Mechanics

Chapter 3
Classical Mechanics
The ideas and techniques of Mechanics lie at the heart of much of Physics so it is essential
that you quickly become completely familiar with the basics and learn how to solve even
quite complex problems. In particular you must be familiar with and able to use the different
forms of vector notation when setting out and solving problems. You should also try to
develop confidence in casting physical problems in terms of equations involving derivatives
and integrals, which you solve mathematically and interpret your mathematical result in terms
of the physics of the problem.
3.1 A Level revision questions

In the Core Physics I Mechanics element we will assume that you are familiar with and
comfortable in handling problems equivalent to those set in the mechanics in A level Physics
and with those in the mathematics units C1-C4 and M1 in A level mathematics. We will also
assume that you are familiar with all the physics concepts (energy, work etc.) that comprise
the A-level mathematics unit M2. If you did not take these units in your A levels or you did
the International Baccalaureate, other European Baccalaureate, Abitur etc... it is important
that you discuss with your tutor, as soon as possible, any material in these revision exercises
with which you are not familiar. In this case he or she should be able to direct you to further
learning materials and assist you with any problems you may have.
There are a limited number of pre-university revision questions in this booklet. If you wish
to see more examples and try further questions there are copies, in the confined section of the
Physics library, of the Edexcel course books covering the M1 and M2 units. These have many
worked examples and hundreds of questions with numerical answers. In the revision questions
included here I have included an indication, after the question number, the corresponding
22 Classical Mechanics
unit (M1 or M2) for which similar questions may be found. The books covering M3-M5 are
also available and may help with worked examples for some of the simpler parts of the new
material in this course.
3.1 A particle initially at rest accelerates in a straight line at 15 m s≠2 for 4 seconds.
(a) What is its final speed?

(b) How far does it travel from its initial position?
Worked Solution
The problem is a very simple example of the use of the “SUVAT” equations. You
should be able to derive these by integration with appropriate boundary conditions.
It is very important to remember that these only apply to cases with constant
acceleration.
Start with a diagram showing the location of the particle at t = 0 s, and then at
a later time t. The relevant equations are x = x0 + u0 t + 12 at2 , and v = u0 + t.
However, since we are told that when t = 0 s and x0 = 0 m then u0 = 0 m s≠1 ,
so we can write x = 12 at2 and v = at.
The question gives that a = 15 m s≠1 and ask for the speed after 4 s, and the
distance travelled in that time. So,
v(t = 4 s) = 15 ◊ 4 m s≠1 = 60 m s≠1

1
x(t = 4 s) = 2
◊ 15 ◊ 16 m = 120 m
Notice that once we put in numerical values we must also include the units.
3.2 A particle initially at rest at a position x = 2 m accelerates in the positive x-direction

at a constant rate of 2 m s≠2 . Where is it after 5 seconds?
1
This is given by s = s0 + ut + at2 where we are given that u = 0 m s≠1 ,
2
a = 2 m s≠2 and t = 2 s. This gives s = 27 m.
3.3 A particle at the origin at time t = 0 has an instantaneous velocity of ≠5 m s≠1 in the
x-direction and an acceleration of +2 m s≠2 in the x-direction.
(a) When will the particle be at rest?

3.1 A Level revision questions 23
(b) What will its position be at this time?

(c) At what time does the particle return to the origin?
Here we have u = ≠5 m s≠1 and a = 2 m s≠2 . Thus
(a) Using v = 0 m s≠1 in v = u + at gives t = 2.5 s

u+v
(b) At that time the position is given by s = t or s = ut + 12 at2 . This
2
gives s = ≠6.25 m.
1
(c) The particle returns to the origin when s = ut + at2 = 0, which is true
2
≠2u
when t = 0 s or t = = 5 s. Unsurprisingly this is twice the answer to
a
part (a).
3.4 Two people, George and Sarah, are taking a lift from the ground floor to the fifth floor
of a tall building. The empty lift has a mass of 500 kg. George and Sarah stand on
scales (that you may assume are massless) that record a force of 720 N and 500 N
respectively as the lift moves upward at a constant acceleration. The tension in the
lift cable pulling the lift upwards is 7500 N. Let g = 9.8 m s≠2 .
(a) Find the acceleration of the lift.

(b) Find George’s mass.
(c) Find Sarah’s mass.
Let the force on George be (*) F1 = m1 (a + g) and that on Sarah be (**)

F2 = m2 (a+g). The tension in the lift is given by (***) T = (m1 +m2 +M )(a+g)
where M is the mass of the lift.
(a) Putting (*) and (**) into (***) we get: T = F1 + F2 + M (a + g) which we

T ≠ F1 ≠ F2 M g
can rearrange to get a = = 2.76 m s≠2
M
F1
(b) m1 = = 57.3 kg
a+g
F2
(c) m2 = = 39.8 kg
a+g
3.5 A large box of mass 10 kg is lying on a floor with a rough surface. The coefficient of
static friction between the box and the floor is µ = 0.5. A person tries to push the
box along the floor by pushing or pulling it. What force do they need to apply if:
(a) the force is exerted parallel to the horizontal plane?

(b) the force is applied by pushing slightly downward at an angle of 20¶ to the
horizontal?
(c) the force is applied by pulling slightly upward at an angle of 30¶ to the horizontal?
State carefully any assumptions you have made.

(a) This is the force needed to overcome static friction. F > µN where µN =
29 N.
(b) Now we need to resolve the vertical force component acting in addition to
the weight and calculate the horizontal component giving the “push”. If the
magnitude of the applied force is F then,
N = mg + F sin ◊ vertical components ,

Fhor ≠ F cos ◊ = 0 horizontal just before slipping.
and we need Fhor > µN . Hence,
F cos ◊ > µmg + µF sin ◊ ,

µmg
F > ,
cos ◊ ≠ µ sin ◊
F > 64 N .
(c) As for part (b) except the sign of the vertical component is reversed so that:
µmg
F > ,
cos ◊ ≠ µ sin ◊
F > 44 N .
3.6 Two large crates, A and B, with masses of 100 kg and 50 kg are lying on a floor.
The crates are connected together with a light, strong and inextensible string. Box
A is pulled with a horizontal force of 750 N along the floor for which the dynamic
coefficient of friction is 0.2 between the boxes and the floor.
(a) Find the acceleration of each box.

(b) Find the tension in the string
Explain any assumptions you have made in the calculation.

(a) As the string is inextensible the acceleration of the two blocks must be the
same. The net force applied to the blocks is then F = Fapp ≠ µ(mA + mB )g
where Fapp is the total force applied to the blocks. Hence,
F
a= .
m
Fapp
= ≠ µg ,
mA + mB
= 3.04 m s≠2 .
(b) The force being applied to block B is F = ma where a is the acceleration

calculated in (a). Hence the tension is T = µmB g + mB a = (0.2 · 50 · 9.8 +
50 · 3.04) N = 250N .
(c) We have assumed inextensible strings etc...
3.7 Two particles, A and B, of mass 6 kg and 4 kg, are moving along the same straight line
on a frictionless surface. At some point the particles collide, after which the particles
A and B are moving in the same direction with speeds of 2 m s≠1 and 3 m s≠1
respectively. If the magnitude of the impulse of A on B is 18 N s, find results for:
(a) the speed and direction of A before the collision.

(b) the speed and direction of B before the collision.
We can write the change in momentum for the particles during the collision as:
mA vAf = mA vAi + I ,
mB vBf = mB vBi ≠ I
where the sign of I has not been determined and overall momentum has been
conserved. Hence there is not a unique solution as we haven’t specified all the
I
necessary conditions (i.e. the direction of the impulse). Hence vAi = vAf ≠
mA
I
and vBi = vBf + . Inserting values we get
mB
(a) vAi = ≠1 m s≠1 , that is moving in the opposite direction to the original
direction.
(b) vBi = 7.5 m s≠1 .
The results can be checked by applying the conversation of momentum to the

particles before and afterwards. If the sign of the impulse is reversed then the
values vAi = 5 m s≠1 and vBi = ≠1.5 m s≠1 which is also a solution (i.e. it
depends on whether A hits B left to right or vice versa).
3.8 A picture with a mass of 10 kg is suspended by two inextensible strings from two
hooks at the same height. The strings make angles of 66¶ and 50¶ to the horizontal
respectively. Determine the tension in each string.
We need to resolve the vertical and horizontal components of the forces on the
picture. Hence,
mg = T1 cos ◊ + T2 cos „ ,
0 = T1 sin ◊ ≠ T2 sin „ .
[NB. Where ◊ and „ are the angles measured from the vertical]. We can solve
these simultaneous equations for T1 and T2 .
mg sin „ = T1 cos ◊ sin „ + T2 cos „ sin „ ,

0 = T1 sin ◊ cos „ + T2 sin „ cos „ .
We can add these expressions and rearrage to get:
mg sin ◊
T1 = ,
cos ◊ sin „ + sin ◊ cos „
T1 sin ◊
and we also know that T2 = . Substituting ◊ = 24¶ , „ = 40¶ and
sin „
m = 10 kg gives T1 = 70 N, T2 = 44 N.
3.9 A non-uniform bar with a length of 10 m is supported at each end. If the reaction
forces from the supports are 60 N and 140 N respectively, find the position of the
centre of mass.
The centre of mass may be found by solving NA x = NB (L ≠ x) where L is

the length of the bar and x the distance to the centre of mass from A. Hence
NA = 60 N, NB = 140 N and L = 10 m which gives x = 7 m.
3.10 A particle is at the origin at time t = 0. Its velocity is (instantaneously) zero and it is
accelerating with constant acceleration of 8i + 12j m s≠2 .
(a) What is the particle’s velocity at t = 1 s? At t = 4 s? At t = 2 s?

(b) What is the particle’s position at t = 4 s?
(c) What is the distance of the particle from the origin at t = 4 s?
SUVAT with vectors:
(a) At t = 1 s, then v = (8i ≠ 12j) m s≠1 . At t = 4 s, then v = (32i ≠

48j) m s≠1 . At t = 2 s, then v = (≠16i ≠ 24j) m s≠1
(b) Particle position at t = 4 s is s = (64i ≠ 96j) m.
(c) The corresponding (scalar) distance from the origin is 115.4 m
3.11 A particle of mass 5 kg is initially at the position r = 2i + 3j + 4k m, and is moving

with the velocity v = 0.4i ≠ 2.4j + 1.6k m s≠1 . It is subject to a constant force
F = 5i + 3j ≠ 2k N.
(a) What is its velocity after 6 seconds?

(b) What is its position after 6 seconds?
Worked Solution
Begin by writing the “SUVAT” equations in vector form;
1
r = r 0 + ut + at2
2
v = u + at ,
etc. Then we also use Newton’s second law, that is F = ma, or a = F /m. So
we find the velocity at time t to be
t
v(t) = u + F ,
m
and its position at time t as,
1
r(t) = r 0 + ut + at2
2
t2
= r 0 + ut + F .
2m
Finally we need to only put in the given numerical values to get

5 6
6
v(t = 6 s) = (0.4i ≠ 2.4j + 1.6k) + (5i + 3j ≠ 2k) m s≠1
5
= [(0.4i ≠ 2.4j + 1.6k) + (6i + 3.6j ≠ 2.4k)] m s≠1
= 6.4i + 1.2j ≠ 0.8k ms≠1 ,
5 6
18
r(t = 6 s) = (2i + 3j + 4k) + 6(0.4i ≠ 2.4j + 1.6k) + (5i + 3j ≠ 2k) m
5
= [(2i + 3j + 4k) + 6(2.4i ≠ 14.4j + 9.6k) + (18i + 10.8j ≠ 7.2k)] m
= 22.4i ≠ 0.6j + 6.4k m .
3.12 A particle of mass 2 kg is acted on by a force F in newtons. The position r of the

particle is found to follow a path due to this force given by
A B A B
5t2 t3 3t2 7t
r= ≠ i+ ≠ j m,
3b 4c b a
where a, b and c are constants with the value 1 in appropriate units, when distance is
measured in metres and time in seconds. Find the following.
(a) The units of the constants a, b and c.

(b) The value of t when the particle is moving in a direction parallel to the vector i.
(c) The force F after 5 seconds.
(d) The magnitude of the force determined in part (c).
(a) Since r has units of m, then b must be m≠1 s2 , c must be m≠1 s3 , and a
must be m≠1 s.
(b) Here we have,
dr
v= ,
dt
A B 3 4
10t 3t2 6t 7
= ≠ i+ ≠ j m s≠1 .
3b 4c b a
Hence v will be parallel to i when the j component is zero, that is when

7b
t= s.
6a
(c) Here we have,
dv
a (t) = ,
dt
3 4 3 4
10 6t 6
= ≠ i+ j m s≠2 ,
3
3b 4c 4
b
10 30 6
a (t = 5 s) = ≠ i + j m s≠2 ,
3b 4c b
) F (t = 5 s) = ma (t = 5 s) N ,
3 4
10 30 6
=m ≠ i+ j N .
3b 4c b
Û3 42
10 30 36
(d) |F (t = 5 s) | = m ≠ + N
3b 4c b2
3.13 The velocity of a particle at time t seconds is measured to be (3t2 ≠ 8)i + 5j m s≠1 .
The particle is originally (at t = 0) found at the position 2i ≠ 4j m with respect to
the origin of the measurement system.
(a) Determine a vector expression for the position of the particle after t seconds.
(b) Assume a second particle is found to be moving with a constant velocity v of
8i + 4j m s≠1 and at the position 2i m at t = 0. Show that the two particles
will collide and determine the time t when this happens.
(a) Here we have,

⁄
r 1 (t) = v(t) dt ,
= (t3 ≠ 8t + C1 )i + (5t + C2 )j m ,
= (t3 ≠ 8t + 2)i + (5t ≠ 4)j m ,
where we have used the initial conditions to get the values of the integration
constants.
(b) By the same method as above, the position of the second particle is given
by r 2 = (8t + 2)i + (4t)j m. The particles will collide when r 1 = r 2 , so
resolving i and j components separately, this gives t3 ≠ 8t + 2 = 8t + 2 and
5t ≠ 4 = 4t. From the second of these we can see that one solution will be
when t = 4 s.
3.14 Particles 1,2,3 with mass m1 = 3 kg, m2 = 6 kg and m3 = 7 kg are located at

positions defined by the vectors r 1 = 5i ≠ 7j m, r 2 = 3i + 6j m and r 3 = 7i + 3j m.
(a) Determine the position of the centre of mass of the three-particle system.
(b) The particles are subsequently displaced in the direction of k so that their new
positions are given by r Õ1 = 5i ≠ 7j + 3k m, r Õ2 = 3i + 6j + 6k m and r Õ3 =
7i + 3j ≠ 3k m. Determine the new position of the centre of mass of the particle
system.
(a) Here we have,

ÿ ÿ
mi r i = r CM mi ,
i i
q
mi r i
r CM = qi ,
i mi
1
r CM = (3(5i ≠ 7j) + 6(3i + 6j) + 7(7i + 3j)) m ,
16
41 9
= i+ j m .
8 4
(b) The i and j components are unaffected so that the k component becomes
(3 · 3 + 6 · 6 ≠ 7 · 3)/16 = 24/16 = 3/2. Hence new center of mass is:
41 9 3
r CM = i+ j+ k m .
8 4 2
3.15 A particle is located 500 metres vertically above the origin at time t = 0. It has an
acceleration of magnitude 10 m s≠2 directed vertically downwards.
(a) Write the particle’s position and acceleration at t = 0 in vector form, using a
coordinate system with the z-axis (i.e. the k unit vector) vertical.
(b) If the particle’s velocity at t = 0 is 200i ≠ 25j m s≠1 , at what time will its
trajectory cross the xy plane (i.e. z = 0)? What is its velocity at this time?
What is its speed at this time?
(c) If, instead, the particle’s velocity at t = 0 is 200i ≠ 150j ≠ 240k m s≠1 , at what
time will its trajectory cross the xy-plane (z = 0)? What is its (vector) position
at this time? What is its (scalar) distance from the origin at this time?
Here we need to translate from a description of the problem in words to the

required equations.
(a) The position vector is r = 500k m. The acceleration vector is a =

≠10k m s . ≠2
(b) We can treat each vector component of the motion independently using
SUVAT. Here we are asked to find the time for which z = 0. The z-
1
component of the initial velocity is zero so we have s = at2 giving t = 10 s.
2
At this time the velocity is (200i ≠ 25j ≠ 100k) m s≠1 and the speed is
225 m s≠1 .
(c) Now the z-component of the initial velocity is ≠240 m s≠1 so we use s =
1
ut + at2 . This has two solutions: t = ≠50 s or t = 2 s. Take the positive
2
value, t = 2 s. At this time the position is r = 500k + 2(200i ≠ 150j ≠
1
240k) + 22 (≠10k) m = (400i ≠ 300j) m. The distance from the origin is
2
500 m.
3.16 A man at a warehouse is dragging a box of mass 50 kg at constant speed up a wooden

board inclined to the horizontal plane at an angle of 20¶ . The coefficient of friction
between the box and the board is 0.3. If he drags the box 5 m up the plane, calculate:
(a) the work done against friction.

(b) the work done against gravity.
(a) The reaction force against is mg cos ◊. Hence work done against friction is
Force ◊ Distance (d) = dmg cos ◊ = 50 · cos 20¶ · 9.8 · 5 = 690 J.
(b) The work against gravity is mgh = dmg sin 20¶ = 838 J
3.17 A car of mass 1250 kg accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m s≠1 . The driver then
removes his foot from the accelerator and the car decelerates at a constant rate to
15 m s≠1 in 10 s.
(a) Calculate the kinetic energy gained by the car during its original acceleration.
(b) What is the work done on the car as it slows down?
(c) Give suggestions as to where this energy goes.
(d) What is the distance travelled as the car at it decelerates from 30 m s≠1 to
15 m s≠1 ?
(e) Determine the force acting on the car as it is decelerating.
(f) What is the power needed to keep the car travelling at 30 m s≠1 ?
1
(a) The initial kinetic energy (KE) is zero, hence the gain is mv 2 = 0.5 · 1250 ·
2
30 · 30 = 562, 500 J = 562 kJ
(b) This corresponds to the lost KE
1
= m(vi2 ≠ vf2 ) = 0.5 · 1250 · (302 ≠ 152 ) = 422 kJ
2
(c) This could be friction in bearings, rolling resistance, air resistance etc (As-
suming he doesn’t use the brakes).
1
(d) This is given by s = ut ≠ at2 as car is decelerating. Hence
2
(30 ≠ 15)
a=≠ = ≠1.5 m s≠2 (which is constant) so that
10
s = 30 · 10 ≠ 0.5 · 1.5 · 10 · 10 = 225 m.
(e) This is given by F = ma = 1250 · 1.5 N = 1875 N
(f) As the force is constant it is independent of the speed. The instantaneous
d(F s)
power is given by the rate of change of doing work, i.e. = F · speed,
dt
since the force is constant in time. Hence the power needed to maintain the
car at 30 m s≠1 is 1875 · 30 W = 56 kW. (This is a little high, in reality the
losses are not quite as severe although a figure of ¥ 10 kW is typical)
3.18 A particle of mass 2 kg is moving with a velocity 4i + 3j m s≠1 . It collides with a

particle of mass 3 kg moving with a velocity 3i + 10j m s≠1 and coalesces to form
a single 5 kg particle. What is the velocity of the composite particle and how much
kinetic energy is lost in the process? How do you explain this result in terms of the
conservation of energy?
We can see that |v 1 | = 5 m s≠1 and that |v 2 | = 10.44 m s≠1 . Conservation of

momentum gives m1 v 1 + m2 v 2 = (m1 + m2 )v 3 . Hence,
1
v 3 = ((2(4i + 3j) + 3(3i + 10j)) m s≠1 ,
5
17 36
= i + j m s≠1 ,
5 5
speed = 7.96 m s≠1 .
Then we can find that the loss of kinetic energy is

1
(m1 v12 + m2 v22 ≠ (m1 + m2 )v32 ) = 30 J.
2
The collision is clearly inelastic suggesting energy is lost as heat or other means.
3.19 A stone, projected with speed v at an angle of elevation – from a point O on the top
of a cliff, hits a small object A at a horizontal distance a from O and at a vertical
distance h below the level of O. A hit is also made if the stone is projected from O
with speed v at an angle of depression given by (90¶ ≠ –). Prove that
v 2 + ga cot(2–) = 0 and h + a tan(2–) = 0.
Consider the motion of each stone in turn and resolve the horizontal and vertical
motion. Let the time of arrival of the the first stone be t1 and the second as t2 .
The stones will arrive at the same place but at different times, hence t1 is not
equal to t2 .
1
stone 1 vertical : ≠h = vt1 sin – ≠ gt21 ,
2
1
stone 2 vertical : ≠h = ≠vt2 cos – ≠ gt22 ,
2
stone 1 horizontal : a = vt1 cos – ,
stone 2 horizontal : a = vt2 sin – .
Substituting 3rd equation into 1st and 4th into 2nd we get,
a sin – 1 a2
≠h = ≠ g 2 ,
cos – 2 v cos2 –
a cos – 1 a2
≠h = ≠ ≠ g 2 2 .
sin – 2 v sin –
Subtracting these equations from each other we get,

A B
a2 g 1 1 2
0 = a tan – + a cot – ≠ 2 ≠ sin –) ,
2v cos2 – (
A B
ag sin2 – ≠ cos2 –
) 0 = tan – + a cot – ≠ 2 ,
2v cos2 – sin2 –
sin2 – + cos2 – 2ag cos 2–
)0= + 2 ,
sin – cos – v sin2 2–
2 2ag cot 2–
)0= + 2 ,
sin 2– v sin 2–
) 0 = v 2 + ag cot 2– .
Alternatively, we could not subtract those expressions, and we could rearrange to

get:
1 a2 g
≠h cos2 – = a sin – cos – ≠ ,
2 v2
1 a2 g
≠h sin2 – = ≠a sin – cos – ≠ .
2 v2
Subtracting these we get,
≠h(cos2 – ≠ sin2 –) = 2a sin – cos – ,

) h + a tan 2– = 0 .
3.20 Points A and B lie on the same horizontal plane at a distance d apart. A projectile is
fired from A in the vertical plane through AB towards B with a speed v at an angle
◊. Simultaneously a particle is fired from B in the same vertical plane towards A with
a speed 2v at an angle of elevation „. Find an expression for the distance between the
two particles when one is vertically above the other, and hence prove that they collide
if
sin „ = 12 sin ◊.
If ◊ = fi/3, prove that they collide at a point above the level of AB if

Ô
2 gd( 13 ≠ 1)
v > Ô .
6 3
Consider the horizontal positions of projectiles 1 and 2 given by
x1 = vt cos ◊ ,
x2 = d ≠ 2vt cos „ .
When the projectiles are above and below each other then we have x1 = x2 so
that vt cos ◊ = d ≠ 2vt cos „. Now consider the vertical positions given by,
1
y1 = vt sin ◊ ≠ gt2 ,
2
1
y2 = 2vt sin „ ≠ gt2 .
2
Their vertical separation is then h = y1 ≠ y2 = vt sin ◊ ≠ 2vt sin „. Substituting

d(sin ◊ ≠ 2 sin „)
vt from above gives h = .
cos ◊ + 2 cos „
For the particles to collide we need h = 0, which from the last relation we see is
1
given by sin „ = sin ◊ as required.
2
Now, from their vertical positions, if the projectiles are to collide above the ground
then we must have, y1 or y2 > 0 when they collide. Taking y1 from the vertical
1
position relations above we thus require vt sin ◊ ≠ gt2 > 0. Subbing this into
2
the first relation above, we get that:
d sin ◊ gd2
> 2 ,
cos ◊ + 2 cos „ 2v (cos ◊ + 2 cos „)2
so that,
gd
v2 > .
2 sin ◊(cos ◊ + 2 cos „)
Ô
fi 3 1
Now, if ◊ = = 60 then sin(60 ) =
¶ ¶
, and sin(60¶ ) = and,
3 2 2
Ò
cos „ = 1 ≠ sin2 „ ,
Û
1
= 1 ≠ sin2 ◊ ,
4
Ô
13
= .
4
Substituting these values above gives,
gd
v2 > Ô
2 3 1
Ô ,
2
+ 2 413 )
(2
2gd
>Ô Ô ,
3(1 + 13)
Ô
2gd( 13 ≠ 1)
> Ô ,
12 3
Ô
gd( 13 ≠ 1)
> Ô ,
6 3
as required.
3.2 Motion and forces 37
3.2 Motion and forces

3.21 A train is travelling at a constant velocity (v = v0 ) along a track parallel to the x-axis;
at time t = 0 and position x = y = 0 and z = z0 a ball is thrown out of the window
with speed v1 at right angles to the track and with an elevation of ◊ to the horizontal.
(a) Write down in vector form the equation of motion of the ball. Hence write down
the position of the particle as a function of time.
(b) Assuming the ground is flat and horizontal where will the ball land?
Take the z-axis to be vertical and assume the height of the window above the
(flat and horizontal) ground is z0 . v1 denotes the speed of the ball relative to the
train at the instant it is thrown out of the window.
d2 r
(a) The equation of motion is = ≠gk Thus we can find that
dt2
1
r(t) = v0 ti + v1 cos ◊tj + (z0 + v1 sin ◊t ≠ gt2 )k
2
(b) The ball will land at the position given by r = (v0 i + v1 cos ◊j)· where the
time · is the (positive) solution of the quadratic equation g· 2 ≠ 2v1 sin ◊· ≠
2z0 = 0,
Ò
v1 sin ◊ + v12 sin2 ◊ + 2gz0
·=
g
3.22 A particle initially at the origin has a velocity v given as a function of time t by
the expression v = at2 i + btj, where a and b are constants. What are the physical
dimensions of the constants a and b? What is the particle’s acceleration as a function
of time? Find an expression for its position at time t.
Worked Solution
3.23 A particle is at rest at time t = 0 and has an acceleration given by a = –ti + —t3 j,
where – and — are constants. Find an expression for the particle’s velocity as a function
of time. If its initial position is given by x0 i + y0 j, what is its position at time t?
The velocity and position are found from the acceleration by two successive inte-
grations. The constant of integration for the first operation is found from the initial
velocity, which is zero; and for the second integration from the initial position.
a(t) = –ti + —t3 j ,

1 1
v(t) = –t2 i + —t4 j ,
2 4
1 3 1
r(t) = ( –t + x0 )i + ( —t5 + y0 )j
6 20
3.24 A particle moving in one dimension has velocity u at time t = 0, and a constant
2
acceleration a. By writing a = ddt2x and integrating twice, find an expression for the
distance travelled as a function of time. By writing a = v dx

dv
and integrating, find an
expression for the particle’s velocity as a function of position.
d2 x dx
Starting from = a and integrating we obtain = at + constant where the
dt2 dt
constant is the initial (t = 0) velocity, given as u. Inserting this value for the
constant and integrating twice again,
dx
= u + at ,
dt
1
x = ut + at2 + constant ,
2
where the new constant of integration is the initial (t = 0) position. If we write

s for the distance travelled in time t we have s = ut + 12 at2 . Now starting from
dv
v = a we have
dx
⁄ x=x0 +s ⁄ x=x0 +s
dv
v dx = a dx ,
x=x0 dx x=x0
⁄ v ⁄ x0 +s
v dv =
Õ Õ
a dx ,
u x0
1 2
(v ≠ u2 ) = as ,
2
v 2 = u2 + 2as .
Note there are some subtle points to keep track of with the integration here.
3.25 A particle moving in one dimension has velocity v0 at position x = 0. Its acceleration
is given as a function of position by a = k 2 x ≠ kv0 . What are the dimensions of the
constant k? Use the identity a = dv
dt
dv
= v dx to find the speed as a function of position.
We are given that a = k 2 x ≠ kv0 . All three terms in this expression must have
the same dimension. This is the case if the constant k has dimension (time)≠1 .
dv
We write a = v and integrate over dx to give,
dx
⁄ xÕ =x ⁄ xÕ =x
Õ dv
Õ
v dx =
Õ
a(xÕ ) dxÕ ,
xÕ =0
⁄ dxÕ ⁄ x xÕ =0
v
Õ
v dv Õ = k 2 xÕ ≠ kv0 dxÕ ,
v0 0
1 2 1
(v ≠ v02 ) = k 2 x2 ≠ kv0 x ,
2 2
v = (v0 ≠ kx)2 ,
2
v = v0 ≠ kx ,
where we choose the positive square root to satisfy the initial condition.
3.26 A particle moving in one dimension has position x = 0 at time t = 0. Its velocity
is given as a function of position by v = v0 ≠ kx, where k is a constant. Find an
expression for its position as a function of time.
We are given that v = v0 ≠ kx, and we want to find x as a function of time t.

Since the RHS of the expression provided is in terms of x we want to set up an
integration over dx. A calculation of the correct form is
⁄ tÕ =t ⁄ xÕ =x
dtÕ
dt = dxÕ ,
tÕ =0 xÕ =0
⁄ x
dxÕ
1 Õ
t= dx
0 v
dx
(A “quick-and-dirty” way to get this expression is to write v = and then
dt
dx
manipulate as though were a fraction with numerator dx and denominator
dt
dx
dt. So we arrive at dt = - then write v as a function of x and integrate.
v
The above is a little longer and a little more hygienic, but the “quick-and-dirty”
technique can be used if you are confident of what you are doing.)
Performing the integration gives

5 6x
1
t = ≠ ln(v0 ≠ kxÕ ) ,
k 0
1 v0 ≠ kx
= ≠ ln ,
k v0
v0
x = (1 ≠ e≠kt ) .
k
3.27 A particle of mass m and velocity v passes through the origin at time t = 0, when its
velocity is v0 i. It is subject to two forces: F 1 = ≠mgk and F 2 = ≠bv, where where
g and b are constants. Find the x-component of the particle’s velocity as a function of
position in x. Find a relationship between the z-component of the particle’s position
and the z-component of its velocity.
Add the two forces together to get the total force on the object, and then divide
by the mass to get its acceleration. Written out in components we have:
A B
b dx b dy b dz
a=≠ i+≠ j≠ +g k .
m dt m dt m dt
Writing the x-component of velocity as vx = dx

dt
we have,
dvx b
vx = ≠ vx ,
dx m
dvx b
=≠ ,
dx m
b
vx = v0 ≠ x ,
m
since we are given vx = v0 when x = 0. Using similar notation for the z-component
we have,
dvz b
vz = ≠ vz ≠ g ,
dz m
vz
dz = ≠ b dvz ,
v +g
m z
A B
m g
= ≠1 dvz ,
b b
v +g
m z
A A B B
m mg g + mb vz
) z= ln ≠ vz ,
b b g
on substituting the initial condition vz = 0. (Note if we expand the ln(1 + bvz

mg
)
for small vz we get vz2 = ≠2gz as expected for uniform acceleration.)
3.28 A stationary radar operator determines that a ship is 10 km due South of her. An
hour later the same ship is 20 km due South East. If the ship is moving at constant
velocity what is this constant velocity?
Write the two positions in vector form, taking the x-axis due East and the y-
axis due North. Then the initial position is r 1 = ≠10j km and the final position
r2 ≠ r1
r 2 = (14.1i≠14.1j) km. The velocity is v = = (14.1i≠4.1j) km h≠1 =
t
7.6i ≠ 2.2j knots.
3.29 A particle’s position is

r = 30ti + (40t ≠ 5t2 )j.
If r is in metres and t is in seconds, what are the units of the constants in this
expression? What are the instantaneous velocity and acceleration vectors as a function
of time?
The 30 must have units of m s≠1 , the 40 also units of m s≠1 and finally the 5
must have units of m s≠2 .
r = (30t)i + (40t ≠ 5t2 )j ,

v = 30i + (40 ≠ 10t)j ,
a = ≠10j .
3.30 A golf ball of mass m is moving in a straight line across smooth horizontal ground.
Its speed at time t is v(t). As the golf ball moves, it experiences a resistive force of
magnitude ⁄mv 1/2 until it comes to rest. No other horizontal force acts on the golf
ball. In the following, consider the golf ball as a point particle.
(a) Show that

dv
= ≠⁄v 1/2 .
dt
(b) When t = 0 the speed of the golf ball is v0 . Show that
1 22
1/2
v = v0 ≠ 12 ⁄t .
(c) If the initial speed v0 is 16 m s≠1 , find the value of t when v has been reduced
to 1 m s≠1 , taking ⁄ = 0.2 m1/2 s≠3/2 .
(d) Find the distance travelled by the golf ball during this time.
1 dv F
(a) The net force on the ball is F = ⁄mv 2 so the acceleration is =≠ =
1
dt m
≠⁄v 2 . The minus sign is because the force is acting to decrease the velocity.
dv
(b) We want to integrate the expression for to find v as a function of t. The
dt
required integration is,
⁄ vÕ =v
1
t= dv Õ
dv Õ ,
v Õ =v 0
dt
⁄ v
1 1
= ≠ v Õ≠ 2 dv Õ ,
v0 ⁄
1 1 1
= ≠ · 2(v 2 ≠ v02 ) ,
⁄
1 1 1
) v 2 = v02 ≠ ⁄t ,
2
1 1
) v = (v02 ≠ ⁄t)2 .
2
It’s important to understand fully how the initial integration has been con-
structed.
(c) From the derivation of the previous part we can find an expression for time
2 1 1
t as a function of velocity: t = (v02 ≠ v 2 ). Substitute the values provided
⁄
to give t = 30 s.
(d) There are two ways to find an algebraic expression for the distance travelled.
dx
i. Write v as and integrate:
dt
dx 1 1
= v0 ≠ ⁄v02 t + ⁄2 t2 ,
dt 4
1 12 2 1
) x = v0 t ≠ ⁄v0 t + ⁄2 t3 .
2 12
dv
ii. Write the acceleration as v and integrate:
dx
dv 1
v = ≠⁄v 2 ,
dx
⁄ vÕ =v
1
) x= dv Õ
dv Õ ,
v Õ =v0
dx
⁄ vÕ =v
1 1
= ≠ v Õ 2 dv Õ
v Õ =v0 ⁄
1 2 3 3
= ≠ · (v 2 ≠ v02 ) ,
⁄ 3
2 32 3
= (v0 ≠ v 2 ) .
3⁄
3 1
From the earlier result we can write v 2 = (v02 ≠ 12 ⁄t)3 ; by expanding
the cube we can demonstrate that the two algebraic expressions for t
are equivalent. Substituting the numerical values gives x = 210 m
3.31 A projectile can be fired at 30 km/h at an angle ◊ to the horizontal. We define

the range of the projectile as the horizontal distance travelled before it returns to the
original vertical height. Ignoring the effects of air resistance, find the maximum range
and the value of ◊ that gives this range.
To tackle this problem, first derive an algebraic expression for the range in terms of
◊ and the initial speed. Use differentiation to find a maximum. Then substitute the
speed given to find a numerical result for the maximum range. Try it for yourself before
following the more detailed procedure below.
(a) Use trigonometry to write down the initial horizontal and vertical components of
the velocity.
(b) Write down two equations to give the horizontal and vertical positions of the
projectile as functions of time in terms of the initial speed v and the initial angle
to the horizontal ◊. (Write the acceleration due to gravity as g rather than using
a numerical value.)
(c) Use these equations to show that the time the projectile will remain airborne, Ta ,
is given by Ta = 2v
g
sin ◊.
v2
(d) Hence show that the horizontal distance of travel, X, is given by X = g
sin(2◊).
(e) Show by differentiation that the maximum horizontal distance of travel, Xmax , is
given by Xmax = v 2 /g, and determine what angle ◊ gives this as the range.
(f) Finally calculate the maximum range for the given initial speed, by substitution
of appropriate numerical values.
(a) We can just use trigonometry to find the initial vertical velocity, vvert = v sin ◊
and the initial horizontal velocity, vhoriz = v cos ◊.
(b) To find the horizontal and vertical components of the position, we need to
use the relevant “SUVAT” equation s = ut + 12 at2 . The initial speeds are
as found in part (a) and the acceleration is ≠g vertically, zero horizontally.
The position as a function of time is: Vertical position, y = v sin ◊t ≠ 12 gt2 ,
Horizontal position, x = v cos ◊t.
(c) To find the time the projectile remains airborne we need to find the time(s)
when it is at zero height, i.e. when y = 0. We have just found y in terms of
t in part (b), so set this to zero and solve for t.
1
0 = v sin ◊t ≠ gt2 ,
2
2v sin ◊
) t= .
g
(d) To find the horizontal distance, we substitute the time of flight found in part
(c) above into the equation from part (c) giving the horizontal position.
x = v cos ◊t ,
2v sin ◊
t= ,
g
2v 2 sin ◊ cos ◊
) x=
g
(e) We should read the result of part (d) as giving the range x as a function of
dx
◊, the initial angle. The maximum distance will occur when = 0. We
d◊
dx
use the product rule for differentiation to evaluate (see the section on
d◊
differentiation in Chapter 1):
x= ,
g
2v 2
= sin ◊ · cos ◊ ,
g ¸ ˚˙ ˝ ¸ ˚˙ ˝
f (◊) g(◊)
CI J I JD
dx 2v 2
d d
) = (sin ◊) cos ◊ + sin ◊ (cos ◊) ,
d◊ g d◊ d◊
S T
2v W
2 X
= Wcos ◊ · cos ◊ + sin ◊ · ≠ sin ◊ X ,
U ˝ ¸ ˚˙ ˝ ¸ ˚˙ ˝ ¸ ˚˙ ˝V
g ¸ ˚˙
df g n dg
d◊ d◊
2v 2 Ë 2 È
= cos ◊ ≠ sin2 ◊ .
g
The maximum range occurs when this expression is zero, that is when
cos2 ◊ = sin2 ◊ or when ◊ = 45¶ . Next we substitute ◊ = 45¶ into the
equation for the range and hence find the maximum distance the projectile
can travel. We have
x= ,
g
1
with sin ◊ = cos ◊ = Ô ,
2
2v 2
1 1
) xmax = ·Ô ·Ô ,
g 2 2
2
v
or xmax = .
g
(f) Now, we can use the numerical data given in the question to find the maxi-
mum distance travelled. We were given the initial speed as 30 km h≠1 . Start
by converting this to SI units:
30 · 1000 m
30 km h≠1 = ,
60 · 60 s
25
= m s≠1 ,
3
= 8.3 m s≠1 ,
v2
) xmax = ,
g
(8.3)2 m2 s≠2
= ,
9.81 m s≠2
= 7.1 m .
Note here that we should not use too many significant figures in any answer
- the accuracy of the answer is limited by the accuracy of the data and we
are given the data to at best 2 significant figures. So no results should be
given to more than 2 significant figures (although we may carry additional
accuracy through the stages of the calculation).
3.32 A car accelerates from rest at the origin, but as time passes and the speed rises, the
acceleration decreases. For simplicity, assume that the acceleration decreases linearly
with time and only consider motion before the acceleration reaches zero.
(a) Show that the equation a(t) = a0 (1 ≠ kt) describes the motion of the car,
explaining the meaning of the terms.
(b) Show, by integration, that the speed of the car, v(t) is given by
A B
kt2
v(t) = a0 t≠ .
2
(c) by integrating the speed, find an equation that describes the position of the car
as a function of time.
(d) Sketch a graph showing how the acceleration, speed and distance travelled vary
with time.
(a) We are told that the acceleration varies linearly with time so it must obey a
relationship like a(t) = a0 ≠ ct where the second term, ≠ct is negative to
show that the quantity decreases as time t increases. We can also rewrite
this in the form given in the question, a(t) = a0 (1 ≠ kt) if c = a0 k. The

equation contains two constants: a0 is the initial acceleration, i.e. the value
1 1
of a at t = 0. The constant k has the dimension of ; and is the time
time k
that it takes for the acceleration to decrease to zero.
dv
(b) By writing the acceleration as , we can find an expression for the speed v
dt
as a function of time:
⁄ tÕ =t
v= a(tÕ ) dtÕ ,
tÕ =0
⁄ t
= a0 (1 ≠ ktÕ ) dtÕ ,
0
1
= a0 (t ≠ kt2 ) .
2
dx
(c) By writing the speed as , we can find an expression for the speed x as a
dt
function of time:
⁄ tÕ =t
x= v(tÕ ) dtÕ ,
tÕ =0
⁄ t
1
= a0 (tÕ ≠ ktÕ2 )dtÕ ,
0 2
1 2 1 3
= a0 ( t ≠ kt ) .
2 6
3.33 Assume a particle travelling in 1 dimension, with position x(t), has equation of motion
d3 x
= J, where J is a constant ‘jerk’. Using integration, derive analogues of the
dt3
‘SUVAT’ equations for the motion in this case, identifying any constants you introduce.
Assume, when t = 0, acceleration a(0) = a0 , velocity v(0) = v0 , position x(0) =

x0 . In the integrals, use these as constants of integration, rather than putting
limits on integrals. Therefore:
⁄
acceleration a(t) = Jdt = Jt + a0 ,
⁄
velocity v(t) = a(t)dt = 12 Jt2 + a0 t + v0 ,
⁄
position x(t) = v(t)dt = 16 Jt3 + 12 a0 t2 + v0 t + x0 .
3.34 The diagram in Fig. 3.1 shows the recommended stopping distances for braking a car,
adapted from the Highway Code. They are based on a regular car on a typical, flat
road in dry conditions, assuming the car stops due to friction.
(a) What is the duration of the ‘thinking time’ assumed to be?

(b) Argue that the friction force means you can apply the “SUVAT” equations, and
show that an expression for the coefficient of kinetic friction µk is given by
v2
µk = ,
2gd
where v is the velocity of the car before braking, and d is the braking distance.
(c) Estimate µk for the braking car on the road.
(d) You are advised to apply the brakes gradually rather than suddenly while driving
in wet conditions. Why do you think this is?
6m 6m
9m 14 m
12 m 24 m
15 m 38 m
18 m 55 m
21 m 75 m
Fig. 3.1 Stoping distances, taken from the highway code.
Throughout this question, use the conversion factor 1 km/hr = 0.278 m s≠1 . The
given conversion from mph to km/hr assumes there are 1600 metres in a mile,
not the more accurate 1609 m.
(a) Thinking time from dividing distance by stated speed (including conversion
factor), e.g. for the first, slowest speed,
6/(32 ◊ 0.278) s = 0.67 s,
and the others are the same.

(b) Since the brakes are being applied, the car is experiencing kinetic friction with
the road, and no other net forces are acting. The car therefore experiences
a friction force of ≠µk mg, where m is its mass, with an initial velocity of
v (that given in the table) and zero final velocity. Since the force acting is
constant, so is the acceleration (deceleration) of ≠µk g, so mass does not play
a role, and we can apply the suvat equation for velocity (squared) in terms
of acceleration and distance d, 0 ≠ v 2 = ≠2µk g, which, on rearrangement,
agrees with the given equation.
(c) Taking g = 9.8 m s≠2 , we get for each of the velocities (using the given
factors),
0.67, 0.65, 0.67, 0.66, 0.66, 0.66,
to 2 significant figures. Thus µk ¥ 0.66. Students may prefer to plot v 2

against 2gd and extract µk as the best-fit gradient.
(d) When the road is wet, the coefficient of kinetic friction is much lower, which
applies when the car brakes fully, causing the car to slide and the driver to
lose control. If the brakes are applied gradually, the wheel continues to roll,
and is more likely to maintain contact with the road.
3.35 A small particle of mass m is released from rest in a viscous fluid to fall under gravity.
The particle experiences a linear drag force F = ≠bv, measuring distance z downwards
as the positive direction, with v = ż. You may assume that the buoyancy force is
negligible and can be ignored.
(a) What are the dimensions of the drag coefficient b?

(b) Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the particle when it is released, and when
it reaches terminal velocity.
(c) Show that the terminal velocity of the particle is given by mg/b.
(d) Rearrange the force law to get an equation of motion for the particle, i.e. an
equation for the acceleration z̈.
(e) Show that the expression
gmt gm2 1 ≠bt/m 2

z= + 2 e ≠1
b b
is a solution for the equation of motion. This requires that you check it has the
correct dimensions, it satisfies the correct initial conditions (z = 0, ż = 0 when
t = 0), and that, when you substitute the expression into the equation of motion,
the left hand side agrees with the right.
(f) Sketch the solution from the previous part, and the velocity ż. Can you estimate
an expression for the time t when the particle is travelling close to the terminal
velocity?
(a) Dimensions of b are
[force] [Mass][Length][Time]≠2
[b] = = = [Mass][Time]≠1 .
[velocity] [Length][Time] ≠1
(b) When particle is released, only gravity acts, while when it reaches terminal
velocity there is no acceleration, i.e. gravity and the drag force balance.
Figures should reflect this.
(c) At terminal velocity vt , the gravity and the drag force balance, i.e. mg≠bvt =
0. Rearranging gives the required solution.
(d) At an arbitrary time t, the total force acting on the particle is mg ≠ bż. By
Newton’s second law, therefore, and dividing each side by m, we get
b
z̈ = g ≠ ż.
m
(e) First check the dimensions, bt/m is dimensionless, and gmt/b and gm2 /b2
both have dimensions of length, as required. When t is zero, z(0) = 0 +
gm2
b2
(1 ≠ 1) = 0. Now,
A B
gm gm2 b gm gm
ż = + 2 ≠ exp(≠bt/m) = ≠ exp(≠bt/m),
b b m b b
which is clearly zero when t = 0. The RHS of the equation of motion is

therefore
3 4
b gm gm
g≠ ≠ exp(≠bt/m) = g ≠ g + g exp(≠bt/m).
m b b
Finally, A B
gm b
z̈ = ≠ ≠ exp(≠bt/m) = +g exp(≠bt/m),
b m
so the given function satisfies the equation of motion.
(f) Diagram omitted. Particle velocity exponentially approaches 1, so a duration

involving the time constant m/b is appropriate.
3.36 Calculate the Lorentz force acting on a point particle of charge +1 coulomb with
velocity v, in electric field E (measured in Volts per metre) and magnetic field B
(measured in Teslas) as follows:
(a) v = 3i m s≠1 , E = 2j V m≠1 , B = ≠k T.

(b) v = 8.3i + 5.6j m s≠1 , E = 0 V m≠1 , B = 1.7i + 5.0j T.
(c) v = ≠9i + 6j ≠ 3k m s≠1 , E = 6i ≠ 4j + 2k V m≠1 , B = 3i ≠ 2j + k T.
(d) v = (2.6i≠0.7j +5.4k)◊102 m s≠1 , E = 12.4i≠2.8j ≠9.6k V m≠1 , B=
(6.3i + 2.0j + 2.3k) ◊ 10 ≠3
T.
Worked Solution
Part (b)
3.3 Newton’s laws 53
Numerical solutions:
(a) 5j N (all three vectors perpendicular)

(b) 32k N
(c) 6i ≠ 4j + 2k N (all three vectors parallel)
(d) 0 N (accurate to 1 decimal place, as stated in question)
3.3 Newton’s laws

j
3.37 Two coordinate systems, with Cartesian unit j i
vectors i, j and iÕ , j Õ are oriented at 45¶ to one
another.
O i
(a) Find iÕ , j Õ in terms of i, j, i.e. find a, b, c, d such that
iÕ = ai + bj, j Õ = ci + dj.
(b) Confirm from your answer to the previous part that
iÕ · iÕ = j Õ · j Õ = 1, iÕ · j Õ = 0,
as you would expect for a pair of Cartesian basis vectors.

(c) Now write i and j in terms of iÕ and j Õ .
(d) A point r can be written in either coordinate system, that is
r = xi + yj = xÕ iÕ + y Õ j Õ .
Can you write x and y in terms of xÕ and y Õ ?

(Hint: What happens if you take the scalar product of r with iÕ or j Õ ?)
Ô
(a) By simple projection, a = ≠c = cos(fi/4) = 1/ 2, b = d = sin(fi/4) =
Ô
1/ 2.
A B2 A B2
1 1
(b) i · i = a + b =
Õ Õ 2 2
+ Ô
Ô = 1, and similarly for j Õ · j Õ . iÕ · j Õ =
2 2
A B2 A B2
1 1
ac + bd = ≠ Ô + Ô = 0.
2 2
Ô
(c) The same coefficients, ±1/ 2, occur here as well since the angles between
the vectors are the same as before. From the diagram, it is clear that
1 1
i = Ô (iÕ ≠ j Õ ) , j = Ô (iÕ + j Õ ) .
2 2
(d) The most direct way is to substitute the forms for iÕ and j Õ found in part (a)
into the expression for r, which gives
1
xi + yj = xÕ Ô (i + j) + y Õ (≠i + j)
2
1 Õ 1
= Ô (x ≠ y Õ )i + Ô (xÕ + y Õ )j,
2 2
and taking the dot product of each side with each of i, j, we get x =
1 1
Ô (xÕ ≠ y Õ ), y = Ô (xÕ + y Õ ).
2 2
3.38 Two 3-dimensional inertial frames, S and S Õ , share the same origin when t = 0, i.e. the
point x = y = z = 0 corresponds with the point xÕ = y Õ = z Õ = 0 when t = 0.
The axes of the two frames are aligned in the same directions, but S Õ is traveling at a
constant positive velocity v in the +x-direction.
(a) Sketch the two frames when t = 0, and at some t > 0.

(b) Write down the ‘Galilean transformation rules’ for transforming to S Õ from S,
that is write down an expression for the xÕ , y Õ , z Õ coordinates of a point in terms
of the x, y, z coordinates, and time t.
(c) In the S frame, a particle has position x = 3 + 4t m, y = ≠2t m, z = 5 m.
i. What is the particle’s position in the S Õ frame?
ii. Taking v = 6 m s≠1 , write down the coordinates for the particle’s position
as a function of time in the S Õ frame. What is its velocity in the S Õ frame?
(a) A very standard sketch is all that is needed here.

(b) These transformations are given by:
xÕ = x ≠ vt ,
yÕ = y ,
zÕ = z ,
tÕ = t .
(c) With x = 3 + 4t m, y = ≠2t m, z = 5 m, then:

i. The S Õ coordinates are given by:
xÕ = 3 + (4 ≠ v)t m ,
y Õ = ≠2t m ,
zÕ = 5 m ,
tÕ = t s .
ii. With v = 6 m s≠1 , then this changes to,
xÕ = 3 ≠ 2t m ,
y Õ = ≠2t m ,
zÕ = 5 m ,
tÕ = t s .
dx
Let the particles x-velocity in the S frame be given by u = =
dt Õ
4 m s . Then the x-velocity in the S frame will be given by u =
≠1 Õ
dxÕ dxÕ
= = ≠2 m s≠1 . The velocities in the other directions remain
dtÕ dt
unchanged.
3.39 Galileo reputedly tested his ideas about Galilean relativity and gravity by dropping
objects from the leaning tower of Pisa, which has height 56 m.
(a) Assume Galileo dropped a book of mass 2.4 kg from the tower. Write down an
equation for the book’s position as a function of time in Galileo’s frame, i.e. take
Galileo to be the origin, and a gravitational force proportional to g in the ≠k
direction, and ignore the effects of wind resistance.
(b) A bird was flying near Galileo as he dropped the book, with instantaneous position
3.1i + 2k m and velocity 1.2i + 0.6j m s≠1 in Galileo’s frame. Write down the
time-dependent of the position of the book in the bird’s frame. What is the
position vector, in the bird’s frame, that the book hits the ground?
3.40 A penguin of mass 2.5 kg is found initially at position
r = 0.32i + 0.61j + 0.16k m,
with a velocity given by
v = 1.82i + 3.50j + 0.64k m s≠1 .
It is acted on by a constant force given by
F = 7.2i + 14.4j + 2.9k N.
Find
(a) The initial distance of the penguin from the origin.

(b) The initial speed of the penguin.
(c) A unit vector in the initial velocity of the penguin.
(d) The initial linear momentum of the penguin.
(e) The acceleration of the penguin.
(f) The velocity of the penguin after a time of 10 seconds.
Ô
(a) |r| = 0.322 + 0.612 + 0.162 = 0.71 m to 2 d.p.
Ô
(b) |v| = 1.822 + 3.502 + 0.642 = 4.00 m to 2 d.p.
v
(c) v̂ = = 0.46i + 0.87j + 0.16k m s≠1 to 2 d.p.
|v|
(d) p = mv = 4.55i + 8.75j + 1.60k kg m s≠1 to 2 d.p.
F
(e) a = = 2.88i + 5.76j + 1.16k m s≠2 to 2 d.p.
m
(f) v f = v i + at = (1.82i + 3.50j + 0.64k + 28.8i + 57.6j + 11.6k) m s≠1 =
29.96i + 61.10j + 12.24k m s≠1 to 2 d.p.
3.41 A climber of mass 65 kg is in equilibrium with his feet against a rock surface inclined
at „ = 40¶ to the horizontal, and is supported by a rope running parallel to the rock
face. Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the climber. Find the tension in the
rope. (Assume the force of the rock on the climber is at right angles to the surface.)
Worked Solution
3.42 A particle is at rest on a rough plane, inclined at an angle „ to the horizontal. Draw
a diagram of the forces acting on the particle, clearly identifying each force. What is
the total net force acting on the particle?
The forces acting on a particle at rest on a rough inclined plane are: gravity ;
and a contact force from the surface. The contact force is often resolved into a
normal reaction perpendicular to the plane and a friction component parallel to
the plane. The total force acting is zero. (This means that the resultant contact
force balances the gravitational force - it acts vertically upwards and is equal to
the particle’s weight.)
3.43 A particle of mass m is attached to a spring with spring constant k.
(a) The other end of the spring is attached to a fixed point so that the particle is
suspended vertically downwards. What is the extension of the spring?
(b) The particle now rests on a rough horizontal plane with the coefficient of static
fraction µs and coefficient of kinetic friction µk . The spring is slowly extended.
What is the maximum extension of the spring before the particle starts to move?
(c) What is the extension of the spring if the particle is moving on the plane at a
uniform speed v?
(d) What is the extension of the spring if the particle is moving on the plane with a
uniform acceleration a?
(a) In this first situation where the mass is hanging vertically downwards, the
weight of the mass must be balanced by the tension in the spring so kx = mg
mg
or x = , where x is the required extension.
k
(b) In the case of static friction, we have an inequality relating the perpendicular
and parallel components of the reaction force. The limiting situation is where
the ratio of the friction force component F to the normal force N is equal to
the coefficient µs . In this case the balance of forces gives: Vertical: N = mg,
mg
Horizontal: F = kx with F = µs N so in this case x = µs .
k
(c) If the particle is moving at a uniform speed, the net force acting on it is
zero. In this case we have kinetic friction acting, so the ratio of the friction
force component F to the normal force N is equal to the coefficient µk . The
mg
analysis of forces is the same as in the previous part, so we have x = µk .
k
(d) If the particle is accelerating, the net force is no longer zero - it is ma, where
a is the acceleration. The analysis of forces is now: Vertical: N = mg,
Horizontal: kx ≠ F = ma with F = µk N giving for this situation x =
m(µk g + a)
.
k
3.44 A block of mass 8.4 kg is pulled along a frictionless surface with a constant horizontal
force 5.2 N.
(a) What is its acceleration?

(b) How long must it be pulled before its speed is 3.5 m s≠1 ?
(c) How far has it moved in that time?
(d) The block is being pulled by a girl of mass 40 kg using a rope. She is also on the
same frictionless surface. The block and the girl are 15 m apart to start with.
How far has the girl moved when they meet?
Worked Solution
3.45 A bead of mass 8 g slides frictionlessly on a wire which is bent into a parabolic shape,
specified by the curve si + 12 s2 k m, where s is a dimensionless parameter along the
curve. Assume a constant force of gravity in the ≠k direction.
(a) Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the bead when it has horizontal coordinate
x. What is its acceleration vector?
(b) If the bead is released from rest at a horizontal position of x0 = 30 cm, write
down the equation of the subsequent motion. Do you recognise this differential
equation? (You do not have to solve it.)
3.46 A sailing boat is oriented in a direction 2i + 3j on the surface of a lake, and its
sail experiences a force from the wind of ≠50i + 250j N. You can assume the boat
experiences no drag, and the keel provides sufficient resistive force against the water
that any net motion of the boat is forwards.
(a) Draw a free body diagram of the forces acting on the boat. What is the direction
of any horizontal force the boat exerts on the water?
(b) Assuming the boat has mass 43 kg and the sailor has mass 78 kg, what is the
magnitude of the acceleration of the boat?
(a) A sensible diagram will have the force of the wind and the resistance of the
boat. The resistance force of the boat should only point perpendicular to
the direction of travel of the boat.
(b) To work out the net force, on the bot, we have to use the dot product. Let
the origin of our coordinate system be at the center of mass of the boat. We
need to work out the component of the force of the wind in the direction the
boat is pointing.
To do this, we need the angle ◊ between the force of the wind, and the
250 3
direction of the boat. This is given by fi ≠ tan≠1 ≠ tan≠1 = 0.79 Rad.
Ô 50 2
Then total magnitude of the winds force is 502 + 2502 = 65, 000 N. Finally,
the component of this in the direction of travel will be 65, 000 cos(0.79) N =
45, 750 N.
Then we use, F = ma, to see that m = 121 kg and |a| = 378.1 m s≠2
3.47 A fragile package is to be unloaded using a ramp. The downward vertical component
of the package’s velocity must be no larger than 2.5 m s≠1 as it hits the ground. If
the height of the ramp is 1 m, what is the maximum allowed angle to the horizontal,
◊max , of the ramp?
The ramp is equipped with rollers and we model it as being frictionless. There
are two forces acting on the package: its weight; and the reaction from the ramp.
These must sum to a resultant acting acting parallel to the ramp, which provides
the acceleration.
The statement of the problem specifies a restriction on the vertical component
of the particle velocity. We conclude that we will be concerned with the vertical
component of acceleration. This means that the reaction force balances the com-
ponent of the weight perpendicular to the ramp. Only the weight has a component
acting down the ramp.
We therefore have mg sin ◊ = ma (writing m for the particle’s mass and a
for acceleration); or a = g sin ◊. The vertical component of the acceleration
is a sin ◊ = g sin2 ◊.
Having found the acceleration, and the relevant component, we may use “SUVAT”
to analyse the motion of a particle (package) starting from rest at the top of the
ramp. If the height of the ramp is h, the vertical component of velocity at the
vvert
bottom will be given by vvert
2
= 2(g sin2 ◊)h so sin ◊ = 1 . After substituting
(2gh) 2
the maximum velocity component vvert = 2.5 m s≠1 we find the angle must be
less than 34.4¶
3.48 Two climbers are joined together by a rope. One climber, of mass m1 is sliding on an
ice surface inclined at an angle ◊ to the horizontal. The other has a mass m2 and is
falling vertically. Derive expressions for their accelerations and the tension in the rope.
If m1 = 78 kg, m2 = 92 kg and ◊ = 15¶ , calculate their accelerations and the tension
in the rope.
We are going to model the ice surface as a frictionless inclined plane. The rope is
assumed to be light and inextensible. It has an inclined and a vertical section; we
take the tension in the two sections to be the same.
We will enumerate the forces on the two particles (climbers) separately. Then
the motion can be analysed by taking the acceleration of both particles to be the
same. The particle on the slope has mass m1 . The forces acting on it are its
weight; a reaction force; and the tension in the rope.
The particle falling vertically has mass m2 . The forces acting on it are its weight;
and the tension. For particle 1, only the force components along the slope need
be considered. Writing the common acceleration as a, we have:
m1 a = m1 g sin ◊ + T ,
m2 a = m2 g ≠ T .
Solving these simultaneous equations gives the results,
m1 sin ◊ + m2
a= g,
m1 + m2
m1 m2
T = (1 ≠ sin ◊)g .
m1 + m2
Using numerical values quoted: m1 = 78 kg; m2 = 92 kg; and ◊ = 15¶ , we find

112.2 kg
a= g = 0.66g = 6.47 m s≠2 and T = 307 N.
170 kg
3.49 The barman in a local nightclub prides himself in being able to slide any drink along
the bar so that it comes to rest exactly opposite the correct customer. The coefficient
of kinetic friction of the bottom of a glass on the bar is 0.25. If he slides a cocktail to
a customer a distance of 3 m along the bar, at what speed must he release the glass
from his hand?
The vertical forces balance in this problem. The friction force acts horizontally
and results in the deceleration of the particle (glass containing drink).
In order to work out the friction force, we need the normal reaction which is equal
to the particle’s weight. Once we know the acceleration, the relationship between
the initial speed and the distance travelled can found using SUVAT.
The normal reaction is µk mg and the acceleration is therefore ≠µk g. The distance
travelled before coming to rest is found from u2 + 2as = 0 for an initial speed u.
Ô Ô
So we have u = 2µk gs = 2 · 0.25 · 9.81 · 3.0 m s≠1 = 3.8 m s≠1 .
3.50 You swing a bucket full of water in a vertical circle around your head. How fast must
it be going at the top to avoid you getting wet? Take the radius of the circle to be
60 cm.
We analyse this problem by first looking at the forces when the bucket is moving
fast enough that the water doesn’t fall out. In this situation the total force on
mv 2
the water must be and acting vertically downwards when the bucket is at
r
the top of its swing.
This resultant force is the sum of the weight of water mg and the reaction force
from its being in contact with the bottom of the bucket. As the speed v is
decreased, the reaction force gets smaller. The limiting condition is when the
reaction force R goes to zero - it cannot go negative (this would be equivalent to
the bucket “pulling” upwards on the water). So we must have,
v2
R = m( ≠ g) Ø 0 ,
r
v2
Øg ,
r
Ô
v Ø rg .
and for r = 60 cm this gives v Ø 2.4 m s≠1 (equivalent to one revolution about
every 1.6 s if the same speed is maintained all the way round.)
3.51 A european swallow migrates north, gripping a coconut by the husk in its claws. The
swallow beats its wings sufficiently quickly to maintain a constant air speed velocity in
a horizontal direction. Draw free body diagrams of the bird and the coconut, carefully
including the drag forces on both the bird and the coconut, and the thrust of the bird’s
wings. You may assume a 5 ounce bird is capable of carrying a 1 pound coconut.
3.52 A girl pulls a sled in which her brother sits, over the snow. She pulls a rope over her
shoulder which is attached to the sled. The boy has mass 3 stone, the sled has mass
3 pounds, the girl is 4 feet high at the shoulder and the rope is 8 feet long. You may
assume that the coefficient of kinetic friction between the sled and the snow is 0.1.
(a) Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the sled, assuming it travels at a constant
speed. What are the forces acting on the girl?
(b) What is the tension in the rope?
(c) The girl changes the position she is carrying the rope, dragging the rope now at
a height of 2 feet. Does she have to increase or decrease the force she pulls on
the rope to maintain a constant speed?
(a) The sled is acted on by: the tension T in the rope at 30deg to the horizontal
(assuming the sled is at negligible height, as the rope is twice as long as
the girl is high), kinetic friction acting backwards horizontal, the weight of
the sled and the weight of the boy acting downwards, and a normal reaction
upwards. Since the sled moves at constant velocity, the sum of these forces
should be zero.
The girl is acted on by the tension in the rope (at ≠30¶ to the horizontal),
her weight downwards, a normal force upwards and a forwards force, which
again should cancel out. A more sophisticated mechanical model of the girl
walking would include a force of static friction against which she walks, giving
a more accurate model of the forwards force.
(b) The forces balance, so resolving horizontally, T cos ◊ = f = N µk , where
T is tension, f is friction, N is the normal force, and ◊ = 30¶ . Resolving
vertically, T sin ◊ + N = (ms + mb )g, where ms is the mass of the sled
and mb the mass of the boy. We now substitute N = T µ≠1
k cos ◊ from the
vertical equation, and rearrange to find
(ms + mb )g
T = .
sin ◊ + µ≠1
k cos ◊
Now, 1 stone = 6.35 kg and 1 pound = 0.454 kg, so ms + mb = 20 kg, so

T ¥ 20 N (since figures were only quoted to 1 sf).
(c) If the new angle of the rope is ◊Õ , we now have sin ◊Õ = 1/4 and cos ◊Õ =
Ô
15/4. Since, in the denominator of the equation we found in the previous
part, Ô
1 15 1 Ô
+ 10 = 9.9 > 9.2 = + 10 32
4 4 2
the new tension is smaller than the previous tension. Physically, this can be
explained as at the shallower angle more of the tension contributes to the
horizontal component, balancing the friction; this has a greater effect than
the increase in friction due to the increased normal force.
3.53 A block of mass m lies on a rough surface, inclined at an angle ◊ to the horizontal.
It is attached to a spring of force constant k; the other end of the spring is fixed to
a point on the table below the block. The coefficient of static friction between the
block and the inclined surface is µs , and the coefficient of kinetic friction is µk < µs
(the friction between the spring and the surface is negligible).
(a) Show that the friction force is zero when the block is stationary and the spring is
compressed by ¸ sin ◊ where ¸ = mg/k.
(b) The block is displaced from this position by a distance A, compressing the spring
further. For small displacements, the block will not move after it has been re-
leased. Show that the maximum displacement A for which this condition holds
is µs ¸ cos ◊.
(Both (c) and (d) are challenging and require an understanding of simple har-
monic motion. You may like to return to this question later in the year after the
lectures on Oscillations.)
(c) For larger displacements:
i. Find the initial acceleration of the block.
ii. Show that the acceleration is zero when the spring is compressed by ¸(sin ◊ +
µk cos ◊).
iii. Find the speed v0 at this point.
iv. Briefly describe the subsequent motion.
(d) Now suppose that we arrange for the inclined surface to stop at the point where
the acceleration is zero, and for the block to be released at this point so that it
flies as a projectile with initial speed v0 . Show that the distance travelled before
v02
it returns to the height of the point of release is g
sin 2◊.
(e) Use differentiation to show that to maximise the expression for the range, the
expression A cos 2◊ = µk ¸ cos 3◊ must be satisfied.
(f) Use a spreadsheet to plot the variation of range with ◊ for the values m = 0.8 kg,
k = 100 N/m, µs = 0.6, µk = 0.5, and A = 30 cm. Hence find the maximum
range, and the corresponding angle ◊.
(a) If the friction force is zero, the forces acting on the block are its weight, the
upward force from the compressed spring, and the normal reaction from the
plane. The weight is mg, and we write R for the normal force. We write u
for the position coordinate along the plane, with u = 0 being the position
of the block when the spring has its natural length, and the +u direction up
the slope.
So the value of u is negative and the (positive) force from the spring is ≠ku.
Resolving forces along the slope, we have ≠ku = mg sin ◊ or u = ≠l sin ◊.
(b) Now we have a friction force as well. The maximum force of static friction
is µs R. The force from the spring is k(A + l sin ◊). When the friction force
has its maximum value we have, for the force components perpendicular and
parallel to the plane:
0 = R ≠ mg cos ◊ ,
0 = mg sin ◊ ≠ k(A + l sin ◊) + µs R ,
) A = µs l cos ◊
Or the spring has been further compressed by µs l cos ◊.

(c) i. If the spring is compressed further, the block will start to move and the
friction force becomes µk R. Now the force component along the plane
becomes ≠ku ≠ mg(sin ◊ + µk cos ◊).
This expression holds true as long as the block is moving up the slope;
when it stops and changes direction, the
5 friction term will change
6 sign.
u
The acceleration is therefore ü = ≠ + (sin ◊ + µk cos ◊) g in gen-
l Ú
m
eral (for the first part of the motion, t < fi ); if we substitute
k
u
3
= ≠(A + l sin4
◊), as in the previous part, the initial acceleration is
A
≠ µk cos ◊ g.
l
Any students who are already familiar with the formalism for simple
g k
harmonic motion might recognise this as SHM with Ê 2 = = ,
l m
centred about the point u = ≠l(sin ◊ + µk cos ◊).
ii. From the above general expression for the acceleration we can see that
it is zero when u = ≠l(sin ◊ + µk cos ◊).
iii. The maximum speed (when the acceleration is zero) can be found from
the extension A in different ways: Using the mathematical analogy with
SHM. To make this more explicit, if we define uÕ = u+l(sin ◊ +µk cos ◊)
then the differential equation becomes üÕ = ≠Ê 2 uÕ which is the SHM
equation.
3 4
1 Õ2
We set the “effective” PE term at the start ku equal to the KE
3 4 2
1
in the centre of the motion mu̇Õ2 . The initial position is u =
2
≠(A + l sin ◊) so the displacement from the centre of the SHM is
uÕ = ≠ (A ≠ µk l cos ◊).
We have:
1 2 1
mv0 = k (A ≠ µk l cos ◊)2 ,
2 2
) v0 = Ê(A ≠ µk l cos ◊)
g k
with Ê 2 = = .
l m
Next we use energy balance. As the block moves up the slope a dis-
tance u, the energy lost to friction is µk mg cos ◊ u, and the gain in
gravitational PE is mg sin ◊ u. We have:
1
k((A + l sin ◊)2 ≠ ((A + l sin ◊) ≠ u)2 )
¸2 ˚˙ ˝
(Spring PE)= 12 k (x2 )
1
≠ mg sin ◊ u ≠ mv 2 = µk mg cos ◊ u ,
¸2 ˚˙ ˝
¸ ˚˙ ˝ ¸ ˚˙ ˝
(Gravitational PE) Energy loss due to friction
(KE)
1 1
) k( u)2 ≠ (kA ≠ µk mg cos ◊) u + mv 2 = 0
2 2
We found the position for the maximum velocity (where the acceleration
is zero) in part (c) ii. Hence we can write down umax corresponding
to the maximum velocity, and then substitute:
umax = A ≠ µk l cos ◊ ,
3 4
1 2 1
v0 = Ê 2 ( umax )2 ≠ (A ≠ µk l cos ◊) umax ,
2 2
v0 = Ê ( umax )2 ,
2 2
) v0 = Ê(A ≠ µk l cos ◊)
From the expression

3
for acceleration in4 terms of the displacement, we
dv u
have v =≠ + (sin ◊ + µk cos ◊) g. Integrating:
du l
u=≠l(sin⁄◊+µk cos ◊) 3 4
1 2 u
v = ≠ + (sin ◊ + µk cos ◊) g du ,
2 0 l
u=≠(A+l sin ◊)
A B≠l(sin ◊+µk cos ◊)
g u2
=≠ + l(sin ◊ + µk cos ◊)u ,
l 2 ≠(A+l sin ◊)
Q
g ≠A ≠ l(2 sin ◊ + µk cos ◊)
= ≠ (A ≠ µk l cos ◊) · a ,
l 2
R
+ l(sin ◊ + µk cos ◊)b
1
= Ê 2 (A ≠ µk l cos ◊)2 ,
2
) v0 = Ê(A ≠ µk l cos ◊) .
iv. After the acceleration goes to zero, the block slows down and eventually
stops. Then it starts to accelerate down the slope and the friction force
changes sign. This can be described as SHM with a smaller amplitude,
centred about the point u = ≠l(sin ◊ ≠ µk cos ◊).
The block will continue to oscillate with the amplitude decreasing ev-
fi
ery half-cycle ( t = ) until it comes to rest sufficiently close to the
Ê
equilibrium point for the static friction to prevent further motion.
(d) As in previous problems involving projectile motion, the vertical component
1
of velocity is ẏ ≠ v0 sin ◊ ≠ gt, giving y = v0 t sin ◊ ≠ gt2 . The horizontal
2
displacement is x = v0 t cos ◊ ; when it returns to the height of the point of
release we have,
y=0,
2v0
t= sin ◊ ,
g
2v 2
x = 0 sin ◊ cos ◊ ,
g
v2
) R = 0 sin 2◊ .
g
(e) Differentiate the expression for the range with respect to ◊:
dR 1 dv0
= (2v0 sin 2◊ + 2v02 cos 2◊) ,
d◊ g d◊
2v0 dv0
= ( sin 2◊ + v0 cos 2◊) ,
g d◊
v0 = Ê(A ≠ µk l cos ◊) ,
dv0
= µk Êl sin ◊ ,
d◊
dR 2v0
= Ê (A cos 2◊ ≠ µk l {cos ◊ cos 2◊ ≠ sin ◊ sin 2◊}) ,
d◊ g
2v0
= Ê (A cos 2◊ ≠ µk l cos 3◊) ,
g
and set this expression to zero to find the maximum range.

(f) The maximum range is 58.79 cm at an angle of 48.0¶ , or 0.838 radians.
3.54 This question consists of exercises in building up two- and three-dimensional shapes
by integration – area and volume. In each case accompany your answer with a sketch
clearly indicating the construction being used.
(a) Show by integration around the circle of small arc segments of length ”¸ that the
circumference of the circle of radius r is 2fir.
(Hint: Note that ”¸ is equal to r”◊ provided you measure angles in radians.)
(b) Show by integration that the area of a circle of radius r is fir2 in two different
ways:
i. By considering the circular disk as made up small triangular wedges, each
having an area 12 r”¸, where ”¸ = r”◊ as in the previous example. Why can
we treat the curved side of the triangle as straight in this process?
ii. By considering it as made up of circular hoops with inner radius s, thickness
”s and area the circumference times the thickness, 2fis”s.
(c) Find by integration the volume of a solid cylinder of length L and radius R.
(Hint: Consider the cylinder as a stack of thin disks each of area fiR2 and thickness
”z.)
(d) Find by integration the volume of a cone of base radius R and height H.
(Hint: Consider the cone as a stack of thin disks each of some appropriate radius
r, with area fiR2 and thickness ”z. Write the radius r as a function of the height
z.)
(e) Find by integration an expression for the volume of a sphere. Work out your own
construction for this.
3.55 This question consists of exercises in building up two- and three-dimensional shapes
by integration – centre of mass. In each case accompany your answer with a sketch
clearly indicating the construction being used.
(a) Find, by integration, the position of the centre of mass of a uniform flat sheet in
the shape of an isosceles triangle.
(b) Find, by integration, the position of the centre of mass of a uniform circular cone
with base radius R and height H. You might like to use the same construction
as the volume of the cone, as per the previous question.
(c) It is possible to find the centre of mass of a variety of two-dimensional shapes
defined by the equation
r = f („)
Ô
in polar coordinates. Recall that, in terms of Cartesian coordinates, r = x2 + y 2
and tan „ = y/x.
To begin, consider the infinitesimal por-
tion of the figure between the angles „
and „ + ”„. This is a thin, triangular
wedge, approximately isosceles, with long
+
sides r = f („) and short side r”„, so the
triangle has area ”A = 21 r2 ”„. From the
result in part (a) of the mass of an isosce-
les triangle, show that the centre of mass
of this infinitesimal wedge, in Cartesian
coordinates, by
xwedge = 23 r cos „, y wedge = 23 r sin „.
The sum over all the wedges tends, in the limit of infinitely thin slices, to the
integral over „ from 0 to 2fi. Derive the following general expressions for the
centre of mass of the complete shape:

s s
2 r cos „ dA 2 r sin „ dA
xCOM = s , y COM = s .
3 dA 3 dA
(d) (Advanced question) An egg-shaped

closed curve is defined by r(„) = 1 +
a cos3 „, with a = 15 (in dimensionless
units). Use the result from part (c) to
show that xCOM is
2 3J4 + a2 J10
xCOM = a
3 J 0 + a2 J 6
96 + 21a2
= a
128 + 40a2
269
= ,
1800
where
Y
2fi n!
⁄ 2fi _
] for n even
Jn © cos „ d„ =
n 2n [(n/2)!]2
0 _
[
0 for n odd.
Worked Solution
Part (a)
3.56 The following result was observed by the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes,
who developed techniques close to our modern method of integration. It is said he
was so impressed with the result that he wanted a sculpture of it on his gravestone!
Consider three solid objects: a hemisphere of radius r, flat side down, a cone of radius
r and height r, point side down, and a cylinder of radius r and height r. Show that,
for any two horizontal planes with height z1 , z2 with 0 Æ z1 < z2 Æ r, the volume
enclosed by the planes within the cylinder is equal to the sum of the volumes enclosed
by the planes in the cone and in the hemisphere.
+ =
Consider the volume of an infinitesimal slice at height z, thickness ”z, for
each solid in turn. The slice of cylinder would have volume fir2 ”z. Since the
gradient of the straight line of the cone edge is 1 (with apex at the origin),
3.4 Work, energy and momentum 75
the cone slice has volume fiz 2 ”z. The radius of the slice of hemisphere forms
a side of a right-angled triangle with hypotenuse r and other side length z,
so has volume, by Pythagoras’ theorem, fi(r2 ≠ z 2 )”z. Thus the volume of
the hemisphere and the cone from height z1 to height z2 can be written as
the sum of integrals
⁄ z2 ⁄ z2 ⁄ z2
2 2 2
fi(r ≠ z )dz + fiz dz = fir2 dz,
z1 z1 z1
since the limits on the summed integrals are the same. Since the RHS is the
volume of the cylinder between z1 and z2 , the result is proved.
3.4 Work, energy and momentum

3.57 A lecturer takes the main lift from the ground to the fourth floor in the Physics building.
The lift exerts a force on the lecturer of 800 N for the first 0.45 m of travel. For the
next 17.1 m the force is equal to the lecturer’s weight, 772 N and for the last 0.45 m
it is 744 N. Find:
(a) The total work done by the lift.

(b) The total work done by gravity.
(c) The final kinetic energy of the lecturer.
(a) The work done by the lift is 800 · 0.45 = 360 J during the first 0.45 metres;
13.2 kJ over the next 17.1 metres and 334.8 J during the last 0.45 metres.
Total work done is 13894.8 J.
(b) The work done by gravity is ≠772 · 0.45 J = ≠347.4 J during the first and
last sections of the journey, and ≠13.2 kJ in the middle section. Total work
done is 13894.8 J.
(c) So the total work done is 12.6 J in the first section, zero in the middle and
≠12.6 J in the last section. Overall the total work done is zero.
3.58 Find, using integration, the work done in compressing a spring by a distance x.
The force here is variable so we need to use a technique involving integration and it
is a one-dimensional problem so it does not involve line integrals; just an ordinary
1-d integral.
At a given instant, let the amount by which the spring is already compressed be
xÕ . The force in the spring is then kxÕ , where k is the spring constant. This means
if we compress the spring further by an infinitesimal dxÕ , the work done is dW
given by dW = kxÕ · dxÕ .
We can now integrate this to find the work done in compressing the spring from
xÕ = 0 to x = xÕ .
⁄ xÕ =x ⁄ x
dW = F (xÕ )dxÕ ,
xÕ =0
⁄0x
= kxÕ dxÕ ,
0
1
= kx2 .
2
3.59 A 2 kg object is given a displacement s = 3i + 3j + 2k m along a straight line. During
the displacement, a constant force F = 2i + j + k N acts on the object.
(a) Find the work done as the particle experiences this displacement.
(b) Find the component of F in the direction of the displacement.
(a) To find the work W :
W =F ·s ,
= (2i + 1j + 1k) · (3i + 3j + 2k) N m ,
=6 J+3 J+2 J ,
= 11 J .
(b) To find F//, recall F · s = |F ||s| cos ◊. We want F// = |F | cos ◊ and so this
is,
W
F// = ,
|s|
|s|2 = (3 m)2 + (3 m)2 + (2 m)2 ,
= 22 m2 ,
1
) F// = Ô N
22
3.60 A particle P of mass m is free to move inside a sphere with centre O and radius r.
The particle starts from the lowest point, directly below O, with a speed v. As long
as the particle stays on the inner surface of the sphere, its position can be described
in terms of the angle ◊ between the line OP and the vertical.
(a) Find the particle speed as a function of ◊.

(b) Find the normal reaction between the particle and the surface of the sphere.
(c) Show that the particle remains in contact with the sphere through a complete
Ô
revolution as long as v Ø 5rg.
Ô Ô
(d) Show that if 2rg < v < 5rg then the particle will lose contact with the
Ô
sphere. What happens when v < 2rg?
(a) We use energy conservation to find the speed. We write,
1 2 1
mv = mu2 + mgh ,
2 2
u = v 2 ≠ 2gr(1 ≠ cos ◊) ,
2
where h is the height above the starting point and u is the speed.
(b) The forces acting on the particle are its weight and the normal reaction R.
The resultant force has a component directed along the radius, equal to
mu2
, and a tangential component that is responsible for the deceleration.
r
The radial component of the weight is mg cos ◊. So we have,
mu2
R ≠ mg cos ◊ = ,
rA B
v2
R=m ≠ g(2 ≠ 3 cos ◊) .
r
(c) In order for the particle to remain in contact with the sphere, we require the
reaction force to be positive for all values
A of cos
B ◊. The minimum value of R
v2
occurs at cos ◊ = ≠1, when R = m ≠ 5g . As long as this is positive,
r
the particle will remain in contact.
Ô
(d) If v is just less than 5rg, the particle will slide up the inside of the sphere
until R = 0 and then fall away - in other words, it loses contact with the
surface of the sphere and drops straight down.
The value of cos ◊ at which this occurs is negative (◊ > 90¶ ). For v equal to
Ô
2rg, both the speed and the reaction force go to zero at cos ◊ = 0 exactly.
At this point, the particle falls but it is still in contact with the sphere and
so it executes oscillations about the lowest point. For smaller values of v,
the particle never reaches ◊ = 90¶ but oscillates with a smaller amplitude.
3.61 A system consists of two particles: A has mass 2 kg and position 7i+4j m, and B has
mass 3 kg and position 2i + 9j m. What is the position of the centre of mass?
Worked Solution
3.62 A system consists of two particles. Particle A, with mass mA = 1.5 kg, is at position
r A = 1.6i + 1.8j m. Particle B, with mass mA = 2.5 kg, is at position r B =
≠2.4i + 1.2j m. Each particle is subject to a force acting towards the origin, F A =
k1 r A , F B = ≠k1 r B , where k1 = 2 N m≠1 . In addition there is an attractive force
between them, F Õ , of magnitude F Õ = k2 /|r A ≠ r B |, where k2 = 20 J. The direction

of F Õ is along r A ≠ r B What is the acceleration of the centre of mass?
The acceleration of the centre of mass can be found from considering just the
external forces on the system:
(Total external force) = (Total system mass) · (Acceleration of CM). In this
case the force F Õ makes no contribution to the CM acceleration so we have,
F A + F B = (mA + mB )aCM ,
FA + FB
) aCM = ,
mA + mB
k1 (r A + r B )
=≠ ,
mA + mB
≠0.8i + 0.6j
= ≠2 m s≠2 ,
1.5 + 2.5
= (0.4i ≠ 0.3j) m s≠2 .
3.63 A system consists of three particles, each of mass 7 kg. Their positions are r 1 =
4i ≠ 8j + 9k m, r 2 = ≠2i + 5j ≠ 5k m, r 3 = 7i ≠ 18j + 4k m. What is the position
of the centre of mass?
We can use the general relationship,

ÿ ÿ
r CM mi = mi ri ,
all particles i all particles i
to find the centre of mass position rCM . In this case where all three masses are
equal, the relationship becomes,
3
1ÿ
r CM = ri ,
3 i=1
1
= (9i ≠ 21j + 8k) m ,
3
3 4
8
= 3i ≠ 7j + k m .
3
3.64 Two particles are initially travelling directly towards each other. Particle 1 has mass
m1 = 2.6 kg and speed u1 = 4.9 m s≠1 . Particle 2 has mass m2 = 1.4 kg and speed
u2 = 7.1 m s≠1 .
(a) If the collision between the two particles is elastic, what are their speeds after the
collision?
(b) If the collision between the two particles is totally inelastic, what are their speeds
after the collision?
(c) If the coefficient of restitution between the two particles is 0.8, what are their
speeds after the collision?
In all three cases of a head-on collision between two particles the first thing to
write down is the equation for conservation of momentum.
The question gives the masses of the two particles by m1 , m2 and their speeds u1 ,
u2 before the collision. We denote the speeds after the collision by v1 , v2 ; and take
these values to be positive in the case where both particles reverse direction. Since
they are moving in opposite directions the conservation of momentum equation
is:
m 1 u1 ≠ m 2 u2 = m 2 v 2 ≠ m 1 v 1 .
Consider the three cases separately and look for a second equation that will allow
us to solve for v1 , v2 in each case.
(a) For an elastic collision, the relative velocity of the two particles is reversed.
So we can write u1 + u2 = v1 + v2 . Eliminate v2 between this and the
momentum equation to find v1 :
m 2 u1 + m 2 u2 = m 2 v 1 + m 2 v 2 ,
) m1 u1 ≠ m2 u1 ≠ 2m2 u2 = ≠m1 v1 ≠ m2 v1 ,
2m2 u2 ≠ (m1 ≠ m2 )u1
v1 = .
m1 + m2
Then for v2 we have:
v 2 = u1 + u2 ≠ v 1 ,
2m1 u1 + (m1 ≠ m2 )u2
= .
m1 + m2
Putting in the numbers gives v1 = 3.5 m s≠1 , v2 = 8.5 m s≠1 .

(b) In the inelastic case, the two particles coalesce and so have the same velocity
in the final state. This means that v2 = ≠v1 , since we defined the two final
speeds to be in opposite directions.
Substituting into the conservation of momentum equation:
m1 u1 ≠ m2 u2 = ≠m2 v1 ≠ m1 v1 ,
m 2 u2 ≠ m 1 u1
) v1 = ,
m1 + m2
giving v1 = ≠0.7 m s≠1 . The two particles travel in the initial direction of
particle 1 after the collision.
(c) Here we can consider the more general case where the coefficient of restitu-
tion is taken as a number e (between 0 and 1). Now the relationship between
the initial and final relative velocity is, e(u1 + u2 ) = v1 + v2 .
Follow a similar method and eliminate v2 as follows:
em2 (u1 + u2 ) = m2 v1 + m2 v2 ,
) (em2 ≠ m1 )u1 + (e + 1)m2 u2 = (m1 + m2 )v1 ,
(em2 ≠ m1 )u1 + (e + 1)m2 u2
) v1 = ,
m1 + m2
m 2 u2 ≠ m 1 u1 m2 (u1 + u2 )
= +e ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
) v2 = e(u1 + u2 ) ≠ v1 ,
(em1 ≠ m2 )u2 + (e + 1)m1 u1
= ,
m1 + m2
m 1 u1 ≠ m 2 u2 m1 (u1 + u2 )
= +e .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
The second form of each solution shows the variation with e explicitly, and
can be seen to reduce to the form previously derived in the case e = 0. The
first form can be seen to be equivalent to the earlier result in the e = 1
case. Finally, in the case required where e = 0.8, we have v1 = 2.66 m s≠1 ,
v2 = 6.94 m s≠1 .
3.65 The mass of a cricket ball is 150 g. A ball is travelling with initial velocity vi =
30.0i ≠ 8.0k m s≠1 when it is struck by a bat, and subsequently moves away with
velocity v n = ≠5.6i + 19.2j + 15.0k m s≠1 . What is the impulse on the ball due to
its collision with the bat? Assuming the bat and ball are in contact for 5 ms, estimate
the average force.
The impulse is the change in momentum. We have initial momentum pi = (4.5i≠

1.2k) N s; final momentum pf = (≠0.84i + 2.88j + 2.25k) N s. So the impulse
is pf ≠ pi = (≠5.34i + 2.88j + 3.45k) N s.
If we assume this impulse is delivered in 5 ms, the average force is (≠1.068i +
0.576j + 0.690k) kN.
3.66 A 2p piece, of mass 7.12 g, is resting on the edge of a table when it is struck sharply
and travels across the table. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the coin and
the table is 0.5. What impulse must be supplied for the coin to travel 50 cm before
coming to rest?
To find the impulse supplied to the coin, we need its momentum and velocity
immediately after being struck. We are given the distance travelled before coming
to rest. If we can find the acceleration we can use SUVAT to find the initial
velocity.
We then proceed using algebra, then substitute the numbers at the end. If the
mass of the particle (coin) is m and the coefficient of kinetic friction µ, the friction
force is µmg and the acceleration ≠µg. For initial velocity u and final velocity
zero, SUVAT gives u2 = 2µgs where s is the distance travelled. The velocity after
Ô
impact is 2.215 m s≠1 and the impulse is mu = m 2µgs = 15.8 mN s.
3.67 Using the alternative, one-dimensional form of Newton’s second law, F = ṗ, prove
using integration of momentum that work done by a force gives the expression for
kinetic energy
p2
KE = .
2m
Work done is the integral of force over distance

⁄ ⁄ ⁄
dp dx 1 ⁄ p2
F dx = dx = dp = pdp = ,
dt dt m 2m
with the constant of integration as zero from definition of work done.

3.68 A skater on a rink is travelling with a velocity 4.29i + 0.72j m s≠1 when she collides
with a stationary skater of the same mass. After the collision, the first skater has a
velocity 1.20i + 1.26j m s≠1 . Assume the rink is frictionless.
(a) What is the velocity of the second skater (initially stationary), after the collision?
(b) What is the angle through which the fist skater’s trajectory is turned?
(c) What is the coefficient of restitution between the two skaters?
(d) What fraction of the skater’s initial kinetic energy is lost in the collision?
Introduce some notation for the velocities of the two skaters before and after the
collision. Call the initial velocity of the moving skater u and her final velocity v 1 .
The final velocity of the second skater is v 2 .
(a) In the case where the masses of the colliding particles are equal, the con-
servation of momentum principle becomes u = v 1 + v 2 . So the velocity
v 2 = u ≠ v 1 = (3.09i ≠ 0.54j) m s≠1 .
(b) The angle ◊ between u and v 1 is given by,
u · v 1 = |u||v 1 |cos◊ ,
6.0552
cos ◊ = ,
4.35 · 1.74
= 0.8 ,
◊ = 36.9¶ .
(c) The coefficient of restitution gives the ratio of the relative speeds of the two
particles before and after the collision. Initially the relative speed is |u| =
1
4.35 m s≠1 . In the final state it is |v 1 ≠v 2 | = (1.892 +1.802 ) 2 = 2.61 m s≠1 .
So the coefficient of restitution is 0.6.
(d) The ratio of the final to the initial kinetic energy is
1
m(v 21 + v 22 ) 1.742 + (3.092 + 0.542 )
2
1 = ,
2
mu2 4.352
= 0.68 ,
so 32% of the initial state kinetic energy is lost.

3.69 A ball bounces to 80% of its original height.
(a) What fraction of its mechanical energy is lost each time it bounces?
(b) What is the coefficient of restitution of the ball-floor system?
We are going to use the conversion between kinetic and potential energy as the
ball is in “free fall” between bounces. This will allow us to evaluate the loss
of energy in each bounce. Note: We don’t use momentum conservation in this
problem because the ball is bouncing off the floor or “the Earth” which we take
to have effectively infinite mass.
(a) In the motion between bounces, the kinetic energy immediately after the
bounce is converted into potential energy at the top of the motion.
The mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential) is therefore proportional to the
height at the top of the bounce. Since this decreases to 80% of its previous
value at each bounce, we conclude that 20% of the mechanical energy is lost
each time.
(b) At each bounce the kinetic energy immediately after is 80% of its value
immediately before. This means that the square of the speed is reduced
Ô
by 0.8 or the speed reduced by a factor 0.8 = 0.894. This value is the
coefficient of restitution.
3.70 A 2.0 kg block moving to the right with a speed of 5.0 m s≠1 collides with a 3.0 kg
block that is moving in the same direction at 2.0 m s≠1 . After the collision, the 3.0 kg
block moves to the right at 4.2 m s≠1 . Find
(a) the velocity of the 2.0 kg block after the collision.

(b) the coefficient of restitution between the two blocks.
We use momentum conservation here. Since it is a one-dimensional problem and

we are given the final speed of one of the particles, as well as the initial conditions,
we can solve the problem.
(a) Initial momentum of the system is (2·5+3·2) kg m s≠1 = 16 kg m s≠1 . The

final momentum of the 3 kg block is (3 · 4.2) kg m s≠1 = 12.6 kg m s≠1 . So
3.4
the final speed of the 2 kg block is = 1.7 m s≠1 . This result is positive
2
so the block is still moving to the right after the collision.
(b) To find the coefficient of restitution we look at the relative speed before
and after the collision. Before the collision it is (5 ≠ 2) m s≠1 = 3 m s≠1 ;
afterwards (4.2 ≠ 1.7) m s≠1 = 2.5 m s≠1 . So the coefficient of restitution
2.5
is e = = 0.83.
3
Check: all velocities are to the right so we subtract to find the relative speed. For
the initial state we have calculated v2 kg ≠v3 kg and for the final state, v3 kg ≠v2 kg ,
as expected.
3.71 A car (mass 1 Mg) and a truck (mass 4 Mg) collide at the junction of St Michael’s Hill
and Tyndall Avenue; before the collision the car was travelling East and truck North.
After the collision the wreckage sticks together. A policeman notes that the skid marks
for the collision site are in a North-Easterly direction and are 4 m long. The crash
occurred on a dry day and the tyres of both vehicles were in good condition. The
coefficient of kinetic friction of tyres on the road is 0.8. Who should the policeman
prosecute?
We can work out the velocity of the car-truck combined system immediately after
the collision, then use conservation of momentum in two dimensions to find the
two initial velocities.
We have two unknown quantities - the two initial speeds, since the directions are
known - and two constraints from conservation of momentum. So we should be
able to solve the problem.
We ignore some real-life practicalities. There is a “Give Way” line at the end of
Tyndall Avenue so the collision is probably the car driver’s fault. Also a truck
travelling North on St Michael’s Hill will not be going all that fast as it has just
come up a steep hill!
The mass of the combined car-truck system is M = mc + mt = 5 Mg. Its
acceleration after the collision will be a = ≠µk g = ≠0.8g. This assumes the
surface of the junction is horizontal, so the normal reaction is just equal to the
weight of the vehicles.
We are given the distance s travelled before coming to rest, so we can find the
Ô
initial speed u from 0 = u2 + 2as: u = 2 · 0.8 · 9.81 · 4 = 7.92 m s≠1 . The
momentum of the combined system immediately after the collision is therefore
39.6 Mg m s≠1 . It is in a direction at 45¶ to both of the initial momenta - so we
39.6
conclude that these are both equal to Ô = 28.0 Mg m s≠1 .
2
So the car’s speed at the instant of the collision was 28.0 m s≠1 and the truck’s
speed 7.0 m s≠1 . Converting to more usual units for vehicles, we have vc =
100.8 km h≠1 and vt = 25.2 km h≠1 . As we suspected, the car driver is at fault.
3.72 A neutron of mass mn and speed vni undergoes a head-on, elastic collision with a
carbon nucleus of mass mC initially at rest.
(a) What are the final velocities of the neutron and carbon nucleus?
(b) What fraction of its initial energy does the neutron lose?
The question specifies a head-on collision. This implies that the recoil velocities,
after the collision, will be along the same line as the initial velocity. So we are
dealing with a one dimensional elastic collision here. Conservation of momentum
and conservation of energy can both be applied.
A carbon nucleus is (to a good approximation, assuming the most common isotope
of carbon) 12 times more massive that a neutron so we expect the neutron to
“bounce back” with close to its initial speed while the carbon nucleus moves away
rather more slowly in the initial direction.
(a) So, taking vCf in the original direction and vnf in the opposite direction, we
have from conservation of momentum,
m n v n i = m C v C f ≠ m n v nf .
Conservation of energy gives a second relationship,
1 1 1
mn vn2i = mC vC2 f + mn vn2f .
2 2 2
We solve these two equations for vCf and vnf - here is one possible way to
proceed:
m2C vC2 f = (mn vni + mn vnf )2 ,

= mC (mn vn2i ≠ mn vn2f ) ,
m2n (vni + vnf )2 = mC mn (vn2i ≠ vn2f ) ,
mn (vni + vnf ) = mC (vni ≠ vnf ) ,
mC ≠ mn
) v nf = vn ,
mC + mn i
11
= v ni ,
13
2mn
) v Cf = vn ,
mC + mn i
2
= v ni ,
13
assuming the ratio of the particle masses is exactly 12. These values confirm
our initial expectations since vnf is close to vni and the carbon nucleus speed
is considerably smaller.
vn2f 4mC mn 48
(b) The fraction of its energy lost by the neutron is 1≠ 2 = =
v ni (mC + mn )2 169
3.73 A thorium-227 nucleus at rest decays into a radium-223 nucleus by emitting an –

particle (helium-4 nucleus). The kinetic energy of the – particle is measured to be
6.0 MeV. What is the kinetic energy of the recoiling radium nucleus?
Radioactive decays are “inelastic” in the mechanical sense since kinetic energy is
“created” in the process (some of the original particle’s mass is converted into
kinetic energy).
There are no external forces so we can proceed on the assumption that momentum
is conserved. The original thorium nucleus can be taken to be at rest so, in the
final state, the momentum of the – particle and the radium nucleus will be the
same.
If we call the momentum p then we have,
p2
K– = ,
2m–
p2
KRa = ,
2mRa
m–
) KRa = K– ,
mRa
4
and the result is 6.0 MeV = 0.107 MeV. We can get the same result using
223
m–
momentum conservation to derive vRa = v– , then substituting into KRa =
mRa
1 2
mRa vRa .
2
E–
Is it Ok to use 12 mv 2 here for kinetic energy? To check this, look at “ = =
m–
K– 6
1+ ¥ 1+ which is close to 1. So non-relativistic mechanics will be a
m– 4000
reasonably close approximation.
3.74 A system consists of N particles of mass mi , i = 1, ..., N . The particles experience

some process under which the total kinetic energy and total linear momentum is con-
served. The particles have velocities ui before the process, and velocities v i after, for
i = 1, ..., N .
(a) Write down equations representing the conservation of total linear momentum
and total kinetic energy in terms of the particles’ masses and velocities.
(b) Consider now a new inertial frame, travelling at w to the previous frame, so the
initial velocities are now uÕi = ui ≠ w, and the final velocities are v Õi = v i ≠ w,
for i = 1, ..., N . Prove that the total linear momentum and total kinetic energy
are conserved in the new frame of reference.
qN qN
(a) Conservation of KE: 1
2 i=1 mi |ui |2 = 1
2 i=1 mi |v i |2 . Conservation of linear
qN qN
momentum: i=1 mi ui = i=1 mi v i .
(b) Consider momentum first. Initial momentum in transformed frame is
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
mi uÕi = mi (ui ≠ w) = m i ui ≠ w mi .
i i i i
3.5 Rotational motion 89
The first term is the initial momentum in the previous frame, which is equal
to the total final momentum, as in (a). Therefore the expression is equal to
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
mi v i ≠ w mi = mi (v i ≠ w) = mi v Õi ,
i i i i
as required. The calculation for total KE is similar. For each i, |uÕi |2 =

|ui |2 ≠ 2ui · w + |w|2 . Thus, summing over each of these times mi , the
first term is substituted by conservation of KE, the second by conservation
of linear momentum, and the third does not change during the process.
3.5 Rotational motion

3.75 What is the total work done on a particle executing motion in a circle at a constant
speed, over one complete revolution? What is the work done over one quarter of a
revolution?
Resultant work done during circular motion at uniform speed is zero, since the
force is acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and so F · dr = 0.
3.76 Synchrotrons are used to generate high intensity X-ray beams. The Diamond light
source (www.diamond.ac.uk) at Harwell in Oxfordshire is one of the most powerful
X-ray sources available for physics research. At Diamond, electrons are first accelerated
in a linear accelerator and then injected into a synchrotron ring where they are further
accelerated (by a constant angular acceleration –) up to their final speed, which is a
substantial fraction of the speed of light.
Suppose the electrons are travelling with a speed v when they first enter the synchrotron
ring which has a radius R. This means they have an initial angular speed Ê0 = v/R
(measured in rad s≠1 ) and are subjected to an angular acceleration of – measured in
rad s≠2 , until they reach their final speed. You may also assume that the initial angle
that the electrons enter the ring „0 = 0 rad. You should ignore relativistic effects.
(a) Write down an equation describing the angular velocity Ê of an electron as a

function of time since its injection.
(b) By integration, find an equation describing the angular position „ (in radians) of
the electron as a function of time.
(c) Using the result of the previous part, find the total distance (in m) that the
electron will move around the synchrotron ring as a function of time.
(a) We start by constructing an algebraic expression describing the angular ve-

locity increasing linearly as a function of time - i.e. with a constant angular
acceleration –: Ê(t) = Ê0 + –t
d◊
(b) By writing the angular velocity as , we can find an expression for the
dt
angular position ◊ as a function of time:
⁄ tÕ =t
◊= Ê(tÕ ) dtÕ ,
tÕ =0
⁄ t
= (Ê0 + –t) dtÕ ,
0
1
= Ê0 t + –t2 .
2
(c) The distance travelled s(t) around the ring is the angular coordinate multi-
1
plied by the radius R of the ring. So s(t) = R◊(t) = R(Ê0 t + –t2 ).
2
3.77 A bend in a racetrack has a radius 50 m. The road is banked in order that a car of
mass 950 kg may travel at 50 km hr≠1 with no tendency to slide.
(a) At what angle to the horizontal is the road banked?

(b) The car attempts to take the bend at 110 km hr≠1 . Calculate the coefficient of
static friction µs which is required between the wheels and the road surface if the
car is not to slide.
A car travelling round a bend has contact force components acting on it from the
road in addition to its weight. We analyse the contact force as a normal reaction
mv 2
force N and a static friction force F . The resultant force must be radially
r
inwards towards the centre of the bend.
If the car is travelling at low speed on a banked track, or stationary, the friction
force acts to prevent it sliding downhill; the force acts up the slope. At higher
speeds, the friction counteracts the tendency to slide up the slope, so it acts
downwards.
The second figure shows how the normal reaction and friction forces sum together
mv 2
with the weight to give a horizontal resultant of increasing magnitude as the
r
speed increases.
(a) Where the car has no tendency to slide, the friction force is zero. So the
vertical component of the normal force N is equal to the car’s weight, while
the horizontal component provides the resultant centripetal force. The angle
◊ of the banking to the horizontal is therefore given by
Nhoriz
tan ◊ = ,
Nvert
v2
= .
rg
Substituting v = 50 km h≠1 = 13.9 m s≠1 , r = 50 m gives tan ◊ = 0.393

or ◊ = 21.5¶ .
(b) In the high-speed configuration, we can resolve horizontally and vertically
and then solve for the two components of the reaction force:
Horizontally : N sin ◊ + F cos ◊ = a ,

Vertically : N cos ◊ = F sin ◊ + mg ,
A B
v2
) N =m sin ◊ + g cos ◊ ,
r
A B
v2
F =m cos ◊ ≠ g sin ◊ ,
r
and so the condition on the friction coefficient is
F < µs N ,
F
µs > ,
N
v2
cos ◊ ≠ g sin ◊
= vr2 ,
r
sin ◊ + g cos ◊
v2
≠ tan ◊
= rg
2 ,
v
rg
tan ◊ + 1
v2
Now substituting v = 110 km h≠1 = 30.6 m s≠1 , r = 50 m gives =
rg
1.903 and µs > 0.864.
3.78 In the science fiction classic Ringworld, the author Larry Niven imagines an earth-like
habitat on a giant, artificial ‘ringworld’: a huge circular ribbon, centred around an
earth-like star, of radius 1 AU (i.e. 1 astronomical unit, the radius of the earth’s orbit
around the sun). The ringworld spins around its axis so quickly that the centripetal
force experienced by an object on the inner surface of the ring is of the same magnitude
as it would experience on the earth due to gravity earth. Calculate the angular velocity
and speed of the ringworld in order to achieve this. How does this compare with the
angular velocity and speed of the earth in its orbit?
3.79 Calculate the following quantities, using classical rotational dynamics and data from
textbooks or the internet. State clearly any assumptions that you make.
(a) The moment of inertia of a hydrogen atom (assuming the radius of rotation is
the so-called ‘Bohr radius’).
(b) The ‘spin angular momentum’ of the earth about its own axis.
(c) The ‘orbital angular momentum’ of the earth in its orbit around the sun.
Worked Solution
Part (a)
For these estimates, we use the mass of earth m = 5.97 ◊ 1024 kg, radius of earth
r = 6.37◊106 m, time period of a day Tday = 60◊60◊24 s = 8.64◊104 s, radius
of earth’s orbit R = 1.50 ◊ 108 m and time period of year Tyear = Tday ◊ 365.25 =
3.16 ◊ 106 s.
Assuming the earth is a perfect sphere of uniform density, the spin angular mo-
mentum is
2mr2 2fi
Isphere Êday = = 7.1 ◊ 1033 kg m2 s≠1 ,
5 Tday
directed along the earth’s rotation axis, the north celestial pole.
Assuming the earth is a point particle at a constant distance from the sun, the
orbital angular momentum is
2fi
Ipoint Êyear = mR2 = 2.7 ◊ 1040 kg m2 s≠1 ,
Tyear
pointed perpendicular to the ecliptic. Note that a more refined calculation would
use the parallel axis theorem and continue to treat the earth as a sphere, but this
does not affect the result to the stated accuracy.
3.80 Three particles of equal mass m form the corners of an equilateral triangle whose sides
are massless, inextensible strings of length L. The triangle spins about an axis through
the centre of mass, perpendicular to the plane of the triangle, with angular velocity Ê.
By thinking about the forces acting on each particle to maintain constant rotational
velocity, argue that the strings are taught so the triangle acts like a rigid body. What
is the tension in each string?
3.81 In this example we will use integration to work out the position of the centre of mass of
a cone, and its moment of inertia for rotations about its axis. The usual construction
for this is to build the cone out of stacks of discs, where the radius of the disc varies
with the distance from the apex of the cone. Instead we will build a cone out of thin
cylinders, whose height varies as a function of radius.
(a) Consider a cone of height h, base radius r and total mass M . Start by sketching
both constructions. On a diagram, show the cone and a thin circular disc at a
height y below the apex, with a thickness ”y. Work out the radius a of this disc
as a function of y. On a second diagram, show the cone again and a thin hollow
cylinder with radius b and thickness ”b. Work out the height z of the cylinder in
terms of b.
(b) Write an expression for the cross-sectional area of the hollow cylinder as the
product of its circumference and thickness. Hence find the (infinitesimal) volume
of the cylinder ”V . Integrate this expression over the range of values of b to
derive the familiar expression 13 fir2 h for the volume of the cone.
(c) Write the (infinitesimal) mass of this cylindrical tube as ”m = fl ”V , where fl is
the density of the cone. Where is the cylinder’s centre of mass? Find the position
s
of the centre of mass of the complete cone using M Z = zdm. At the end of
the integration, substitute for fl in terms of the total volume of the cone and the
mass M .
(d) All of the mass of the cylinder is at the same distance from the axis. Write down
its moment of inertia ”I, in terms of b and ”m. Find the moment of inertia of
the complete cone by integrating this expression, substituting for fl at the end of
the integration.
y
(a) In the construction using discs, the radius of a disc is a = r. If we use
h
r≠b
cylinders, the height of a cylinder is z = ( )h.
r
(b) Finding the volume of the cone: Write the cross-section area as the product
of the circumference and thickness, dA = 2fibdb. Multiply by the height and
integrate to find the volume,
dV = 2fibzdb ,
⁄ b=r
r≠b
)V = 2fib( )hdb ,
b=0 r
h⁄ r
= 2fi b(r ≠ b)db ,
r 0
h 1 1
= 2fi ( r3 ≠ r3 ) ,
r 2 3
1 2
= fir h ,
3
as expected.
(c) Finding the centre of mass position: The centre of mass of each infinitesimal
r≠b
cylinder is at half its height, z = ( )h. For the centre of mass of the
2r
complete cone we have,
⁄ b=r
MZ = z dm ,
b=0
⁄ r
r ≠b r≠b
= ( )h · fl · 2fib( )h db ,
0 r r
fiflh2 ⁄ r
= 2 b(r ≠ b)2 db ,
r 0
fiflh2 1 1 1
= 2 ( r4 ≠ 2 · r4 + r4 ) ,
r 2 3 4
1 2 2
= fiflr h ,
12
1 1
= fiflr2 h · h ,
¸3 ˚˙ ˝ 4
=M
h
so Z = as expected.
4
(d) Finding the moment of inertia: The moment of inertia of each infinitesimal
cylinder is dI = b2 dm. For the moment of inertia of the complete cone we
have,
⁄
I= dI ,
⁄ b=r
= b2 dm ,
b=0
⁄ r A B
r≠b
= 2b2 flfib h db ,
0 r
2fiflh ⁄ r 3
= b (r ≠ b) db ,
r 0
3 4
2fiflh 1 5 1 5
= r ≠ r ,
r 4 5
1
= fiflr4 h ,
10
1 3
= fiflr2 h · r2 ,
¸3 ˚˙ ˝ 10
=M
3
) I = M r2 ,
10
as expected
3.82 Find the moment of inertia in the following cases:
(a) A thin hollow cylinder (with open ends) of mass M and radius r about its axis.
Explain your result.
(b) A thin hollow cylinder with closed ends, rotating about its axis. Take the total
mass as M , radius r and length ¸, and assume the mass per unit area is uniform
over the whole surface.
(c) Given that the moment of inertia of a hollow sphere of mass M and radius r,
about an axis through its centre, is 23 M r2 , use the integration method to calculate
the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere.
(d) Consider an arrangement of two identical uniform solid spheres, each of mass M
and radius r, fixed on the ends of a light rod. If their centres are separated by
a distance 4r, find the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the rod
and passing through its midpoint.
(a) The moment of inertia for a hollow cylinder is M r2 because all its mass is
at the radius r.
(b) For the closed cylinder we are given the total mass M . We need to work
out how much of the total is in the cylindrical “barrel” and how much in the
planar ends. We can start by writing the mass of the “barrel” part as mb ,
and taking each end to be a disc of mass me . Then the moment of inertia
of the whole assembly is found by adding the three components together:
I = mb r2 + 2 · 12 me r2 , using the standard result (derived in lectures) for
the moment of inertia of a disc. Now write mb and me in terms of M , by
considering the relative surface area of the different components:
2firl
mb = M ,
2firl + 2fir2
l
= M ,
l+r
fir2
me = M ,
2firl + 2fir2
1
r
= 2 M ,
l+r B
A
l + 12 r
)I= M r2 .
r+l
(c) We are given the moment of inertia of a hollow sphere, so we can use this
to build up a solid sphere out of hollow shells. If the radius of a shell is a
and the thickness da, its mass is dm = 4flfia2 da where fl is the density of
2 8
the material. The moment of inertia of each shell is dI = a2 dm = fifla4
3 3
and so the moment of inertia of a solid sphere is,
⁄ a=r
I= dI ,
a=0
⁄ r
8
= fifl a4 da ,
3 0
8
= fiflr5 ,
15
4 2
= fir3 fl r2 ,
¸3 ˚˙ ˝ 5
=M
2
) I = M r2 .
5
(d) We have just found the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere about
an axis through its centre. In this problem we have two spheres rotating
about an axis that is 2r away from the centre. By the parallel axis theorem,
2 22
the moment of inertia of each is M r2 + M (2r)2 = M r2 . We sum
5 5
the two together to get the moment of inertia of the complete assembly as
44
I = M r2 .
5
3.83 Imagine a flat (or very thin) disk of radius r and mass m, lying in the xy plane centred
on the origin. Show that the moment of inertia about the x-axis, Ix , is 12 Iz , where Iz
is the usual moment of inertia of a disk about the axis perpendicular to the disk. This
is a special case of the ‘perpendicular axis theorem’, which states in general for a flat
object in the xy plane, Ix + Iy = Iz . Can you think how to prove this in general?
3.84 Assume an object, spinning around a fixed axis, is acted on by a constant torque .
Calculate the rotational analogue of the ‘SUVAT’ equations for the total angle turned,
, in time t, the initial angular velocity Ê0 and final angular velocity Ê1 .
3.85 Show that the rotational form of Newton’s second law,
dL
= ,
dt
for a point particle of mass m, takes the same form in a frame of reference moving at
a constant velocity u with respect to the original frame of and L.
3.86 In this problem you may use the standard result for the moment of inertia of a uniform
solid sphere, rotating about an axis through its centre.
(a) A uniform ball of mass M and radius R is placed at rest at the top of a slope,
inclined at an angle ◊ to the horizontal. It begins to roll down the slope without
slipping. Find expressions for the following quantities after the ball has rolled
down a vertical distance h:
i. Its linear kinetic energy.
ii. Its rotational kinetic energy.
iii. Its linear momentum.
iv. Its angular momentum.
v. The velocity of its centre of mass.
(b) Define a three-dimensional, right-handed coordinate system with the x- and y-
axes horizontal and z-axis vertical. The y-axis is perpendicular to the line of
greatest slope of the inclined plane, which therefore lies in the xz-plane. Giving
your answers in vector form where appropriate, evaluate the expressions in part
(a) numerically using the values M = 200 g, R = 5 cm, cos ◊ = 0.96 and
h = 7 m.
(c) If the coefficient of static friction between the ball and plane is 0.5, verify that
the non-slip condition can be satisfied. At what value of the angle ◊ would the
ball start to slide instead of rolling?
(a) We can tackle problems involving rolling objects EITHER by considering

forces and torques, OR using energy considerations. Here we are asked to
consider the situation after the ball has fallen through a given vertical distance
h. This gives us directly the change in gravitational potential energy and
suggests that we would be better off using energy considerations to tackle
the problem.
The decrease in gravitational PE must be accompanied by an increase in
1 1
KE. The kinetic energy of the rolling cylinder is M v 2 + IÊ 2 , the sum of
2 2
2
translational and rotational terms. If we write I = —M R , where — = for
2
5
v 1
the sphere, and Ê = , we see that KE = (1 + —)M v . Of this KE, a
2
R 2
1 —
fraction is translational and is rotational. So,
1+— 1+—
M gh 5
i. the translational, linear KE is = M gh.
1+— 7
—M gh 2
ii. the rotational KE is = M gh.
1+— 7
iii. To find the linear momentum p, express the translational KE in terms
ı̂A B
p2 ı 2
of p (rather than the velocity): KE = so p = M Ù gh =
2m 1+—
Û
10
M gh down the slope.
7
iv. To find the angular momentum L, the analogous equations for rotational
ı̂A B Û
L2 ı 2 8
motion are: KE = so L = —M R Ù gh = M R gh; the
2I 1+— 35
angular momentum vector is directed across the slope.
Û
10
v. From the expression for momentum, the velocity is v = gh down
7
the slope (we could also get this from the kinetic energy above; or from
considering forces and torques, then using SUVAT equations).
(b) Substituting the values given leads to:
i. Translational KE 9.81 J;
ii. rotational KE 3.92 J;
iii. linear momentum (1.90i ≠ 0.55k) N s;
iv. angular momentum 0.040j Js;
v. linear velocity (9.51i ≠ 2.77k) m s≠1 .
(c) Now we need to consider the forces and torques. The forces acting are the
ball’s weight M g; the normal reaction force FN ; and the static friction force
FS acting up the slope. Only the friction force provides a non-zero torque
about an axis through the centre of mass. So we have:
Forces perpendicular to plane : M g cos – = FN

A B
dv
Forces parallel to plane : M g sin – ≠ FS = M
dt
dÊ
Torques and angular acceleration : FS · R = I
dt
If the non-slip condition v = rÊ applies, the last equation becomes

dv
FS = —M and we can solve for the friction force:
dt
dv
M g sin – = M (1 + —) ,
dt
dv 1
= g sin – ,
dt 1+—
—
) FS = M g sin – .
1+—
The ratio of the friction force to the normal reaction is

FS
—
M g sin – — 2 7
= 1+— = tan – = · < µ. So the ratio is less than
FN M g cos – 1+— 7 24
the coefficient of friction and the non-slip 3

condition
4 is satisfied. The ball will
7
start to slide for angles larger than tan≠1 = 60.3¶ .
4
3.87 (This question involves the equation for simple harmonic motion. SHM will be covered
in detail later this year but you may already recognise it from school.) A rigid body
has mass M , and moment of inertia I about an axis through its centre of mass. It is
suspended from an axis parallel to the one through the centre of mass, at a distance ¸
from it. The centre of mass is displaced from its equilibrium position (hanging vertically
below the axis) by a small angle ◊, and then released. Show that the period of small
oscillations about the equilibrium position is
Û 3 4
¸ I
T = 2fi 1+ .
g M ¸2
Hence find the period for a rod of length a, rotating about an axis one third of the
distance along its length.
The forces acting on the body when released in the configuration illustrated are its
weight, and the reaction force at the suspension point. If we consider the torque
about the rotation axis, only the weight contributes and we have M gl sin ◊ =
d2 ◊
≠I Õ 2 . Here l sin ◊ is the perpendicular distance to the axis from the line of
dt
action of the force; I Õ is the moment of inertia about the rotation axis and from
the parallel axis theorem, I Õ = I + M l2 . If we use the small-angle approximation
sin ◊ = ◊, we have oscillations described by:
d2 ◊
= ≠Ê 2 ◊ ,
dt2
M gl
with Ê 2 = Õ ,
I
M gl M l2
= ,
M l2 I + M l2
2fi
and T = ,
Ê
C 3 4D 12
l I
= 2fi 1+ .
g M l2
Û
a 1 2a
For the case of the rod we have l = , I = M a2 and so T = 2fi .
6 12 3g
3.88 A (uniform) snooker ball of radius r, at rest on a table, is struck by a cue at a point
a distance h above the table. Assume the cue tip is travelling horizontally in a plane
through the centre of the ball. As a result, the ball begins to move with an initial linear
speed v0 and angular speed Ê0 .
(a) Consider the cue as acting with a large force F for a short time. Ignoring the
effects of friction between the ball and the table for now, find an expression for
the ratio v0 /Ê0 in terms of h.
(b) Hence show that the ball rolls without slipping if h = 1.4r.
(c) In general, for h < 1.4r, the ball will slide for a distance s before starting to roll
at a speed v. Now taking friction effects into account, find s in terms of h and
show that v
v0
= h
1.4r
. How is the analysis different if h > 1.4r?
(d) Find the kinetic energy of the ball, initially after being struck by the cue and when
rolling.
(e) The ball undergoes a head-on collision with a similar ball. Describe qualitatively
what happens to the cue ball in this model after the collision.
(a) We model the impact of the cue with the ball as a large force F acting
horizontally for a short time. This produces a linear acceleration given by
F = ma (the vertical force components cancel). The force F is, in general,
not acting through the centre of mass of the ball so it gives a torque around
an axis through the centre of mass. The resultant angular acceleration is
given by · = I–. The ratio of the linear to the angular acceleration will be
v0
the same as the ratio of the linear and angular velocities once the force
Ê0
F stops acting (since v0 = at and Ê0 = –t, where t is the time for which
the force acts). We have,
v0 a
= ,
Ê0 –
F/m
= ,
· /I
F/m
= ,
F (h ≠ r)/—mr2
—r2
= ,
h≠r
2
where — = for a uniform sphere.
5
(b) The ball will roll without slipping if the above ratio is v0 = rÊ0 . This occurs
when h = (1 + —)r = 1.4r.
(c) For h < 1.4r, we have v0 > rÊ0 . We have defined the sign of Ê0 such that it
is positive (spinning forwards) if the top of the ball is travelling in the same
direction, with respect to the centre, as the ball’s overall motion. Note that
Ê0 can be negative (spinning backwards) if the cue hits below the centre
of the ball (h < r). The point of the ball in contact with the table has a
speed v0 ≠ rÊ0 , and this is positive. So there is a force due to kinetic friction
that tends to decrease the linear speed and increase the angular speed. The
magnitude of this force is µmg, where µ is the coefficient of friction. This
µg
gives a linear acceleration ≠µg and an angular acceleration . The non-slip
—r
condition is reached when v Õ = rÊ:
v Õ = v0 ≠ µgt ,
vÕ µg
= Ê0 + t,
r —r
A B
h≠r
) —b =
Õ
v0 + µgt ,
r
where we have used the relationship between v0 and Ê0 found in part (a).
We can eliminate the time t between the first and last equation to give
h vÕ h h
(1 + —)v = v0 , or
Õ
= = . Then the distance s is given
r v0 (1 + —)r 1.4r
by:
v Õ2 = v02 ≠ 2µgs ,
v02 ≠ v Õ2
s= ,
2µg
S A B2 T
v2 h
= 0 U1 ≠ V .
2µg (1 + —)r
For higher points of impact h > 1.4r, the point of the ball in contact with the
table is moving “backwards” and so the friction force of the same magnitude
acts in the
S opposite direction.
T We find the same expression for v Õ and s =
A B2
v02 h
U ≠ 1V
2µg (1 + —)r
1 1
(d) The total KE is the sum of translational and rotational parts, mv 2 + IÊ 2 .
2 2
Initially:
A B2
1 1 h≠r
KE = mv02 + (—mr2 ) v02 ,
2 2 —r2
S A B2 T
1 1 h≠r
= mv02 U1 + V ,
2 — r
and subsequently after the non-slip condition is reached:
1
KE = mv Õ2 (1 + —) ,
2
C D2
1 2 h
= mv0 (1 + —) ,
2 (1 + —)r
C D
1 2 h2
= mv0 .
2 (1 + —)r2
(e) After a head-on collision (which we take to be elastic), the linear momentum
of the cue ball will be transferred to the object ball. The cue ball will still
possess rotational kinetic energy and so will experience friction forces that
will cause it to accelerate either forwards or backwards, depending on the
direction of rotation at the time of the impact.
3.89 (a) Show that the moment of inertia about the axis of a uniform, thick cylindrical
tube with mass M , length L, inner radius ri and outer radius ro is given by
1
I = M (ri2 + ro2 ).
2
(Hint: Consider the tube as the integral of many coaxial cylinders of infinitesimal
thickness.)
(b) Write down expressions for the linear and rotational kinetic energy of such a
cylinder when the centre of mass has a speed of vcom .
(c) Such a hollow cylinder is released at the top of a slope and rolls down the slope,
under gravity, without slipping. Show that the speed of the centre of mass after
the cylinder has dropped by a vertical distance h is given by
ı̂
ı 4gh
vcom = ı
Ù 1 22 .
3+ ri
ro
(d) A hollow cylinder of mass 1 kg with inner radius 5 cm and outer radius 8 cm is
rolling along the ground; the centre of mass has a speed of 1.6 m s≠1 .
i. What is the angular velocity of the cylinder?
ii. What is the linear kinetic energy of the cylinder?
iii. What is the rotational kinetic energy of the cylinder?
(a) Construct the hollow cylinder out of cylindrical shells with radius a and thick-
ness da. The value of a varies from ri to ro . The mass of a shell is dm = 2‡fi
M
a da where ‡ = is the mass per unit cross-section area of the
fi(ro2 ≠ ri2 )
cylinder (the product of the density and the length). The moment of inertia
of the shell about the axis is dI = a2 dm. The moment of inertia of the
complete figure is:
⁄ a=ro
I= dI ,
a=ri
⁄ ro
= 2fi‡ a3 da ,
ri
A B
M ro4 ri4
= 2fi ≠ ,
fi(ro2 ≠ ri2 ) 4 4
1
) I = M (ro2 + ri2 ) .
2
1
(b) Linear KE = M vCM
2
and,
2
3 4
1 vCM 2
Rotational KE = I ,
2 ro
A B
1 2 ri2
= M vCM 1 + 2 .
4 ro
(c) As the cylinder rolls down the slope under gravity, the change in its gravita-
tional PE is equal to the increase in KE. From the previous part, the total
A B
1 r2
KE is = M vCM 2
3 + i2 while the increase in gravitational PE is M gh.
4 ro
Setting these two energy changes equal to each other gives,
A B
1 2 r2
vCM 3 + i2 = gh ,
4 ro
2 4gh
vCM = ri2
,
3+ ro2
as required.
vCM
(d) i. Ê = = 200 Hz.
ro
ii. Linear KE = 1.28 J. 3 4
25
iii. Rotational KE = 0.64 1 + = 0.89 J.
64
3.90 A particle of mass 5 kg with velocity 6i ≠ 6k m s≠1 is found at the point 3i + 4j m.

Find its angular velocity and angular momentum about the origin. Find its angular
momentum about an axis in the direction 4i ≠ k.
We write r = (3i + 4j) m and v = (6i ≠ 6k) m s≠1 . In the last part of the
4 3
question we need the unit vector n = i ≠ k. First calculate the cross product,
5 5
r · p = (yvz ≠ zvy )i + (zvx ≠ xvz )j + (xvy ≠ yvx )k ,

= (4 · (≠6) ≠ 0)i + (0 ≠ 3 · (≠6))j + (0 ≠ 4 · 6)k m2 s≠1 ,
= (≠24i + 18j ≠ 24k) m2 s≠1
Then the angular velocity about the origin is,
r·v
Ê= = (≠0.96i + 0.72j ≠ 0.96k) rad s≠1
r2
since r = |r| = 5 m ; and the angular momentum L = mr · p = (≠120i + 90j ≠

120k) J s The angular momentum about the specified axis is the component of
along the axis: L · n = (≠96 + 72) = ≠24 J s
3.91 Imagine that you are on a bicycle, with the crank (attached to the pedals) horizontal.
Now imagine standing on the front pedal, but holding down the brake on the back
wheel so the bike does not move forwards. Describe the forces and torques that are in
equilibrium in this case so there is no forwards motion.
3.6 Vector exercises 107
The forces relevant to forward motion are the downward weight on the pedal and
the friction of the rear break. The force on the pedal is transfered through a series
of torques to the wheel. There is the torque on the pedal gear, transfered through
the bike chain to the rear wheel gear, which in turn transfers the torque to the
rest of the wheel. The magnitudes of these torques will of course depend on the
radius of these gears and wheels.
The torque on the wheel produces a force on the wheel, which is countered by the
frictional force of the break pad.
I have ignored here the forces of the hand gripping the breaks, and assumed that
the bike is in unstable equilibrium in regards to any side effects which would cause
the bike to topple over.
3.6 Vector exercises

3.92 Scalar product.
(a) Find the scalar product A · B for:

i. A = 3i ≠ 6j; B = ≠4i + 2j
ii. A = 5i + 5j; B = 2i ≠ 4j
iii. A = 6i + 4j; B = 4i ≠ 6j
(b) What is the angle between the vectors A and B if A · B = ≠|A||B|?
Worked Solution
For part (a) (i): Recall that i · i = j · j = k · k = 1, while i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.
So:
(3i ≠ 6j) · (≠4i + 2j) = ≠12i · i + 24j · i + 6i · j ≠ 12j · j

= ≠12 + 0 + 0 ≠ 12
= ≠24
(a) The scalar products are:

i. ≠24, see above.
ii. 10 ≠ 20 = ≠10
iii. 0
(b) The angles are given by:
i. ≠24 = |A||B| cos ◊ = 6.71 · 4.47 cos ◊, so cos ◊ = ≠0.8, therefore
◊ = 2.49 Rad = 143¶
ii. Method as above. ◊ = 1.89 Rad = 108¶
iii. ◊ = fi
2
Rad
3.93 Find the scalar product A · B for:
(a) A = 2i + 3j; B = 3i + 4j.

(b) A = 2i + 3j ≠ k; B = 3i + j.
(c) A = 2i + 3j ≠ k; B = 3i + j + 4k.
(a) 18
(b) 9
(c) 4
3.94 A wall clock has a minute hand that has a length of 0.5 m and an hour hand with
a length of 0.25 m. Taking the centre of the clock as the origin, and choosing an
appropriate coordinate system, write the position of the hour and minute hands as
vectors when the time reads
(a) 12 : 00,
(b) 3 : 30,
(c) 6 : 30,
(d) 7 : 15,
(e) Call the position of the tip of the minute hand A and the position of the tip of
the hour hand B. Find A - B for the times given in the parts above.
For each time work out the angles of the two hands of the clock, and from the
angles we find the coordinates. If we use a “standard” coordinate system with the
x–axis horizontal (towards the “3”) and the y–axis vertical (towards the “12”) the
results are as shown in this table:
Minute hand Hour hand A≠B

Time „A A(m) „B B(m) (m)
12:00 90¶ 0.5j 90¶ 0.25j 0.25j
3:30 ≠90 ¶
≠0.5j ≠15 ¶
0.241i ≠ 0.065j ≠0.241i ≠ 0.435j
6:30 ≠90¶ ≠0.5j ≠105¶ ≠0.065i ≠ 0.241j 0.065i ≠ 0.259j
7:15 0¶ 0.5i ≠127.5¶ ≠0.152i ≠ 0.198j 0.652i + 0.198j
3.95 Find the vector product A ◊ B where:
(a) A = 4i; B = 6i + 6j. (d) A = 2i + 3j; B = 3i + 4k.

(b) A = 4i; B = 6i + 6k. (e) A = 2i + 3j ≠ k; B = 3i + j.
(c) A = 2i + 3j; B = 3i + 2j. (f) A = 2i + 3j ≠ k; B = 3i + j + 4k.
(a) 24k (d) 12i ≠ 8j ≠ 9k

(b) ≠24j (e) i ≠ 3j ≠ 7k
(c) ≠5k (f) 13i ≠ 11j ≠ 7k
3.96 Find the vector product X ◊ Y where:
(a) X = 2i + 3j; Y = 3i + 4j.

(b) X = 2i + 3j ≠ k; Y = 3i + j.
(c) X = 2i + 3j ≠ k; Y = 3i + j + 4k.
(a) ≠k
(b) i ≠ 3j ≠ 7k
(c) 13i ≠ 11j ≠ 7k
3.97 If
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ,
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ,
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k ,
show, by explicit calculation:
(a) the ‘scalar triple product’ formula,
a · (b ◊ c) = b · (c ◊ a) = c · (a ◊ b).
Do you notice any patterns in the combinations of components?

(b) the ‘vector triple product’ formula,
a ◊ (b ◊ c) = (a · c)b ≠ (a · b)c.
3.98 Using the scalar triple product and vector triple product formulas, prove the following
identity for vectors P and Q,
|P ◊ Q|2 = |P |2 |Q|2 ≠ (P · Q)2 .
Is this what you expect writing down the left and right hand sides of this equation in
terms of |P |, |Q| and the angle – between them?
(P ◊ Q) · (P ◊ Q) = P · [Q ◊ (P ◊ Q)] (scalar triple product) ,

= P · [(Q · Q)P ≠ (P · Q)Q] (vector triple product) ,
= |P |2 |Q|2 ≠ (P · Q)2 ,
as required. We can also derive this from trigonometry, since |P ◊Q| = |P ||Q| sin –, P ◊
Q = |P ||Q| cos –, so the equation follows by Pythagoras’ theorem.
3.99 This is a question which provides practice with plane polar coordinates r, „. The
ˆ in the azimuthal (angular)
corresponding unit vectors are r̂ in the radial direction and „
direction. These two vectors are also sometimes written as er and e„ , and often ◊ is
used instead of „ for the angle coordinate.
(a) If r = 10 cm and „ = 0.8 rad, what would x and y be for the same point?
(b) If x = 4 km and y = ≠3 km, what would r and „ be for the same point?
1 2
(c) A particle’s position is r = 30 cm and „ = tan≠1 3
4
= 36.9¶ , and its velocity is
10r̂ m s≠1 . Find the x and y components of the velocity.
ˆ m s≠1 .
(d) The particle’s position is r = 30 m, „ = 0.6 rad and its velocity is 8„
i. Fine the x and y components of the velocity.
d„
ii. Find the angular velocity Ê = dt
iii. IF the particle continues with the same Ê (and dr

dt
= 0), what will its position
be after 2 seconds? At what time will it cross the y-axis („ = fi2 )?
iv. If, instead, the particle continues from the original position at constant ve-
locity, what will its position be after 2 seconds? At what time will it cross
the y-axis and what will its position be then?
Worked Solution
x r
r
y
O
(a) From simple geometry we can see that x = r cos „ and y = r sin „. So given
that r = 10 cm and „ = 0.8 rad we find that,
x = 10 cos(0.8) cm
= 6.97 cm
y = 10 sin(0.8) cm
= 7.17 cm
(a) See above.

3 Ô
(b) Here we have tan „ = , therefore „ = 36.87¶ and r = 32 + 42 km =
4
5 km
(c) Since the particles velocity is only radial, we know that the angle of the
velocity will be the same as the angle of the position. So for a triangle with
hypotenuse of 10 and an angle of 36.9¶ , it will have a vertical component
of vy = 10 sin 36.9¶ m s≠1 = 6.00 m s≠1 and a horizontal component of
vx = 10 cos 36.9¶ m s≠1 = 8.00 m s≠1 . Thus the velocity in cartesian
coordinates will be v = 8.00i + 6.00j m s≠1
(d) i. Since the velocity is only in the angular direction which is perpendicular
to the radial direction, then we know that the velocity vector will have
fi
angle of „ = 0.6 + rad = 2.17 rad. With a magnitude of 8 m s≠1 ,
2
then we know that the horizontal component of the velocity will be
vx = 8 cos 2.17 m s≠1 = ≠4.52 m s≠1 and the vertical component of
the velocity will be vy = 8 sin 2.17 m s≠1 = 6.61 m s≠1 . Thus the
velocity is given by v = ≠4.52i + 6.61j m s≠1 .
ii. This is just given by the tangential component of the velocity. So Ê =
|v| sin ◊ 8 sin 2.17
= rad s≠1 = 0.22 rad s≠1 .
r 30
iii. Since there is no radial motion, we know that r = 30 m. The angle
must change by „f = „i + tÊ = 0.6 + 2 · 0.22 rad = 1.04 rad. When
fi „f ≠ „i 1.57 ≠ 0.6
does „f = ? This is given by t = = s = 4.41 s
2 Ê 0.22
iv. In this case we have linear motion. Since there is radial motion too now,
it is best to use the cartesian velocity we found before. The particles
initial position is given by r i = 24.76i + 16.93j m, and the velocity
we found before was v = ≠4.52i + 6.61j m s≠1 . Using the “SUVAT”

relations on each component, we can see that r f = (24.76 ≠ 4.52t) i +
(16.93 + 6.61t)j m = 15.72i + 30.15j m after 2 seconds.
For crossing the y-axis, we need to work out the distance of the particle
from the point3where it4will cross the y-axis. This distance will be
fi
given by 30 sin ≠ 0.6 = 24.76 m. The magnitude of the velocity is
2
24.76
8 m s≠1 , so we simple find the time by t = s = 3.10 s
8
3.100 Vector manipulations - transforming between different descriptions of a vector:
(a) Find the Cartesian components of the following vectors which have a magnitude
A and lie in the x-y plane and make an angle ◊ with the x-axis if:
i. A = 10 m, ◊ = 30¶ ; v. A = 15 kms≠1 , ◊ = 150¶ ;

ii. A = 5 m, ◊ = 45¶ ; vi. A = 10 ms≠1 , ◊ = 240¶ ;
iii. A = 7 km, ◊ = 60¶ ; vii. A = 8 ms≠2 , ◊ = 270¶ ;
iv. A = 5 km, ◊ = 90¶ ;
(b) Find the magnitude and direction of the following vectors:

i. A = 5i + 3j
ii. B = 10i ≠ 7j
iii. C = ≠2i ≠ 3j + 4k
Worked Solution
Ô 2
For part (b) (i):
A BThe magnitude will be given by |A| = x + y 2 and the direction
x Ô
is ◊ = arctan . So if x = 3 and y = 5, then |A| = 34 and the direction is
y
◊ = 31¶

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Chapter 3

3.1 A Level revision questions

(a) What is its final speed?

v(t = 4 s) = 15 ◊ 4 m s≠1 = 60 m s≠1

3.2 A particle initially at rest at a position x = 2 m accelerates in the positive x-direction

(a) When will the particle be at rest?

(b) What will its position be at this time?

Here we have u = ≠5 m s≠1 and a = 2 m s≠2 . Thus

(a) Using v = 0 m s≠1 in v = u + at gives t = 2.5 s

(a) Find the acceleration of the lift.

Let the force on George be (*) F1 = m1 (a + g) and that on Sarah be (**)

(a) Putting (*) and (**) into (***) we get: T = F1 + F2 + M (a + g) which we

(a) the force is exerted parallel to the horizontal plane?

State carefully any assumptions you have made.

N = mg + F sin ◊ vertical components ,

and we need Fhor > µN . Hence,

F cos ◊ > µmg + µF sin ◊ ,

(a) Find the acceleration of each box.

Explain any assumptions you have made in the calculation.

(b) The force being applied to block B is F = ma where a is the acceleration

(a) the speed and direction of A before the collision.

(b) vBi = 7.5 m s≠1 .

The results can be checked by applying the conversation of momentum to the

mg sin „ = T1 cos ◊ sin „ + T2 cos „ sin „ ,

We can add these expressions and rearrage to get:

The centre of mass may be found by solving NA x = NB (L ≠ x) where L is

(a) What is the particle’s velocity at t = 1 s? At t = 4 s? At t = 2 s?

SUVAT with vectors:

(a) At t = 1 s, then v = (8i ≠ 12j) m s≠1 . At t = 4 s, then v = (32i ≠

3.11 A particle of mass 5 kg is initially at the position r = 2i + 3j + 4k m, and is moving

(a) What is its velocity after 6 seconds?

and its position at time t as,

Finally we need to only put in the given numerical values to get

3.12 A particle of mass 2 kg is acted on by a force F in newtons. The position r of the

(a) The units of the constants a, b and c.

(b) Here we have,

Hence v will be parallel to i when the j component is zero, that is when

(a) Here we have,

3.14 Particles 1,2,3 with mass m1 = 3 kg, m2 = 6 kg and m3 = 7 kg are located at

(a) Here we have,

Here we need to translate from a description of the problem in words to the

(a) The position vector is r = 500k m. The acceleration vector is a =

3.16 A man at a warehouse is dragging a box of mass 50 kg at constant speed up a wooden

(a) the work done against friction.

3.18 A particle of mass 2 kg is moving with a velocity 4i + 3j m s≠1 . It collides with a

We can see that |v 1 | = 5 m s≠1 and that |v 2 | = 10.44 m s≠1 . Conservation of

Then we can find that the loss of kinetic energy is

v 2 + ga cot(2–) = 0 and h + a tan(2–) = 0.

Subtracting these equations from each other we get,

Alternatively, we could not subtract those expressions, and we could rearrange to

Subtracting these we get,

≠h(cos2 – ≠ sin2 –) = 2a sin – cos – ,

If ◊ = ﬁ/3, prove that they collide at a point above the level of AB if

Consider the horizontal positions of projectiles 1 and 2 given by

Their vertical separation is then h = y1 ≠ y2 = vt sin ◊ ≠ 2vt sin „. Substituting

Substituting these values above gives,

3.2 Motion and forces

a(t) = –ti + —t3 j ,

distance travelled as a function of time. By writing a = v dx

where the new constant of integration is the initial (t = 0) position. If we write

We are given that v = v0 ≠ kx, and we want to find x as a function of time t.

Performing the integration gives

Writing the x-component of velocity as vx = dx

(a) Putting () and () into () we get: T = F1 + F2 + M (a + g) which we