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Concept of Organic Chemistry: A New Approach: Unlocking Organic

Chemistry's Secrets through a New Lens

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It's critical to comprehend how an atom contributes to the development of macromolecules and
how an electron functions in the reaction mechanism. I'm attempting to simplify the heavenly
chemistry of molecules and macromolecules in this essay. As far as human understanding of
chemistry is concerned, this is the basis of organic chemistry, which begins with electron
donation and sharing for stability.

This book designed for chemistry-based entrance exams like GPAT (Graduate Pharmacy
Aptitude Test), NIPER (National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research), NET
(National Eligibility Test), and NEET (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test) should be
comprehensive, focused on building a strong conceptual foundation, and aligned with the
specific syllabus and exam pattern of these tests. Here are some key features and content areas
that would make such a book useful for aspiring students. Incorporation of illustrations and
establishing a correlation between atoms and human bonds with friendship can be unique and
engaging features in the book.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Priyank Purohit is an accomplished academic and researcher, currently holding the position
of Associate Professor at Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun with a strong academic
foundation, he earned his Master of Science in Pharmacy and completed his Doctor of
Philosophy from "The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research" in
Mohali. His dedication to research is exemplified by his extensive publication record. Dr.
purohit is the author of numerous research papers, including a highly cited paper in ACS
Catalysis, which boasts an impressive Impact Factor of 13. This groundbreaking work earned
him the prestigious "Best Thesis of India-2017" award and the title of "Best Academician of
the Year 2018" in the male category. Recognized for his contributions to the field, Dr. purohit
has also been honored with a travel grant from DST (Department of Science and Technology).
His research excellence is further underscored by the fact that 22 published works are scholarly
articles indexed by the Web of Science (SCI). His impact on the academic community is
evident in his citation count, which surpasses 600, and an H index of 11, signifying the
significance and influence of his research. Currently, his research efforts are focused on the
fascinating intersection of chemical, pharmaceutical, and polymer chemistry. Dr. purohit is
actively mentoring and guiding three Ph.D. students who are engaged in cutting-edge research
on polymer modification under his supervision. Dr. purohit's commitment to advancing
knowledge in his field and nurturing the next generation of researchers makes him a prominent
figure in the academic world and a valuable asset to Graphic Era Hill University.
 CONTENTS

Chapter-I……………………………………………………

Basic of organic chemistry……………………………………..1-11

Chapter-II…………………………………………………….

Basic of organic reactions……………………………………..12-22

Chapter-III……………………………………………,,……..

Reaction medium in chemistry……………………………….. 23-33

Chapter-IV……………………………………………………

Orientation of the molecule……………………………………34-54

Chapter-V………………………………………………….....

Chemistry of Hydrocarbons…………………………………… 55-71

Chapter-VI………………………………………………….

Chemistry of Carbonyl Group………………………………… 72-88

Chapter-VII………………………………………………….

Carbonyl Group: An Electrophile (El)………………...…….. 89-97

Chapter-VIII……………………………………………..….

Carbonyl Group: an electrophile for Hydride…………….…. 98-105

Chapter- IX…………………………………………..……...

Carbonyl Group: A Nucleophile……………………………...106-111

Chapter-X………………………………………………....…

Aromatic Reactions………………………………………….. 112-124

Chapter-XI………………………………………………..…

Heterocyclic aromatics…………………………………….…125-135
[Basic of organic chemistry] Chapter 1

Chapter 1

[Basic of organic chemistry]

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The importance of organic chemistry or molecules starts with certain lifesaving chemical
reactions, so we don’t have the scope to ignore organic chemistry. Chemistry is the
fundamental process of nature. The focus of organic chemistry is bond formation, or the
friendship of the molecules (Figure 1). Herein, we will realize how the friendship of molecules
proceeds through the complex machinery of the human body. It deals with the daily routine of
life. The role of chemistry starts from morning to evening through enzymatic reactions, myosin
activation, and brain signaling.

Figure 1 Bonding and friendship.

Organic chemistry is concerned with the development of bonds between molecules, or their
friendliness (Figure 1). Here, we shall see how the relationships between molecules lead to the
intricate mechanism of the human body.

1|Page
[Basic of organic chemistry] Chapter 1

1.2 Carbon Atom and electrons

In a broader sense, the organic chemistry is the chemistry of organic molecules, where the
involvement of carbon remains unavoidable, with the highest abundance. Undoubtedly our
flow of study will start from the carbon atom,
12
6C Atomic Weight (Number of Neutron+ Protons)

Atomic Number (Number of protons)

The carbon atom is represented by the letter C, which stands for carbon, but the presence of
electrons is what distinguishes an element from another. Six electrons are orbiting the carbon.
Each element primarily has two different sorts of elementary properties, and the electrons
present in each atom determine each element's position in the periodic table as well as its
electro-negativity and electro-positivity.

1. Electronic (depends on the electrons) property

2. Steric property (depends on the bulk of the atom).

Any atom's electrical property is what determines how it behaves. By way of the electrical
property and the quantity of electrons present, the example below also demonstrates how the
properties of the atoms of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon differ.

This means that the electron, the atom's unique fingerprint, needs to be studied. Each electron
has its own unique quantum number that serves as its address. An electron's location inside an

2|Page
[Basic of organic chemistry] Chapter 1

atom is determined by its group's quantum number. Each of the quantum numbers and how to
calculate it is covered in more detail below.

3|Page
[Basic of organic reaction] Chapter 2

Chapter 2
[Basics of organic Reaction]

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The alignment of nucleophiles (Nu) and electrophiles (E) is the first step in any chemical
reaction (El). According to molecular orbital theory, the number of bonds and atoms determine
which orbital is the bonding orbital and which is the anti-bonding orbital. Figure 12 shows an
example of a single bond, which results in two molecular orbitals: one with low energy that
serves as a bonding orbital (occupied by the bonded electron), and another with high energy
that serves as an anti-bonding orbital (empty).

Figure 12: Boding and anti-bonding orbital.

The orbital overlap of Nu and El is the catalyst for the organic processes. El's anti-bonding
orbital (its lowest occupied molecular orbital) interacts with Nu's high-energy electron (its
highest occupied molecular orbital). Figure 13a provides a simplified representation of the
orbital overlap illustrated in the case.

4|Page
[Basic of organic reaction] Chapter 2

Figure 13a: Orbital overlapping of Nu and El.

At the subatomic level, electrons are shared and transferred, and this is how the complete
family of organic processes proceeds. The idea of macromolecular creation is predicated on
the progression from interactions between atoms to those between molecules.

5|Page
[Reaction Medium] Chapter 3

Chapter 3

[Reaction Medium]

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The rate of the organic reaction is sensitive to the efficiency of substrate collisions. In order for
a reaction to proceed normally, a homogeneous medium or completely soluble media is
required, which is where the solvent comes in. The reaction medium is crucial to the success
of the interaction between molecules, as it must be strong enough to force the collision of the
molecules. Understanding the notion behind the concentration parameters and the
characteristic of the solution is vital since the amount of reagent and concentration is important
for the reaction to complete completely. Prior to comprehending the chemical processes, it is
important to discuss the various phases of the solution.

3.2 Phase of the system

Some of the most important characterizations of the system, such as temperature (T) and
pressure (P), play key roles in the interchangeability of the phase system (Figure 22). Changing
the system's temperature and pressure allows for the formation of different phases, as seen in
Figure 22 below. The water's visual representation suggests that the phases can be changed.

Figure 22: Effect of pressure and temperature on the water phases.

3.3 Solution

There are two types of solutions that can be broken down further according to the nature of the
interaction between the solute and the solvent: ideal solutions with perfect qualities, and actual

6|Page
[Reaction Medium] Chapter 3

solutions, in which the properties of the solvent change when more solvents are added (Figure
23a). Due to the insignificant interaction/reaction occurring within the solution, the ideal
situation does not produce heat or volume expansion once the solute is added, however a real
situation responds differently by producing some reaction energy. A solution that tends to the
ideal is thought to provide the optimal conditions for the reaction.

Figure 23a: Effect of solute in the solution.

Addition of Gas to the solvent

According to the Henry law, the pressure of the system, denoted by P, increases the solubility
of the gas in the solvent, whereas the temperature of the system, denoted by T, decreases the
solubility of the gas in the solvent. (Figure 23b) [T enhances the energy of molecule which
cause less solubility of the gas]

Figure 23b: Henry Law.

7|Page
[Orientation of molecule] [Chapter 4]

Chapter 4

[Orientation of the molecule]

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The atomic structure, chemical bonding, and reaction mechanisms were covered in the prior
chapter. Here, we'll get a look at the molecule's true 3D behavior, including its orientation. To
begin, I'll talk about the chemistry of molecules, which can seem nonsensical during a
chemistry class (when trying to figure out where an electron is going or why a bond is being
formed, etc.). Nothing is unreasonable in God's universe. If you break down the intricate human
body, you'll see how crucial each part is. As the concentration of sodium in the blood rises, the
body sends a signal to the thirst center to drink water; this helps to restore the normal
concentration of sodium in the blood, and the solution provides the ideal balancing quantity
after consumption. The methodical methodology of the God process can be understood through
this and many other examples found in nature. Since one molecule is present in the greatest
quantity both in humans and in the world, we must discuss its state in an optimistic light.

4.2 Structure of the Molecules

A single atom serves as the molecule's building block. The molecule's structure can
accommodate anything from two to many atoms. Molecules are created when atoms collide
and rearrange themselves. The significance that molecules play in our lives is equally crucial.
Molecules make up everything in and around a human being, including enzymes,
carbohydrates, lipids, hormones, and neurotransmitters (which are responsible for brain
signaling and emotional regulation, respectively). Since atomic bonding has already been
discussed in detail, we can skip ahead to the 2D bond-line structure representation of
molecules, which includes the formula and the structure of the molecule (Figure 30).

8|Page
[Orientation of molecule] [Chapter 4]

Figure 30: Presentation of bonds.

Understanding the drug's 3D structure is essential for visualizing the molecular interaction with
the medicine. How a medicine is oriented can have a significant impact on its effectiveness.
Figure 31 shows the drug bound to the enzyme and oriented in the correct orientation. To obtain
interaction data, the drug's 3D structure is required. Through the use of a yellow dotted line, it
also depicts drug interactions (Figure 31).

Figure 31: Interaction of drug molecule with the enzyme.

9|Page
[Orientation of molecule] [Chapter 4]

1. In conclusion, the drug's orientation in space is crucial to comprehending its actual

activity at the molecular level. There are a variety of projections that can be used to see
how the molecule

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[Chemistry of Hydrocarbon] [Chapter 5]

Chapter 5

[Chemistry of Hydrocarbons]

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydrocarbon chemistry serves as a foundation for the study of organic compounds and
macromolecular chemistry. The role of hydrocarbon in the construction of complex
compounds is crucial. Hydrocarbons are a broad category encompassing all compounds
containing hydrogen and carbon. The chemistry of hydrocarbons begins with the joining of
four hydrogen atoms to a carbon atom. Methane, the smallest hydrocarbon, is also the
shortest, thanks to the numerous carbons that make up its chainlike structure. Covalent
bonding between carbon and other atoms is the starting point for branching. Single-bonded
hydrocarbons are called alkanes, double-bonded hydrocarbons are called alkenes, and triple-
bonded hydrocarbons are called alkynes.

Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

Chemical CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2

Formula
Hybridizatio sp3 sp2 sp
n

5.2 Classification of the Hydrocarbons

The other types are aromatic hydrocarbons, which evolve its bonded electron in the ring
circulation through the resonance. Huckel's rule explains the reason for the aromaticity,
which is given in the below-given Figure 62.
[Orientation of molecule] [Chapter 4]

Figure 62: The Huckels rule.

The aromatic ring must have the 4n+2 π electrons with the all sp2 carbon or planner, however,
the cyclic ring with the conjugation having 4n π electron is known as Anti-aromatic. The open
chain form is more stable in the condition of aromaticity.

5.2 Bonding in the Hydrocarbons

12 | P a g e
[Orientation of molecule] [Chapter 4]

13 | P a g e
[Chemistry of Hydrocarbon] [Chapter 5]

In the case of polarized double bonds, the reactions they produce are distinct from those
produced by non-polarized double bonds. Furthermore, in the case of resonant or aromatic
bonds, the polarized double bonds produce a noticeable substitution reaction.

Example of the reactions, which involve through double bond

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[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group] [Chapter 6]

Chapter 6

[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group]

6.1 Chemistry of the Carbonyl Group

Carbonyl groups are crucial in macromolecule synthesis because they cause polarization at the
double bond. As a result of the electronegative polarity difference between the Carbon and
Oxygen atoms, the carbonyl molecule is reactive. When an oxygen atom is present, it can steal
an electron from a nearby carbon atom, increasing the group's reactivity and making it possible
to create a C-C bond.

Carbonyl functional group:

It's a common functional group, and this method of creating compound library building blocks
aids in its conversion to other functional groups (Figure 80). The carbonyl functional group's
reactivity relies on the group of carbon atoms to which it is connected. The electron-deficient
carbon of the carbonyl group makes it reactive, whereas the electron-rich group has a natural
propensity to form the C-C bond.

Figure 80: The carbonyl group.

15 | P a g e
[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group] [Chapter 6]

6.3 Characterization of the Carbonyl Group

Carbonyl group identification is crucial due to the Carbonyl group's prevalence among
functional groups. The utilization of electromagnetic waves is the most pertinent technique for
the identification; (Figure 86). There is a specific electric and magnetic component to the
electromagnetic wave that sets it apart from the ordinary wave (sound wave). The application
of electromagnetic wave is highly targeted. One of the fundamental characteristics of a
functional group is how well it absorbs and modulates electromagnetic waves (EMW).

Figure 86: Electromagnetic waves.

Among all EMW, infrared spectroscopy is the one that plays the most crucial role in the
identification of the molecule. This is because of the change in the bond vibration frequency.

6.31 Infrared

The alteration in the bond vibration energy level that occurs after absorption is the fundamental
component of infrared. It is the test that is used to identify the various functional groups, but
the carbonyl groups show a distinctive absorption pattern for the IR, which makes it the
approach that is most effective for identifying carbonyls. (See also Figure 87). It functions
dependent on the strength of the bonds; some bonds, such as N-H and OH, have vibration
frequencies that are greater than 3000 cm-1. The intensity of the bond affects the frequency of
the bond when observed in the infrared spectrum. If there is a strong relationship, then the IR
frequency will be rather high.

16 | P a g e
[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group] [Chapter 6]

Figure 87: Effect of IR in carbonyl group.

17 | P a g e
[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group] [Chapter 6]

Figure 94: Woodward and Fisher rule for λmax calculation

6.33 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) plays a very significant role in gathering the information
on the number of Hydrogen and Carbon atoms, which is essential for the proper identification
of the compounds. UV and IR instrumental techniques are necessary for identifying the
chromophore or functional groups, whereas further information about the H and C atoms is
required for identifying the full skeleton of the compound. The NMR may provide the
necessary data. Important components of this method include an external magnetic field for
nucleon spin splitting and radio waves for nucleon resonance (Figure 95).

18 | P a g e
[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group] [Chapter 6]

Using a change in the spinning of the nucleus, the spinning state of the nucleus is differentiated
by an external magnetic field, and the resulting resonance with radio waves identifies the
organic component using NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance). This method uses the
difference in charge density to identify whether hydrogen atoms are of the aromatic or aliphatic
variety (Figure 95). The atom's spin quantum number (I) must be a half-integer in numerical
value in order for NMR activity to take place (Like H, C13, F, P). It is the most common
method for determining the hydrogen count (HNMR) and carbon type (C13 NMR) of a
molecule.

Figure 95: Basic principle of NMR.

The use of an external field aids in the separation of the nucleus's two spin states. Atomic
electron density and magnetic field strength influence the spin state and energy gap. Since each
atom's electron density causes it to generate a magnetic field of its own to counteract an
externally applied field, the net magnetic field exerted on the atom varies from case to case, as
does the resulting energy gap. Therefore, the frequency of the radio waves emitted by each
atom will be unique. Atoms with varying chemical shift values will be produced as a result of
the variation in radio waves. Each atom has its own unique chemical shift, which accounts for
the visible difference in the spectra. Fig. 96:

19 | P a g e
[Chemistry of Carbonyl Group] [Chapter 6]

Figure 96: Effect of magnetic field on the compound.

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[Carbonyl Group: an electrophile for Hydride] [Chapter 8]

Chapter 7

[Carbonyl Group: An Electrophile]

7.1 Introduction

The carbonyl group's carbon is an electrophilic core that preferentially bonds to entities that
are low in electronegativity. By adding a nucleophile to the carbonyl group, a flexible
intermediate is formed that can be transformed into a wide variety of different functional
groups. In this chapter, we will describe the process of adding a nucleophile to a carbonyl group
in great detail. Figure 102 provides a snapshot of the ubiquitous reactivity pattern of carbonyl
carbon, which must be understood before venturing into the depths. Its reduced alcoholic form
is the result of a nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl group.

Figure 102: Nucleophilic addition on the carbonyl group.

7.2 Addition of alkyl group

The synthesis of bioactive macromolecules relies heavily on the transfer of alkyl groups. Since
saturated hydrocarbons are stable or nonreactive, the alkyl group's reactivity towards the
carbonyl is of great significance. The carbonyl alkylation has been the chemist's stumbling
block.

The alkyl group that reacts with the carbonyl must be a nucleophile (having greater electron
density than the carbonyl). The creation of the alkyl group as Nu from the metal-based reaction
has been widely acknowledged, but the handling of metallic reagent has been a problem. To
get the electron density, electropositive element (metal) is founding suited as it is in the
Grignard reagents. The electron density of the connected groups is affected by the metal's
electropositive nature, which allows it to donate an electron to the neighboring group. Metal-
based alkyl reactions (Grignard & Li) are illustrated by appropriate examples in Figure 103.

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[Carbonyl Group: an electrophile for Hydride] [Chapter 8]

Figure 103: Metal-based alkylation of the carbonyl group.

7.3 Wittig Reaction

The Wittig reaction, using the rare substrate Ylide, is a crucial mechanism for converting
carbonyl groups to olefins (alkenes). To the right of the ylides is a di-ionic substrate, which
has a formal charge that is opposite to that of the ylides. The carbon in the ylide's anionic
form reacts with the carbonyl carbon as a nucleophile. In the Wittig reaction, the cyclic
betaine intermediate is opened to create the alkenes by the oxophilic character of the P (unlike
the S atom, it forms an epoxide ring at the carbonyl group) and the nearby carbon Nu (which
acts on the carbon of carbonyl). Figure 104 provides a detailed breakdown of all the
procedures.

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[Carbonyl Group: an electrophile for Hydride] [Chapter 8]

Figure 104: Reaction based on the phosphorus ylides.

7.4 Addition of amine group

Chapter 8

[Carbonyl Group: an electrophile for Hydride]

8.1 Introduction

Through reacting with the carbon of the carbonyl group, Nu can reduce the carbonyl
compounds because carbon is an electron-deficient center. However, hydride (H-), which has
one electron added to its nucleus, is the most common nucleus for reduction. As seen in Figure
111, reduction often occurs via the alcohol functional group after the carbonyl group has been
added nucleophilicity. Our focus in this chapter is to demonstrate the smallest Nu (H-) reaction
for the reduction goal.

23 | P a g e
[Carbonyl Group: an electrophile for Hydride] [Chapter 8]

Figure 111: Reaction of carbonyl group with Nu.

8.2 Hydride Transfer Reagents

1. The smallest nucleus capable of reducing the carbonyl group is hydride (H-). Multiple
hydride transfer reagents have been discovered up to this point. In this article, we'll talk
about the reduction mechanism of these reagents. Reagents for hydride transfer can be
broken down into

24 | P a g e
[Carbonyl Group: A Nucleophile] [Chapter 9]

Chapter 9

[Carbonyl Group: A Nucleophile]

9.1 Introduction

The electrophilic carbon of the carbonyl was covered in Chapters 1 and 2. The carbonyl group
as a Nu is the topic of this section. Due to the stable anion formed when the hydrogen atom is
removed, the carbonyl group’s alpha carbon functions as an acidic center. The following is
removing the H atom from the alpha position in Figure 122 creates an "enolate," a stable ion
species that can react with El. Nu and El's condensation reaction makes it possible to create
natural, semi-synthetic, and synthetic medicinal compounds. In this chapter, we'll talk about
the several kinds of reactions that involve adding a nucleophile to a carbonyl group.

Figure 122: Enolate intermediate.

25 | P a g e
[Benzene and its derivatives] [Chapter 10]

Chapter 10

[Benzene and its reactions]

10.1 Introduction

The aromatic compounds have a more orderly ring conjugation. They are stable compounds
because their orbitals perfectly overlap and have a variety of resonant structures. Benzene has
the highest ring conjugation of any aromatic compound and features six symmetrical SP2
Hybridized carbons. It is well known that the stability of compounds is due in large part to their
resonant structures. It is mentioned in cyclic hydrocarbons that the benzene ring occurs in the
chair form, whereas the planner form of the non-aromatic cyclic structure is shown by
compressions.

Figure 129: Benzene and its stability or reactivity.

It ensures that the electronic current continues to flow around the ring's center. The chemist
has had a lot of trouble with the reaction that takes place on the benzene ring. The ring has a
negative charge, which prevents it from reacting with Nu, and due to its great stability, it
demonstrates inert behavior when it comes into contact with El too. (Figure 129).

10.2 Reactivity of Benzene

Strong El (often cationic) causes the benzene ring to react, while normal El has no
effect. In contrast to the addition reaction seen with the other olefins, the electrophilic
reaction seen with aromatic compounds takes place during the substitution process. The

26 | P a g e
[Benzene and its derivatives] [Chapter 10]

bromine in the below example (Figure 130) is not reactive with the aromatic because
the El is not strong for the

27 | P a g e
 ORGANIC CH4EMITRY AND DRUG DISCOVERY

Chapter 11

[Heterocyclic Aromatics]

11.1 Introduction

The heteroatom (N, S, and O) possesses the aromatic conjugation with the complete cyclic
skeleton of the aromatic system; nonetheless, the presence of the heteroatom alters all of the
physicochemical properties of the parent cyclic structure. When compared to the aromatic
system, these molecules have certain reaction patterns and physiological features that are
distinct from those of the aromatic system. Heterocycles are crucial in various scientific
disciplines and industries due to their structural diversity, biological activity, and unique
chemical properties. Their versatile nature makes them invaluable tools for designing and
synthesizing compounds with a wide range of applications, from medicine to materials science.
The essential heterocyclic rings are broken down and summarized in figure 147, which may be
found below.

Figure 147 Examples of important heterocycles.

28 | P a g e
 ORGANIC CH4EMITRY AND DRUG DISCOVERY

11.2 Resonance in heterocyclic ring system

The resonance of the ring is modified when carbon is replaced with heteroatoms, which in turn
modifies the stability and reactivity of the heterocyclic ring system. Having a wide range of
resonant structures, aromatic compounds are remarkably stable. Resonant structures have been
shown to increase the stability of molecules. Electronic motion within the ring is crucial to its
aromaticity. When the heteroatom in the ring acts as an electron donor, aromaticity is reduced,
leading to increased ring reactivity.

Figure 148 Heteroatom and resonance

Six-member heterocyclic rings, like Pyridine, are more aromatic because they have more
electronic circulation than five-member heterocyclic rings. However, reactivity is more
essential in the case of five members is more than six, which is why pyridine, which has six
members, is preferred over pyrrole, which has just five. Thiophene's increased aromaticity or
stability can be attributed to the high bulk of its Sulphur atom and the fact that it has less electro
negativity than carbon. However, the furan exhibits strong reactivity and less stability or
resonance as a result of the atom's high negativity, which traps electrons and slows their
movement.

29 | P a g e
 ORGANIC CH4EMITRY AND DRUG DISCOVERY

It is also known as the disconnection approach, where the retro analysis (dissemble approach).
The retrosynthesis approach is the disconnection of the target compound to the simple
fragments (Synthons) and converted to the simpler starting material. (Synthetic equivalents)
At the disconnection bridge, one carbon should be El and the other Nu to accommodate the
supposed charge that begins at the electron-negative atom, as in the below-given example,
where the negative charge begins at the oxygen atom. Since we know that the "enolate"
intermediate can convert the alpha carbon in the carbonyl group to the Nu form, we also know
that the oxygen atom introduced into the benzyl carbon, being electronegative, will pull the
electron and convert that carbon to the reduced form, El. Finally, the Aldol reaction will be
used to include the two fragments El (shown in blue) and Nu (shown in red).

Figure 156- Retro synthesis analysis

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 ORGANIC CH4EMITRY AND DRUG DISCOVERY

General Synthesis of Heteroaromatics

“1+4” and “1+5” Strategy

In this method of retrosynthesis, a five-member ring heterocyclic was broken between four
atoms and one atom. On the other hand, the atomic ratio for a six-member ring was 5:1, and
the fundamental concept was used for the production of synthetic equivalents, as shown in
figure 152 below.

Figure 157 Synthesis of a member ring

“2+3” and “3+3” Strategy

In this method of retrosynthesis, a five-member ring heterocyclic was broken between two and
three atoms. On the other hand, the atomic ratio for a six-member ring was 3:3, and the same
fundamental notion was used for the production of a synthetic counterpart, as shown in figure
158 below.

31 | P a g e
 ORGANIC CH4EMITRY AND DRUG DISCOVERY

Figure 158 Synthesis of five-member ring through 2+3 and 3+3 strategy.

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