264, 265 Uses of the Ablative as Instrnmental . . oo te 256-265 Ablative of Means or Instrument oe soe . 266-258 Ablative of Manner. . . woe soe . 258. Ablative of Accompaniment . oo ee ee 258,259 Ablative of Degree of Difference Soe ee ee 259, 260, ‘Ablative of Quality... 0. De . 260 Ablative of Price . . ca . . . 261, 262 Ablative of Spec’ Ablative Absolute ‘Uses of the Ablative as Locative ‘Time any PLace oe pEctas USES OF Prrvosrrtons NTAX oF THE Vin Moops Introductory Nowe Ixpicative Moop . Svpsenerive in Txpereny Hortatory Subjunctive . oo Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessi Optative Subjunctive . an Lo a Deliberative Subjunctive . Lo Lo 281 Potential Subjmictive . . to 282, 283 Ivprrative Moop. . . . + 283-285, Prohibition (Negative Command) Inrmirive Moon aoe Infinitive as Noun 3 2. Se Infinitive with Impersonals . soe ee. 287, 288 Complementary Infinitive. . 2 2 2 6 6 6. 2. . 289,290 Infinitive with Subject Accusative . Po 200 Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives eee. 200,291 Exelamatory Infinitive. © 6 0. 0. 0 0. nn 292 Historical Infinitive. © 6 6 6 2 0 coe 292 Tenses. . soe ee ee ee 298-308 Introductory Note. | ss) 293 Texsus or ru Ixpicaries 13-801 Present ‘Tense Ce + 298-295 Imperfect Tense... ee 296-207. Future Tense... 298 Perfect Tense... . So +. . 298-800 Pluperfect Tense 300 Future Perfect'Tense . 2 6. ee 300 Epistolary Tenses... 2 ee ee 301 ‘Tonens op pun SumsUNCTIVE . . es 801-806 Sequence of Tenses. = 7 2 ee ee ee ee 80R-R06CONTENTS: ‘Tenses or THE InFInirive . PARTICIPLES Distinotions of Tense ‘Uses of Participles . Future Active Participle . . Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) Gexunpy axp Ge soe Supme Conpitional Sh Introductory Note Protasis and Apodosis . Classification of Conditions .. Simple Present and Past Conditions Future Conditions . Conditions Contrary to Fact >! General Conditions . Conditional Relative Clauss Condition Disguised Condition Omitted . Complex Conditions Clauses of Comparison (Conelusion Omitted) Use of Si and its Compounds . Corcrssive CLauses. . Cravars or Proviso . Chavses or Pervosy (Frau “Crausl Crauses or . CiausEs oF CausaL Ciauses Temporan Ciauses + Ubi, ut, com, quandd, as Indefinite Relatives Postquam, ubi, ut, simul atque Cum Temporal : Cum Causal or Concessive Antequam und priusquam . Dum, ddnec, and quoad . Cravses wr quin xp quominus Introductory Note : Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses Substantive Clauses of Result (Conseentive Clauses) . Indicative with quod 2... Le Indirect Questions Ixpmecr Discours: « Introductory Note . Declaratory Sentences . Subordinate Clauses ix Pace 207, 308 309-316 309-311 311-314 314, 816 315, 816 316-319 320 321-238 321, 822 322, 823 828-325 825, 826 326-328 328-830 331 882, 338 383, 334 384, 835, 335 336 387, 838, 338, 380 340 340-343 348-346 346-348, 348-350 350-859 350 351 52-304 14, 855 306, 856 367-350 359-361 362-384 362 362-867 367-369 369, 370 370-378 373-384 378, 374 BT4-877 377, 878x CONTENTS Tenses of the Infinitive soe ‘Tenses of the Subjunctive . . . . . Questions in Indirect Discourse Commands in Indirect Discourse Conditions in Indirect Discourse Inrermeprats CLravsns Informal Indirect Discourse . Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) Imvortanr Reus op Synrax : Onper or Worps General Rules Special Rules Structure of the Period. PROSODY Quanerry Raven . Introductory Note Lo Measures of Rhythm ; Feet . ‘The Musical Accent; Casura; Diwresis . VErstrication . ‘The Verse; Scansion and B Dactylic Verse . Dactylic Hexameter . Flegiae Stanza; Other Dactylic Ver Iambie Verse . Pe Tambie ‘Trimeter Other Iambic Measures ‘Trochaic Verse Mixed Measures . Logawdie Verse . Metres of Horace Index to the Metres of Horace Other Lyric Pocts Miscellancous Measures Barty Prosopy MisceLLaNnous Reckoning of Time. | Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity GLossany or TprMs . Ispex or Verne - Inpex or Worps awn Sussvors Lars Avrnors axp THEIR Works Paracirr Rererences pace 378, 379 379,380 380, 881 381 381-884 384-386 285 386 887-302 393-400 803-398, 398, 399, 399, 400, 401-406 406-409 405, 406 406-409 409 410-426 410,411 41-44 411, 412 418, 414 414-416 414,415 416 47 418 418-421 421-495 423-426 425 425, 426 426, 497 428-431 428, 420 429-43) 432-436 436-444 445-475 476, 477 470-490LATIN GRAMMAR Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1, Words and Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words when joined together as parts of the sentence; Prosody of their arrange- qnent in metrical composition. PART FIRST—WORDS AND FORMS THE ALPHABET <1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U, and W. Nove 1.—The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very earlytines from a Greek alphabet (hough not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the letters G and ¥. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of our era. ‘Nove 2.—The Latin names of the consonants were as follows: —B, be (pronounced bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef 3 G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, els M, em; N, en; P, pe (pay); Q, gu (ko); R, er; Ses; T, te (tay); X, in} Z, zeta (the Greek name, pronounced dzayta). ‘The sound of each vowel was used as its name. a. The character C originally meant 6, a value always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus) Norn. —In early Latin € came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be- ‘2 in a few words, as Kal, (Kalendae), Karthdgs. ‘Thus there was no distinetion in ‘ng between the sounds of £ and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming (irom €) the new character 6. ‘This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. fil, 98), ¥ (originally a form of V) and % were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet. }. Land V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5). Nor. —V originally denoted the vowel sound u (09), and F stood for the sound of our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our #, V came to be used for the sound of w as well as for the vowel u. Tn this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and y for consonant u:— its, vir, iuvenis. 12 WORDS AND FORMS [8§ 24 Classification of Sounds 2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, y. The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in carly Latin, ai, oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol- lowing the other in the same syllable. 3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur that is heard in vowels; voiceless consonants lack this murmur. 1. The voiced consonants are b, 4, g, J, x, m, n, z, consonant i, v. 2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, ¢ (k, q), f, h, s, x 4, Consonants are further classificd as in the following table: Lamais Dexrars — Pauavars Voiced (mediae) b a & Mutes } Voiceless (/enués) p t c (ik, q) Aspirates ph th ch Nasals m a n (before e, g, q) Liquids Lr Fricatives (Spirants) i 5% Sibilants 8, % Semivowels v consonant i Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz); h is merely a breathing. 1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinetly heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may he a slight puff of breath (1), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch) 2 2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth. 3. Dentals (sometimes called Liuguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth 4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching or approaching the palate.’ 5. Frieatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passe throngh the mouth with andible frietion 6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the breath passes through the nose, s continuously 1 Strictly a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip tonching the upper teeth, 2 ‘The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In carly Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, ¢. ® Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronownced with the tongue touching or ris- ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatas, in which the tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth), Compare the initial consonants in ey and cool, whispering the two words, aud itwill be observed that before ¢ and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than beforea, 0, or u:gg 5, 6) ORTHOGRAPHY 3 5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable! Con- sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v) that of English consonant w. Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels. Nore 1.—The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant soundsof i andu, but used each letter (Land V) witha double value. In modern books {and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds; but in printing in capitals J and U are avoided :—IVLIVS (Iilius). ‘Lhe characters J and U are only slight modifications of the characters and V. The ordinary English sounds of jand ¥ did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v in the pronunciation of some persons. Note 2.—In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes sa, u seems to be the conso- nant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, cinsuétus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant? ORTHOGRAPHY “6, Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the language and was never absolutely settled in all details. ‘Thus, we find lubet, vortd, as earlier, and libet, verti, as later forms, Other yariations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus. The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics. a. After v (consonant u),o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, servos), and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first century of our era. b. The older quo becaine cu in the Augustan period; in the second cen- tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some word: cum, older quom ;8 equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur ; similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt. Nore. —In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum, c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, 0, or u, an i was developed as a trapsient sound, thus producing a diphthong aj, ei, ete., before the con- sonant i, Tn sneh cases but one i was written: as, ai (for jaii0), maius (for fmai-ius), péius (for {pei-ius). 3 Compare the English word Jndian as pronounced in two syllables or in three. 2 Ty such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labjalized and that no distinct aud separate consonant & was heard. 5 The spelling quum is very Jate and without authority.4 WORDS AND FORMS [8§ 6-8 d. Similarly in compounds of iacis but one i was written (as, conici6, not con-iicid); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i followed by vowel i (see § 11. e). Nore.— Some variations ave due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not now recognized in classical texts. 1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by 2 vowel, came to be pronounced alike; hence néatid was later spelled with a ¢ and dicid with a t. 2. The sound of hwas after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, avéna for haréna) or mistakenly written (as, himor for imor). 3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of Jong open e (about like English ¢ in there), and similarly oe after a time became a long close € (about like the English ey in they); and so both were often confused in spelling with €: ag, coena or caena for the correct form oBna. Syllables 7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs : — a-ci-8, mo-né, fi-li-us, fe-rd-ci-ta-te, a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including consonant i and y) between two vowels is written and pronounced with the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated : — i }, tol-15. Nore 1. —Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, ete. are preferred 10 di-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, eac-sum, Nore 2.—A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others are called efose. ‘Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close. 15; mit- 8, in-i pa-ter, mii ria, di b. Tn compounds the parts are separated :— ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerné, du-plex, di-std. Pronunciation 8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre- sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times. Vowrs: a as in father: as in idea. & as ch? (prolonged), or ain date: as eh? (clipped) or ¢ in ner. Tas in machine: i as in holiest or & as in holy; Bas in abey. fi as 00 in boot: i as a0 in foot. y between u and i (French u or German #). a ax Dirnysowes: ae like ay: ei as in cigh o¢ like oy in boy; eu as Woo: au like ow in now ui as oo'ee.on gg 8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY, Consonants are the same as in English, except that — cand g are as in come, yet, never as in city, gem. 5 as in sea, lips, never as in ease. Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing. n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the preceding vowel, which was also lengthened; and final m in an unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on the preceding vowel. ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con- venience, be neglected); but ph probably became like (or nearly like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced to distinguish it from p. zis as dz in adz bs is like ps; bt is like pt. Norg.—Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in English (as, Julius Carsur); and in familiar quotations, as, ¢ pluribus unum ; viva voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, eve. Quantity 9. The Quantity of a Vowel ora Syllable is the time occupied in pronouncing it. T'wo degrees of Quantity are recognized, — long and short. a. Tn syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of the syllable. 10. Vowels are either long or short by natwre, and are pro- nounced accordingly (§ 8). a. A vowel before another vowel or bh is short: as in via, nihil. b. A diphthong is long: as in aedés, fOédus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong : as in exclidd (from tex-claudd e. A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nil (from nihil). d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as in cOnstans, infer, magnus. Norn. — But the quantity of the vowel before ga is not certain in all eases, é A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short: as in amandus, amant. In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (4, 6, ete.), and short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs at once (a, é, ete.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short. Nos. —The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter (called an apex), as, A; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An I made higher than the other letiers was occasionally used for 7, But none of these devices came into general use.6 WORDS AND FORMS [g ll 11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position of the accent and in versification. a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long by nature: as, ma-ter, aes, aula. b, A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (exéept a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (x, 2) is said to be Jong by position, but the vowel is pronounced short: as, est, terra, sax-um, Me-zen-tius. Norz.—When a consonant is doubled the prommnciation should show this dis- tinetly. ‘Thus in mit-td both t’s should be pronounced as in out-talh (uot merely a single t as in better). ¢. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r is properly short, but may be used as Jong in verse. Such a syllable is said to be common. Norz i.—In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syHable with the Vowel. In syllables of “common”? quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) tho ovdi- nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable could become Jong. Nore 2.—In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, the quantity in verso is determined hy the following word: if this begins with a vowel the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the syllable is long by position. Nore 3. —In rules for quantity h is nob counted as a consonant, nor is the appar- ently eonsonantal u in qu, ga, su (see § 5. N. 2). d, A syllable whose vowel is a, ¢, 0, or u, followed by consonant i, is long whether the vowel itself is long or short: as, Aid, mi-ior, pé-ius. In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel. - Norw.—The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound (vowel 3) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, 4id (for faii0), mié-ior (for }mai-ior), See § 6. ¢. ¢. In some compounds of iacié (as, in-icid) the consonant i of the simple verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl- lable was long hy position: as, inicid (for in-iicid), See § 6. d. In sneh eases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel. f. When « syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not always determinable. ‘The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is known to be Jong. Nors,—The quantity of a vowel under these civeumstances is said to be hidden. It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inseriptional evi- dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this hook, the quantity of all such vowels known to be long is marked.§§ 12-14] ACCENT 7 Accent 12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable: as, R6'ma, fi'dés, tan'go. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult? if that is long (as, ami’cus, moné'tur, contin’git); otherwise on the Antepenult (as, do'minus, a'lacris, dissocia’bilis). a. When an enclitie is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enelitic, whether long or short: as, d&’que, Amaré’ve, tibi’ne, itX’que (and . . . s0), as distinguished from i’tXque (therefore). So (accord- ing to some) ex’inde, ec’quandd, ete. Exceptions: 1. Certain apparent compounds of facié retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefi’cit, calefa’cit (see § 266. a). Norz. —hese were not true compounds, but phr « 2. In thesecond declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Corné‘li, Vergi‘li, inge’ni (see § 49. ¢). 8. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com- plete words: as, illi’c for illi’ce, prodii’c for prodiice, sati’n for sati’sne. Combinations 13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together, are written’'as one: — finusquisque (anus quisque), siquis (si quis), quaré (qua 8), quamobrem (quam obrem; cf, quas ob xés), réspablica (rs pablica), idsidvandum (iis iirandum), paterfamilias (pater familias). Nore, — Sometimes a slight change in pronunei old poets, before est in hombst (homé est), periculumst (perioulum est), ausust (ausus est), qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin’, scin’ for visne, scisne, sis (si vis), sodés (si audés), siltis (si valtis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he's, I've, thou’rt. Phonetic Changes 14, Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its namo implios, the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a deseendant of an early form of speech commonly called Indo-Furopean (by some Indo-Germanic), from which are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including among others English, German, the Shivic and the Celtic languages, and farther some now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian, Greek likewise 1'The Penuit is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.8 WORDS AND FORMS [8§ 14, 16 belongs to the samo family. The Romance (or Romane) languages, of which the most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, are modern descendants of spoken Latin. ‘The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions, ‘These in- crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in Jitera- ture; that is, about v.c. 250. It is the comparatively stuble language of the elassical period (.c. 80-A.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is mainly this that is described in this book. 15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms of classical Latin may be mentioned the following :— Vowel Changes 1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedilis for old aidilis), old of became oe or & (nus for old oinos), and old ou hecame & (ited for old doucd). 2. In compound yerbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i or e, and ae similarly appears as 7: — facid, factum, but cinficid, cOnfectum ; caedé, but occfaé, and similarly cecidi, perfect of caedd (cf. cad6, occidd ; cecidi, perfect of add). Nore. —This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first sy)- lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (soe § 12) became established. ‘The origina] Indo-European accent, however, was not limited hy either of these principles; it was probably a musival accent so-called, eonsisting in & change of pitch, and not merely ina more forcible utterance of the accented syllable. 3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : cégd for feoagd; prémé for tpro-emd; nil -for nihil 3 débed for ftdé-hibed {td8-habed). Consonant Changes 4. An old s regularly became r hetween two vowels (rhotacism), passing first through the sound of (English) z:— eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.? Nore. —Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honds), from the analogy of hondris, ete, 5. A dental (t, a) often became s, especially when standing next to t, 4, or 8: as, equestris for fequettris, cdsus for jeadtus (ef. 6, below). 6, Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found: — cessi for teed-si; summus for tsupmus; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16) 1A similar change can be seen in English: as, mere (ef, wasp, torn (ef, lose):§§ 15-17) VOWEL VARIATIONS 9 Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : — ‘Phus, parilia for palilia (from Palés); meridiés for jmedidiés; natiralis with suffix -alis (after x), but populdris with -aris (after 1). 7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plénu(s) fidéi. Norn. —‘Tracesof this pronunciation existed in Cieero’s time. He speaks of theomis- sion of final § beforea word begining with a consonant as “ countrisicd ” (subritsticwn). 8. A final consonant often disappears: as, virgo for fvirgin; lac for flact ; cor for {cord. 9. G,¢, and h unite with a following s to form x: as, réx for frégs; dux for tducs ; traxi for {trahsi.t 10. Gandh before t become c: as, réctum for fregtum ; actum for tagtum ; trictum for jtrahtum.? 11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, simpsi for jsiimsi; émptum for fémtum. ten 16, In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was assinilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably. ‘There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad, ace, agg, app, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, ete. Before a labia) consonant we find com- (comb-, comp-, comm), but eon- is the form before ¢, 4, f, g, cons. i, 4, 8, t, cous. ¥; we find conl or coll, conr- or corr-; cb- in conecto, conived, cot itor, céniibium. In usually changes to im- before p, b, m, ‘Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following 6, f, 8, or p: before s and t the promunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p; surr-, summ-, occur for subr-, subm-, ‘Se inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant Circum often loses itsm before i. ‘The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi- lated to a following £; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex wo find ef- hefore £ (also ecf-). ‘The a of red and séd is generally Jost before a consonant. The preposition is better Jeft unchanged in most other cases. Vowel Variations & 17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel sounds of kindy€i words.? a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablau. Tt has left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, 4, #; €, 8), sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, 05 i, ae) :4— tegd, I cover, toga, a robe; pendd, I weigh, pondus, weight ; fides, faith, fidus, ‘Faithful, foedus, « treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, dnum, a gift; regs, I rule, vex, a king; dux, & leader, dacd (for older doucd), Tlead. Conrpare English drive, drove (drave), driven ; bind, bound, band ; sing. sang, sung; ete. 1 Really for {traghsi, ‘The h of tuahd represents an older palatal sound (see § 19). 2 Really for {traghtum, ‘These are eases of partial assimilation (ef. 6, above) # This variation was not without regularity, Int was confined within definite Jimits 4In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.10 WORDS AND FORMS [s§ 18, 19 Kindred Forms 18, Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif- ferent in the two languages, but following definite Jaws‘in each. Hence both pre~ serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show certain correspondences in consonants in words whieh each language has inherited from the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here. 19. The most important correspondences in consonants between Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following table: —1 Law Exons p: pater f: father, earlier fader? f from bh: ferd, frater b: to bear, brother b “ ‘ ubet, libet v, f: love, lief t: +8, tenuis th: thou, thin? ad: duo, dent- t: two, tooth f from ah: facio a: do a“ mediug a: mid b ruber a: red c: cord-, coma nz heart, horn gu: quod wh: what g: genus, gustus 6, ky ch: kin, choose n (from gh): hortus, haedus ys g: yard, goat cons. i: iugum y: yoke v: ventus, ovis w: wind, ewe v from gv: vivus (for tgvivos), } . in _ lu, c, Kk; quick, come venid (for tgvemid). a g Nore 1. —Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is stil) represented in English: as, aiv- (for fsniv-), Eng. snow ; Anser (for jhanser), Eng. goose, Nor 2.—From these eases of kindyed words in Latin and English must be care- fully distinguished thosecasesin which the Latin word has heen taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus facid is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle Gactum) of this verb comes Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat. 1 The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates (oh, db, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh, Latin f, D (English has b, v, or f); for dh, Latin f, b, @ (English has 4) ; for gh, Latin h, g (English has y, g). ‘The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes. 2The th in father isa late development. The older form fader seems to show an exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t, ‘The primitive Germanic form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the consonant underwent a secondary change to d, ® But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st; as in Latin stb, English stand,g20) THE PARYS OF SPERCR ¢ i THER PARTS OF SPEECH 20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. a. A Nown is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as,Caesar ; Roma, Lome; domus, a house; virtiis, virtue. Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common. Nore, —An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, andacia, boldness ; senectiis, oldaye. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba, crowd ; exercitus, army. b. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good ; fortis, brave, strong. Nore 1,—A Participleisa word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: «s,— Caesar consul credtus, Casur having been elected consul. Norn 2.—Btymologically there is uo difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com- mon naine ean stil] he so used. ‘Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name hing. e. A Prono is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or deseribing it: as, is, he; qui, who; nds, we. Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives. @, A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum, Tam; amat, he loves, Nore.—Jn al] modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion Stwietly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a natne, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development. & An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute: as, splendid mendax, gloriously fulse ; hodié natus est, he was born to-day. Nore.—These same junctions ave often performed by cases (see §§ 24-217) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally eases or phrases, but have become specialized by use. Ff. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between & noun or prononn and some other word or words in the sume sentence: as, per agros it, he goes over the fields ; & pliribus imum, one out of many. Nore.—Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). ‘The relations ex- pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by ease-endings.12 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 20-22 g. A Conjunction is a word whieh conneets words, oF groups of words, without affecting their grammatical relations : as, et, and; sed, but. Norn. —Some adverbs are also used as connectives. ‘These are called Adverbial Jonjunetions or Coujunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donec, until. he Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed us parts of speech. Thus, — heus, halloo! 0, oh! Nort. — Interjections sometimes express ay emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection Hike other words: as) vae vietis, woe to the conquered (alas tor the conquered)! INFLECTION 21. Latin is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical yelations. a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of @ word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination :— vox, a voice; Wocis, of « voice ; voc’, I call; vocat, he calls ; vocet, let hin call; yocavit, he has called ; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched. ‘Perminations of inflection bad originally independentaneanings whieh: are now obscured. ‘They correspond nearly to the wie of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal prououns in English. ‘Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or shes in woeks, to the preposition of; and in voeet the change of vowel jguifies a change of mood. ¢, Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relation tense or mood, and aften correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eug- dish : — trangit, he breaks or is breaking ; frBgit, Ne broke or has broken ; mordet, he bites ; momordit, he bit.t 92. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par- ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension, and these parts of speech ave said to be declined. ‘The inflection of Verbs to denote yoice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con- jugated. Nore. Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote). 1 Phe only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the changes here referved to ave strictly changes of sfem, but have become & part of the system of inflectionsg§ 28-25] ROOT, STEM, AND BASE 18 23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are not inflected and are called Particles. Novy. —The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter rogative), nin, n& (negative), si (vonditionad), ete., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence. Root, Stem, and Base 24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, js called the Stem. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artijicer), it cannot ordinarily he used without some termination to express them. ‘Thus the stem voe- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a vole. Nove.—The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari- son with other forms is necessary to determine it, 25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main ides of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin. dred languages? ‘Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call. or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be usecl as a part of speech without terminations. With a- it becomes vocd-, the stem of vocare (la call); with ay- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes the stem of vocdtus (called); with atidn- it becomes the stem of vocatidnis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, voe-is (« voice: that by which we call). ‘This stem vée-, with -alis added, means belonging to a voice; with -iila, a little voice. Nore. — In inflected languages, words ave built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots ar modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become frlly formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building, ‘The whole of this process is originally one of composition, hy which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning. ; Roots had Jong ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa- vate langnage. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used eartier. 3 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege) 2 For example, the root sra is found in the Sanskrit tishithdmé, Greek forms, Latins sistere and stare, German fieben, and English stand,i4 WORDS AND FORMS [8§ 26- 26. The Stem may be thesame as the root: as induc-is, of a leader, fert, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root— 1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sazdust (scan, shave); regis, of a king (nua, direct); voois, of a voice (voe, call). 2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : asin fuga-, stem of fuga, flight (ruG +4-); regis, you rule (REG + stem-ending %-); sini, he allows (st + n®%/,-).4 3. By two or more of these methods: us in diicit, he leads (Duc + stem- ending %,-). 4, By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.) 27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection: as, serv- in servus; méns- in ménsa; ign- in ignis. a. The Base and thé Siem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, rg- in rég-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination, ‘Thus the stem of servus is seryo-; that of ménsa, ménsi-; that of ignis, igni-. 28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com- bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 86, 164) developed. GENDER 29._The Genders distinguished in Latin are three: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter, 30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical. a, Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object: denoted: as, puer (a1.), boy; puella (r.), girl; rx (.), king, régina (1.), queen. Nom 1.—Many noms have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish Sex: us, corvus, carva, stug, doe; cliéns, clienta, client; victor, vietrix, conqueror. Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similanly names of eribes and peoples ave masculine: as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians No — A few neuter nouns are nsed to a as, mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel). Many pot names of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium, Glycerium, Nor 3.—Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus (ut.), aciés (wr.), and agmen (N,), army; operac (vr. plur.), workmen; copiac (&. plur.), troops; senatus (31.), senate; cohors (\°.), cohort; concilium (x.), council. jghate persons as belonging toa class: 3 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.