Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138

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Cement & Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

The incorporation of oil palm ash in concrete as a means of recycling: A

review
Mohammed Zuhear Al-mulali a,⇑, Hanizam Awang a, H.P.S. Abdul Khalil b, Zaid Shaker Aljoumaily a
a
School of Housing, Building & Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
b
School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A number of studies have used oil palm ash (OPA) as a pozzolanic material in concrete, mortar and
Received 25 June 2013 cement pastes either as a binder or filler replacement to reduce its environmental negative impact. A
Received in revised form 4 August 2014 coarser particle size OPA is a weak pozzolanic material; therefore, a 10% cement replacement in concrete
Accepted 6 September 2014
would not affect its compressive strength. When OPA fineness is increased, concrete samples having a
20% cement replacement of fine OPA produced stronger and more resistant to sulphate attack samples
than the control mix. Fine OPA samples used in these studies also showed less drying shrinkage and were
Keywords:
less permeable to water than the 100% cement concrete mix. Mortar samples containing 20% cement
Oil palm ash
Concrete
replacement of fine OPA exhibited higher strength and less carbonation ingress depth than the control
Pozzolanic material mortar. High strength concrete samples with a 60% cement replacement of OPA exhibited superior
Properties of concrete mechanical and transport properties than the control samples.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the production of biodiesel such as rapeseed and soybeans in the

The world’s high demand for energy has been satisfied by the
usage of non-renewable resources such as petrochemicals, natural
gas and coal. Such growing demand on finite fossil fuels has
pushed prices of such resources to sky high levels. In addition,
these fuels are huge contributors to the problem of global warming
due to the toxic emissions they produce. Due to the reasons men-
tioned, it is increasingly vital to develop alternative resources that
have less impact on the environment, readily available, give the
edge in economic competitiveness and can be produced without
any obstacles. Vegetable oil, when considered as an alternative to
fossil fuels, produces good heating power and, as a result, provides
exhaust gases containing negligible amounts of sulphur and aro-
matic polycyclic compounds. Owing to the fact that vegetable oils
are from plant origins, their burning leads to a total recyclable CO2
[1]. Such fuels are called ‘‘bio-diesel’’ fuels and using this type of
fuel has many advantages such as it is non-toxic and biodegrad-
able, lessens the dependency on fossil fuels, have low emission
profile, an economical balance can be acquired and is safer in han-
dling [2]. Various feed-stocks have been identified as raw stock for
United States and palm oil and jatropha in the Asian region [3].
The palm oil industry in Malaysia, over the last few decades, has
grown in size to become an important agricultural-based industry,
where the country today is the world’s largest producer and expor-
ter of palm oil [4]. Before noticing the potential of palm oil as bio-
diesel, 90% of the oil was used in food related commodities and the
remaining 10% were used as raw material in producing soap [5].
However, after realising the potential, the palm oil industry
boomed from a shy 400 ha in 1920 [6] to nearly four and a half mil-
lion hectares in 2008 [7]. From the 410 palm oil mills in Malaysia,
about 17.7 million tonnes of crude palm oil was produced in 2008
reaching a 41% of the world’s palm oil production [8]. However, in
each industry there are a number of products that are produced
alongside the main product. These bi-products are referred to as
waste. The palm oil industry is no exception, palm oil mills pro-
duce biomass alongside palm oil and they are shell, empty fruit
bunch, fibre and palm kernel.
1.1. Palm oil industry’s waste

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 166817268.
E-mail addresses: Mohammed.almulali@gmail.com (M.Z. Al-mulali), hanizam@
usm.my (H. Awang), akhalilhps@gmail.com (H.P.S. Abdul Khalil), zaid.aljoumaily@
gmail.com (Z.S. Aljoumaily).
For each oil palm tree fruit bunch, about 21% palm oil, 6–7%
palm kernel, 14–15% fibre, 6–7% shell and 23% empty fruit bunch
is produced [9]. As a rough estimate, a single kilogramme of palm
oil results in 4 kg of dry biomass [7]. With such abundant amounts
of waste, researchers have been focused on the utilisation of such

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.09.007
0958-9465/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
130 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138

waste in a number of aspects. Such as using the fibres and shell
produced as fuel for mill boilers instead of conventional fuels [5],
using the empty fruit bunch in producing moulded oil palm prod-
ucts which are used in furniture, building, electronics, packaging
and in the automobile industry [10], fibre strands from the frond
of oil palm trees (leaves of the oil palm tree) are studied for their
potential in the production of paper [11], oil palm ash originated
from the incineration of palm oil empty fruit bunch and fibres as
a soil fertilizer for its high potassium content [10] and also as a
low cost adsorbent for gaseous pollutants [12] and as an absorbent
for dispersed dyes in an aqueous solution [13].
However, the utilisations mentioned above are not enough to
convert the palm oil industry into a waste free type of industry.
This is said because the waste is still disposed of in land-fills or left
to rot on the premises of the palm oil mills.
Therefore, a number of researchers have focused on using the
waste into the construction industry and especially in concrete.
This study will focus on the utilisation of one type of waste, namely
oil palm ash (OPA), in the production of concrete and it will review
the effects of such utilisation on the properties of concrete.
1.2. Other utilities for OPA
A number of researchers have exploited oil palm Ash in a num-
ber of applications other than concrete production. Table 1 below
reviews in brief such studies.
1.3. Advantages of OPA utilisation in concrete
OPA is a throw away product that is produced abundantly.
Common practices for disposing of this by-product was either by
spreading the OPA over the premises of the mill or dumped to fill
in low economic value dumps or selected types of land such as
swamplands, abandoned sand quarries [20]. These disposal meth-
ods were conducted without taking into consideration the sur-
rounding environment or taking precautions to compact, cover
and prevent the spreading of OPA into the ground water levels
[21]. In addition, due to its fine particles, OPA can be easily carried
away by wind by that causing smog on a humid day [22]. There-
fore, the utilisation of OPA in concrete production has a number
of environmental benefits such as reducing the amount of OPA that
is disposed of into landfills, reducing the amount of energy used
and the emitted greenhouse gases when OPA is used to replace
manufactured cement and the conservation of other natural
resources when OPA is used as filler replacement.
properties of the produced OPA. Lower burning temperatures pro-
duce OPA having a black to dark grey colour due to the increasing
amounts of unburned carbon [23]. Higher burning temperatures
produce a lighter coloured ash as a result to the decreased amounts
of unburned carbon. Therefore, different palm oil mills produce
OPA with different characteristics due to the different tempera-
tures used in the incineration process. In its normal state, as
received from the source, the original OPA is a large particle sized
substance having a porous texture. Tangchirapat et al. [24] stated
that due to the crushing process, grinding will produce OPA parti-
cles that have a smaller size. In addition, the grinding process will
increase both the fineness of the ground OPA particles and also its
specific gravity. Grinding of OPA has been conducted by ball mill
[25–27] or by a modified Los Angeles machine [23,28]. Figs. 1–3
show different SEM images of different particle sizes of OPA [26].
Table 2 lists a number of physical properties of OPA used in a num-
ber of studies.
2.2. Chemical composition
Similar to the case of fly ash, different sources produce OPA hav-
ing different characteristics. No OPA is similar to the other in its
chemical composition due to the difference in its production pro-
cess such as the burning temperatures used. OPA, due to its pro-
duction process, complies with the chemical composition of a
class N fly ash [23,24], a class C pozzolan [31], a class F pozzolan
[32] or between a class C and a class F. However, due to the impu-
rities accompanying OPA’s production (such as unburned carbon or
unburned fibres), OPA needs to be processed before being used in a
concrete mix. Therefore, OPA needs to be sieved in order to obtain
the ash particles without any unburned fibres and to increase its
pozzolanic reactivity, OPA is usually grinded to a fineness of

2. Properties of OPA

2.1. Physical properties

As mentioned earlier, OPA is produced due to the incineration of

Fig. 1. Original size OPA particles.
palm oil biomass. The incineration temperatures affect the physical

Table 1
Studies utilising OPA in applications other than concrete production.

Ref. Year Type of OPA application Findings

[14] 2002 As an adsorbent material for the removal and recovery of Zinc ions from An inexpensive, highly efficient adsorbent for Zinc removal from aqueous
aqueous solutions solutions
[15] 2004 OPA, Ca(OH)2 and CaSO4 were used in preparing an absorbent for the SO2 The desulphurisation activity was found to be higher its starting materials
removal in flue gas from a combustion system
[16] 2005 OPA and a number of other waste ashes were investigated for flue gas Absorbents derived had the highest SO2 absorption capacity
desulphurisation
[17] 2007 A comparative study of effect of oil palm bunch refuse ash (OBRA) and OBRA and NPKF increased cob and grain yield relative to control
NPK fertilizer on soil and plant nutrient status and yield of maize
[18] 2008 Solidification/stabilization (S/S) of nickel hydroxide sludge using Using OPA as substitute of OPC is viable as it can significantly reduce cost
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and oil palm ash (OPA) was conducted normally incurred by usage of high amounts of OPC
[19] 2008 Decanter cake (DC) and Boiler Ash (BA) of palm oil mills are a good Increased the efficiency of nutrient uptake by the crops and enhance the
source of nutrients for producing bio-compound fertilizer retention of nutrients in the soil in the long-term to improve soil quality
 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138 131

Table 3
Chemical Composition of OPA used in different studies (%).

Oxides [25] [26] [34] [35] [30]

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 65.30 57.71 63.6 66.91 65.01
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 2.60 4.56 1.60 6.44 5.72
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2.00 3.30 1.40 5.72 4.41
Calcium oxide (CaO) 6.40 6.55 7.60 5.56 8.19
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.10 4.23 3.90 3.13 4.58
Potassium oxide (K2O) 5.70 8.27 6.90 5.20 6.48
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.30 0.50 0.10 0.19 0.07
Sulphur oxide (SO3) 0.50 0.25 0.20 0.33 0.33
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 69.9 65.57 66.6 79.07 75.14
LOI 10.10 10.52 9.60 2.30 2.53

to produce a finer particle sized material [25]. When three different

Fig. 2. Medium size OPA particles.
Fig. 3. Small size OPA particles.
10 lm or finer. If the percentage of carbon is high within the OPA,
the carbon will be removed by heating at a 500 °C for 1 h in an
electrical furnace [33]. Table 3 lists a number of OPA chemical
compositions used by researchers in different studies.
3. Pozzolanic activity
OPA has a higher content of residual organics, higher alkali con-
tent and it is coarser when compared to fly ash [22]. Large particle
sized OPA is proven to be a low pozzolanic reactive material. Tay
and Show [36] used OPA sieved through a 150 lm sieve to be used
as a replacement to cement and discovered that only a 10%
replacement level showed a 1% reduction in compressive strength
than the control mix for compressive strength cubes cured for
1 year indicating the presence of a pozzolanic reaction. Hence, in
order to increase its pozzolanic reactivity, OPA must be ground
particle sizes were investigated, it was discovered that the finest
OPA having a median particle size 7.4 lm showed a higher com-
pressive strength with a cement replacement level of 20–30% than
the control mix indicating a higher pozzolanic reaction [26]. The
same study also concluded that original sized OPA was non suit-
able to be used as a pozzolanic material. Mortars incorporating dif-
ferent particle sized OPA exhibited the same trend. Rukzon and
Chindaprasirt [37] stated that mortars incorporating fine OPA as
a cement replacement with a median particle size of 7 lm (3%
retained on a 45 lm sieve) showed higher compressive strength
than the control mortar due to the filler effect and the higher reac-
tivity of the fine OPA in comparison to the coarse (55 lm) and
medium (25 lm) sized OPA. Increasing the fineness of OPA not
only resulted in higher compressive strengths but also increased
the resistance of high strength concrete utilising very fine OPA
(median particle size of 10 lm) as a cement replacement in a
chemical environment towards chloride penetration, acid and sul-
phate attack [38]. Fine OPA with a median particle size of 10.1 lm
when used at a 20% cement replacement produced high strength
concrete with a compressive strength of 70 MPa at 90 days indicat-
ing that fine OPA is a reactive pozzolanic material and can be used
as a mineral admixture [24]. Kroehong et al. [27] studied the effect
of OPA fineness on packing effect and pozzolanic reaction of
blended cement paste. Ground OPA and ground river sand with
two particle sizes of 15 ± 1 and 2 ± 1 lm were used to replace
cement at 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% by weight of cementing materials
in cement pastes. The water binder ratio used was 0.35. The
authors found that pastes having OPA with the 2 lm particle size
with replacement levels of 10–30% by weight of cement showed
higher compressive strengths (105–111%) than the cement pastes
at 90 days of ages. The authors reasoned the higher compressive
strength to the higher reactivity of the fine OPA.
4. OPA’s effect on the properties of fresh concrete and mortar
4.1. Workability
A number of researchers have studied the effect of OPA incorpo-
ration on the workability of fresh concrete. The workability of con-
crete decreases with increasing OPA replacement levels. Using

Table 2
Physical properties of unground and ground OPA.

Ref. Year Unground OPA Ground OPA

Specific Retained on 45 lm sieve (%) Median particle size (lm) Specific Retained on 45 lm sieve (%) Median particle size (lm)
gravity gravity
[25] 2004 1.97 41.2 62.5 2.33 1.5 10.1
[26] 2007 1.89 94.4 183.0 2.43 1.0 7.4
[29] 2007 1.89 94.4 183.0 2.43 1.0 7.4
[24] 2009 1.97 41.2 65.6 2.33 1.5 10.1
[30] 2012 2.42 – 15.76 2.50 – 2.99
132 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138
150 lm size OPA; concretes with a 50% replacement level had a
slump reading of 120 mm in comparison to the control mix’s
150 mm slump reading [22]. Tay and Show [36] investigated the
workability concrete with OPA as a partial cement replacement
by the compacting factor. Results showed a decrease in workability
with increasing OPA replacement levels. Concrete with a 50% OPA
replacement level had a compacting factor of 0.93 in comparison to
0.99 observed for the control mix. In high strength concrete mixes
with fixed water to binder ratio of 0.28, workability was assessed
by the slump test and the amount of super-plasticiser needed to
achieve a required slump reading between 175 mm and 225 mm.
Mixes containing OPA replacement levels 10%, 20% and 30%
required higher super-plasticiser dosage levels of 8.5, 11.8 and
16.9 kg/m3 achieving lower slump readings of 200, 185 and
185 mm in comparison with the control mix (7.9 kg/m3 of super-
plasticiser and 200 mm slump reading) [39]. This is due to the high
porous nature of the OPA particles causing the absorption of higher
amounts of water; hence, needing a higher dosage of super-
plasticiser.
Hussin et al. [38] discovered that OPA having a fineness of 10
and 45 lm when integrated at a replacement level of 20% dis-
played lower compacting factors and higher VeBe readings in com-
parison to the control mix. The authors reasoned the low
workability of OPA concrete mixes to the OPA’s increased surface
area caused by the grinding process. In a comparison study
between OPA and rice-husk ash, concrete mixes containing these
two materials needed higher water–binder ratios to achieve a
60–90 mm slump reading in comparison to the control mix [40].
The authors reasoned the higher water–binder ratios needed in
the OPA mixes to the shape of the OPA particles. The shape of
OPA particles is angular and irregular with a porous texture; thus,
needing more water for the lubrication for preserving the same
workability as that of 100% cement concrete mixes. The authors
concluded this after comparing the shapes of fly ash and OPA par-
ticles used in this study. Fly ash particles were spherical in shape
and had a solid texture; thus, needing less water to obtain the
acquired slump in comparison to the angular and irregular shaped
OPA particles which needed more water to obtain the wanted
slump. Lower compacting factors and lower slump readings were
observed for concrete mixes with 15% of OPA replacing cement
in comparison with the control mix [31]. The workability of con-
crete mixes with 50%, 60% and 70% OPA replacement levels with
a dosage of super-plasticiser up to 2% by weight of binder were
assessed by the slump test according to ASTM C143M-05 [41].
The authors observed that concrete mixtures containing high vol-
umes of OPA as a cement replacement had lower slump readings
but with the usage of water reducing super plasticiser the work-
ability was improved to a satisfactory level. Megat Johari et al.
[30] assessed the workability of high strength concretes with ultra-
fine OPA (2.06 lm) content replacing cement at levels of 20%, 40%
and 60% by weight of binder by the slump test according to BS EN
12350-2. The authors found that the workability of high strength
Table 4
Initial and final setting times of OPA concretes.
Replacement level (%) [22] ASTM C191 [36] ASTM C191
150 lm 150 lm
Initial Final Initial
(hrs:min) (hrs:min) (hrs:min)
0 2:05 3:15 2:05
10 2:10 3:45 2:05
20 2:10 4:00 2:15
30 2:20 4:10 2:20
40 2:30 4:30 2:35
50 2:40 4:40 2:45
concrete was increased when incorporating ultra-fine OPA. Slump
readings increased with increasing ultrafine OPA replacement lev-
els. The authors attributed the increase in workability to the
greater binder paste volume of the ultrafine high strength concrete
mixes as a result of the lower specific gravity of the ultrafine OPA
in comparison to that of cement. The extra paste volume might
have provided better roles of coating aggregate particles, filling
the gaps between aggregates and provide ambient lubrication for
the aggregate particles to move during testing; hence increasing
the workability.
4.2. Setting times
The initial setting time is an indicator for the period of time at
which the freshly mixed concrete remains in a workable state. A
45 min minimum limit for 100% cement concrete for the initial set-
ting time is stated by ASTM 150. However, final setting times
should not be too long in order to prevent the unnecessary delay
of the cement hydration process. ASTM 150 stated that the maxi-
mum limit for the final setting time is 8 h. Concretes incorporating
OPA showed the tendency to retard both initial and final setting
times. Tay [22] stated that both initial and final setting times for
150 lm OPA concrete samples were well within the limits stated
by the ASTM. Increasing the amount of cement replacement by
OPA would increase the delay of both setting times [36]. Tangch-
irapat et al. [26] reported that particle size also affects the setting
times for OPA concretes. The authors tested initial and final setting
times using a penetrometer according to ASTM C403 for concrete
samples containing OPA as cement replacement with three differ-
ent median particle sizes. Tangchirapat et al. observed that initial
and final setting times increased with OPA replacement levels.
The highest was observed for the concrete mix with 40% unground
OPA (having a median particle size of 183 lm) replacement of
cement resulting in a 6 h 30 min for the initial and 12 h 20 min
for the final setting times. The retardation was due to the higher
replacement level of cement by unground OPA. In addition, the
large and porous particles of the unground OPA will increase the
water to binder ratio of the concrete mix, hence, increasing the
amount of water in the concrete mix and, as a result, delaying
the initial and final setting times. However, samples having cement
replaced by OPA with a median particle size of 15.9 lm and 7.4 lm
exhibited lower setting times which were within the limits speci-
fied by ASTM. The concrete samples containing the finest OPA as a
cement replacement showed the least setting times among the
three OPA samples, however, close to the setting times exhibited
by the control mix.
The prolonged setting times exhibited by fine OPA concretes
were due to the pozzolanic reaction occurring between the fine
OPA particles and the calcium hydroxide particles in cement which
is slower than the cement hydration. Ultra-fine OPA (2 lm) was
shown to retard the initial and final setting times of high strength
concrete especially at higher levels of replacement [30]. Table 4
[26] ASTM C403
Ordinary OPA Fine OPA
Final Initial Final Initial Final
(hrs:min) (hrs:min) (hrs:min) (hrs:min) (hrs:min)
3:15 4:10 6:30 – –
3:10 4:40 7:30 4:25 6:35
3:10 5:00 8:30 4:35 7:00
3:20 5:50 10:30 4:50 7:25
3:40 6:50 12:20 5:10 7:40
4:10 – – – –
 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138 133

shows the initial and final setting times of concretes incorporating
different replacement levels of OPA having different particle sizes.
5. Properties of hardened concrete/mortar containing OPA
5.1. Compressive strength
Numerous studies have taken the task of studying the compres-
sive strength of concretes and mortars incorporating OPA as a con-
stituent. Table 5 lists a number of studies that investigated the
effect of OPA on compressive strength of concrete, high-strength
concrete, mortar, aerated concrete and foamed concrete. As men-
tioned earlier, a number of researchers depended on compressive
strength in assessing the pozzolanic reactivity of concrete, mortar
and paste mixes incorporating OPA with different fineness. Fine-
ness of the OPA particles affected the compressive strength. Com-
pressive strengths tended to decrease with the increase of OPA’s
replacement level. Tay [22] and Tay and Show [36] studied the
compressive strengths of concrete mixes with a mix ratio of
(1:2:4), a fixed water/cement ratio of 0.6 and containing 10%,
20%, 30%, 40% and 50% unground OPA as a cement replacement.
Both studies conducted the compressive test according to BS
1881. The authors observed that compressive strength decreases
with OPA replacement level. In addition, the reduction in compres-
sive strength was less observed at the age of 1 year in comparison
to the age of 28 days. Hence, the authors recommended a replace-
ment of cement by OPA at 10% because it would not significantly
affect the long term concrete strength (1% reduction of compres-
sive strength in comparison to the control mix), though the ash
does contribute to the lower rate of hydration at the cement’s ear-
lier age based on the compressive strength development [36].
When OPA’s fineness is increased (median particle size of
8.0 lm), a mix having a 20% level of replacement of cement by fine
OPA showed a slightly higher compressive strength than that of the
control concrete at the age of 90 days [40]. The compression test
was conducted on cylinders having a 100 mm diameter and a
height of 200 mm. The study reasoned this increase to the pozzo-
lanic reaction and the filler effect that fine OPA possessed. When
OPA’s fineness was increased further more (7.4 lm), a mix with a
30% replacement level of cement by fine OPA exhibited a 99% com-
pressive strength of the OPC concrete at the age of 90 days [26].
When investigating the compressive strength of concrete mixes
designed according to the British concrete mix design (DOE
method), using a constant water/binder ratio of 0.4 and replacing
the cement up to 50% with raw and sieved through a 45 lm sieve
OPA, Awal and Nguong [42] observed that the finer OPA obtained
double the strength of the raw OPA. The Authors used cylinder
samples of a 100 mm diameter and a 200 mm height. The Authors
concluded that the higher strength development in concrete with
fine OPA as a cement replacement was due to its higher surface
area of the particles affecting the pozzolanic activity and hence
the strength. Concrete mixes incorporating 10%, 20% and 30%
cement replacements by fine OPA (2% by weight retained on a
45 lm sieve) using different water/binder ratios (0.5, 0.55 and
0.6) were studied by Sata et al. [43]. The samples in this study were
prepared and tested according to ASTM C39. The authors con-
cluded that concrete mixes with a 10% cement replacement of fine
OPA yielded higher compressive strengths than their correspond-
ing mixes at all water/binder ratios after 14 days of curing. Hence,
a 10% replacement level was concluded to be the optimum replace-
ment. Ground OPA was also found useful to enhance the strength
improvement of recycled aggregate concretes [44]. The samples
were prepared and tested according to ASTM C39. The study
showed that the concrete mix containing 20% cement replacement
of fine OPA (10.7 lm), although lower by 7% than the control mix,
obtained higher compressive strengths than the mix without fine
OPA at all testing ages. Fine OPA contributed to the higher com-
pressive strength via the pozzolanic reaction and the packing effect
provided by the small particles of the fine OPA.
In high strength concrete, Sata et al. [25] showed that cylindri-
cal samples of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm in height containing
fine OPA at a replacement level of 20% exhibited higher compres-
sive strengths at 28 days of age than both the control samples
and samples containing 5% condensed silica fume. Tangchirapat
et al. [24], using cylindrical samples of 100 mm diameter and
200 mm height, found that a 30% replacement of cement by fine
OPA would yield a higher compressive strength than that of the
control mix. This is due to OPA’s high content of silica oxide
(SiO2) and its high fineness which helped to increase the reaction
between the silica oxide and the calcium hydroxide producing
additional amounts of calcium silicate hydrates causing the com-
pressive strength to increase [39]. When OPA with a particle size
of 10 lm is utilised in high strength concrete at a replacement
level of 20%, it showed higher compressive strength than that of
the control mix. Hussin et al. [38] reasoned this to the fact that fine
pozzolans are highly reactive in their nature. However, ultrafine
OPA having a median particle size of 2 lm and an LOI of 2.53%
was found to be a more efficient pozzolanic mineral admixture
when used as a cement replacement. The samples were tested
according to BSEN 12390-3 using 100 mm cubes. High strength

Table 5
Studies investigated the effect of OPA’s incorporation as cement replacement on the compressive strength and the recommended replacement levels.

Refs. Particle size tested (lm) Replacement levels of Tested median Standard Recommended particle
OPA investigated size/replacement level
[22,36] Passing through a 150 lm sieve 10–50% by weight of cement Concrete BS 1881 10%
[25] 10.0 10–30% by weight of cement High-strength concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 20%
[45] 1% retained on 45 lm sieve 10–50% by weight of cement Aerated concrete BS1881:116 (70.6 mm3) cubes 10–30%
[29] 183.0, 15.9 and 7.4 10–40% by weight of cement Concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 7.4 lm–20%
[39] 10.1 lm 10–30% by weight of cement High-strength concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 20%
[40] 10.2 lm 20%, 40% and 55% by weight of cement Concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 20%
[26] 183.0, 15.9 and 7.4 10–40% by weight of cement Concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 15.9 lm–10%
7.4 lm–20%
[34] 1–3% retained on 45 lm sieve 20% and 40% by weight of cement Mortar ASTM C39 20%
[37] 55.0, 20.0 and 7.4 lm 20% and 40% by weight of cement Mortar ASTM C109 (50 mm3) cubes 7.4 lm–20%
[24] 10.1 lm 10–30% by weight of cement High-strength concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 20%
[43] 9.2 lm 10–30% by weight of cement Concrete ASTM C39 10%
[32] 1% retained on 45 lm sieve 20% by weight of cement Aerated concrete BS 1881:116 20%
[49] 19.9 and 10.1 10–30% by weight of cement Concrete 100  200 mm cylinders 19.9 lm–20%
10.1 lm–30%
[30] 2.06 lm 20%, 40% 60% by weight of cement High-strength concrete BSEN 12390-3 40%
[50] 13 lm 10–40% by weight of cement Mortar ASTM C109 10–20%
[47] Passing through a 600 lm sieve 10% and 20% by weight of sand Foamed concrete BSEN 12390-3 10–20%
134 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138
concrete samples with ultrafine OPA replacing 60% of the cement
exhibited a higher compressive strength than the control mix at
the age of 28 days [30].
Aerated concrete also exhibited the same trend as normal con-
crete when increasing the amount of OPA used as cement replace-
ment. The compressive strength of aerated concrete mixes
decreased with the increase in replacement levels [45]. On the
other hand, OPA can still be used to produce aerated concrete at
replacement levels ranging from 10% to 35%. Abdullah et al. [46]
showed that OPA mixes utilising a 20% replacement level of
cement by OPA obtained higher compressive strengths than that
of plain aerated concrete mixes especially when there was contin-
uous curing water. Both studies mentioned above used 70.6 mm
cubes that were tested according to BS 1881:116. In foamed con-
crete, OPA passing through a 600 lm sieve was used as a sand
replacement at 10% and 20%. Cubical samples of 100 mm3 tested
according to BSEN 12390-3 containing OPA as cement replacement
were found to have a higher compressive strength than the control
mix due to the increased density of the mix [47].
In mortar, Rukzon and Chnidaprasirt [37] used a blend of fly ash
and OPA (1:3) and replaced cement at a replacement level of 40%.
The samples used were 50 mm3 cubes and they were tested for the
compression test according to ASTM C109. It was found that the
10% and 20% replacement mixes had a higher compressive strength
than that of the control mortar at all ages. This is due to the filler
effect that both fly ash and OPA possess due to their high fineness.
However, when the level of replacement increases, the 50 mm3
samples tested according to ASTM C109 suffered a drop in com-
pressive strength at an early age due to the slow pozzolanic reac-
tion. Jaturapitakkul et al. [48] found that a replacement level of
ground OPA could yield a higher compressive strength than that
of a plain mortar. This was due to the fact that higher fineness
OPA will increase the pozzolanic reaction. In addition, the fine
OPA particles were well arranged within the mortar matrix by that
contributing to the increased compressive strength due to the filler
effect.
In conclusion, the fineness of OPA has a significant effect on the
compressive strength of concrete, high strength concrete, mortar
and aerated concrete. High fineness OPA produces specimens with
compressive strengths higher than that of their corresponding con-
trol specimens. In addition, most of the studies recommended an
optimum replacement level of 10–30% of cement by fine OPA to
achieve strengths higher than the control mix. Table 5 lists a sum-
mary of the studies investigating the effect of cement replacement
with OPA on the compressive strength.
5.2. Tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
The incorporation of ground OPA as a cement replacement
improved the splitting tensile strength of high strength concrete.
High strength concrete mixes with a water/binder ratio of 0.28,
slump readings between 175 and 225 mm and fine OPA replace-
ment levels of 10%, 20% and 30% of cement were investigated for
their tensile splitting strength [39]. The fine OPA had a median par-
ticle size of 10.1 lm mixes with 10% and 20% fine OPA replacement
levels showed tensile splitting strengths higher than that of the
control mix at the age of 90 days. The increase in tensile strength
was reasoned to the high fineness of the OPA and its pozzolanic
reaction with cement. On the other hand, tensile strengths of con-
crete incorporating high volumes of OPA as cement replacement
(up to 50%) were found to be lower than those of the control con-
crete [42]. After low strength development of tensile strength at
early ages, an upward tendency of strength gain was exhibited at
later ages [41]. Foamed concrete samples utilising OPA as a sand
replacement at 10% and 20% by weight of sand exhibited higher
splitting tensile strengths than 100% cement foamed concrete sam-
ples at the age of 90 days [47].
High strength concrete mixes with a water/binder ratio of 0.28,
a constant cementing materials amount of 560 kg/m3, a slump
reading between 185 and 210 mm and replacement levels of fine
OPA (10.1 lm) at 10%, 20% and 30% by weight of cement were
investigated for their modulus of elasticity [25,39]. Specimens with
a 20% replacement level showed similar modulus of elasticity read-
ings to that of the control mix (44.6 GPa). Tanchirapat and Jatura-
pitakkul [49] studied concrete mixes containing 10%, 20% and 30%
replacement levels of cement by coarse OPA (19.9 lm) and ground
OPA (10.1 lm). The modulus of elasticity readings for concrete
mixes with 10% and 20% ground OPA replacement levels were
higher than that of the control mix. Coarse OPA concrete mixes
obtained lower readings. However, they attributed this to the fact
that modulus of elasticity is related to the aggregate strength
rather than the paste’s strength. Aerated concrete with a 20%
replacement level of cement by fine OPA (1% retained on a
45 lm sieve) exhibited higher modulus of elasticity values than
that of the control aerated concrete due to the pozzolanic reaction
producing extra calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) making the
internal structure of the OPA aerated concrete stiffer [32]. Modulus
of elasticity values for recycled aggregate concrete were lower than
those of the control concrete mixes. Tanchirapat et al. [44] noted
that the use of ground OPA as cement replacement did not have
a significant effect on the modulus of elasticity of recycled aggre-
gate concrete in comparison with the recycled aggregate concrete
without OPA.
In conclusion, ground OPA did not have a significant effect on
the tensile splitting strength and the modulus of elasticity of con-
crete. Replacement levels of 10–20% showed tensile splitting
strengths and modulus of elasticity readings higher than that of
the control mix. On the other hand, concrete using coarse OPA as
cement replacement showed tensile splitting strengths and modu-
lus of elasticity readings lower than that of the control mix.
5.3. Flexural strength
Limited literature was found with concern to the flexural
strength of concrete mixes utilising OPA. Eldegal [51] stated that
the flexural strength of high strength concrete mixes containing
OPA were lower than those of the control mix. However, a 30%
replacement level of cement by OPA exhibited a flexural strength
near to that of the control mix. In the case of foamed concrete,
Lim et al. [47] showed that the incorporation of OPA sieved
through a 600 lm sieve as a sand replacement exhibited higher
flexural strengths in comparison to the control mix; where a 10%
replacement showed the highest flexural strength. Altwair et al.
[35] tested the flexural performance of engineered cementitious
composites (ECCs) containing different amounts of ground OPA.
These ECCs are designed to possess improved ductility and tough-
ness. Coarse aggregates are eliminated from their mixture design,
hence, using higher cement contents than conventional concrete.
The 4 point bending test was used to assess flexural performance
of the ECC mixes. These mixes had different water/binder ratios
of 0.33, 0.36 and 0.38 and varying added amounts of treated OPA
at 0, 0.4, 0.8 and 1.2 from the weight of cement. The OPA used in
this study was sieved through a 300 lm sieve, ground then heated
at 450 °C for 1.5 h. The ECC mix with a 0.4 treated OPA content and
having a water/binder ratio of 0.36 exhibited the highest flexural
strength at 90 days of age. In addition, for all ECC mixes with
OPA content, a decrease in flexural strength was exhibited with
the increase in water content. Furthermore, the influence of higher
water/binder ratio in reducing the flexural strength was less for the
ECC mixes containing OPA in comparison to ECC mixes without
OPA. ECC mixes with an OPA to cement ratio of 0.4 and 0.8 and
 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138
at a water/binder ratio of 0.33 exhibited higher flexural strengths
than the control ECC mix at the age of 90 days. However, at all test-
ing ages (3, 28 and 90 days), ECC mixes incorporating OPA at
water/binder ratio of 0.38 showed higher flexural strengths than
the control ECC mix.
5.4. Drying shrinkage
The effect of OPA application in concrete on the drying shrink-
age performance was examined by a number of researchers. Using
the British standards in assessing the drying shrinkage, concretes
incorporating unground OPA sieved through a 150 lm sieve exhib-
ited slightly higher drying shrinkage readings in comparison with
the control mix [22]. An increase in drying shrinkage was observed
with increasing OPA replacement levels. Awal and Nguong [42]
investigated the drying shrinkage of concrete specimens having a
50% replacement of cement by OPA sieved through a 45 lm sieve.
After an initial curing of 7 days in water then exposed to drying
shrinkage, cylindrical specimens were used. A detachable mechan-
ical strain gauge with a strain length of 150 mm was used to mea-
sure the shrinkage strains on 4 vertical straight gauge lines spaced
uniformly around the side-line of the specimen. The average tem-
perature recorded in the laboratory was 27 ± 2 °C and relative
humidity RH was 80 ± 5%. Higher drying shrinkage of OPA con-
cretes were observed where at the same age a 21% increase in dry-
ing shrinkage was observed by the 50% OPA concrete in
comparison with the control mix. The increase in drying shrinkage
was attributed to the difference in the rate of moisture loss due to
the different porosity and pore size distribution.
Concrete mixes with 10%, 20% and 30% of coarse (19.9 lm) and
fine (10.1 lm) OPA replacement levels have been studied for their
drying shrinkage [49]. Prismatic specimens having a cross section
of 75  75 mm2 and a length of 285 mm were used to determine
the drying shrinkage. After 24 h, the specimens were removed
from the moulds and cured in water for 48 h. At 3 days of age,
the specimens were taken out from the water, wiped with a damp
cloth and then immediately the shrinkage was measured; this is
considered as the initial specimen length. Specimens were placed
in an air storage cabinet with a controlled temperature of
23 ± 2 °C and a relative humidity RH of 50 ± 5% as specified by
ASTM C596. Concrete mixes with a 10–30% replacement of cement
by fine OPA (median particle size of 10.1 lm) showed lower drying
shrinkage values than those of the OPC control mix. The 30%
replacement was shown to be the most effective. The authors
attributed this enhancement to the pozzolanic reaction and the
packing effect of the fine OPA. These effects contributed in the
transformation of large pores into finer pores. This pore refinement
Table 6
Studies investigated the effect of OPA incorporation on drying shrinkage.
Refs. OPA particle Replacement level
size (lm) investigated
[22] 100% passing through 10–50% by weight of
150 lm sieve cement
[24] 10.1 lm 10–30% by weight of
cement
[42] 100% passing through 50% by weight of cement
45 lm sieve
[49] 19.9 and 10.1 lm 10–30% by weight of
cement
[25,32] 99% passing through 20% by weight of cement
45 lm sieve
135
decreased the loss of moisture at the stated RH value; hence,
reducing the drying shrinkage of fine OPA concretes. Using ASTM
C596 in determining the drying shrinkage, the same results were
observed with high strength concretes containing fine OPA
replacements of 30% [24]. Using the method stated by RILEM
AAC 5.1, OPA aerated concrete mixes tested showed lower drying
shrinkage values in comparison with plain aerated concrete [32].
This is attributed to the filler effect and the high reactivity of fine
OPA resulting in a more compact matrix.
In conclusion, 10–30% replacements of cement by fine OPA
decreases the drying shrinkage and obtains drying shrinkage read-
ings lower than that of the corresponding control mix. Table 6 lists
the studies that investigated the effect of OPA incorporation on the
drying shrinkage of concrete.
5.5. Heat evolution
Heat evolution in terms of temperature rise of fresh concrete
with and without OPA replacement has been investigated. The
use of 30% of fine OPA exhibited the lowest peak temperature rise
(40 °C) resulting in a 15% reduction of heat in comparison with the
control mix [25,32,52]. Replacing cement with fine OPA resulted in
delaying the time for the temperature to reach its peak [43].
Chandara et al. [53] studied the heat of hydration of blended
cement pastes containing ground OPA (22.52 lm) and treated
OPA (22.53 lm) at replacement levels of 10–40% by weight of
cement. Ground OPA was obtained by grinding the OPA passing
through a 300 lm sieve by ball mill at speed of 60 rpm and for
45 min. The treated OPA was obtained by heating up the ground
OPA for 1 h at 500 °C. A fixed water/binder ratio of 0.35 and a
super-plasticiser (a high range water reducer) at a dosage range
of 0–0.2% by weight of binder were used in the preparation of
the pastes. The amount of unburned carbon was determined by
using a Total Carbon Analyser. The mineral phase composition of
both ground and treated OPA such as crystalline and glassy phase
were determined using semi-quantitative X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
analysis internal standard. XRD test results showed an increase
in glassy phases exhibited by the treated OPA in comparison with
ground OPA. Results also showed that pastes containing treated
OPA as cement replacement exhibited higher heat evolution than
the control paste. The authors attributed this to the pozzolanic
effect generating the heat output by pozzolanic reaction between
glassy phases of SiO2 in the treated OPA with Ca(OH)2 released
by cement hydration. On the other hand, ground OPA showed
lower heat evolution than that of the control paste leading to the
conclusion that ground OPA has a lower pozzolanic activity
than treated OPA due to the lower content of glassy phases.
Median Effect Recommended replacement
Concrete Drying shrinkage increased with OPA 10% replacement slightly increased
replacement level the shrinkage strain but it does not
adversely affect the change in volume
of concrete
High-strength Decrease in drying shrinkage with 30% showed lower drying shrinkage
concrete increase in OPA level strain than the control mix
Concrete OPA concrete samples showed higher –
drying shrinkage than the control mix
Concrete Coarse OPA up to 30% exhibited 10–30% fine OPA exhibited lower
similar shrinkage to that of the drying shrinkage than the control mix
control mix
Aerated OPA aerated concrete exhibited less 20%
concrete drying shrinkage strains than the
control mix
136 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138
Furthermore, Chandara et al. [53] showed that the addition of
super-plasticiser did not affect the heat evolution of such pastes.
6. Durability properties of concrete/mortar containing OPA
6.1. Permeability, absorption and porosity
Water absorption of concrete mixes with unground OPA (sieved
through a 150 lm sieve) was tested for its water absorption using
the procedure specified in BS 1881 [22]. Water absorption
increases with OPA replacements. At the age of 28 days, water
absorption for the control mix was 6.2% where the mix with a
50% OPA replacement level exhibited obtained a higher water
absorption reading of 7.96%. Using the same sieved through a
150 lm sieve OPA, water absorption of concrete mixes with
replacement levels up to 50% were tested using the procedure
described by BS 1881 to the age of 1 year [36]. Water absorptions
increased with the increase in OPA replacement levels. This was
attributed to the fact that the higher ash content in concrete would
produce a more porous concrete. In contrast, using the procedure
specified by ASTM C642, high strength and high workability con-
cretes incorporating a 10% replacement level exhibited lower
water absorption coefficients than that of the control mix [54]. This
is attributed to the fine particle size of fine OPA; hence, modifying
the pore structure and reducing the concrete’s porosity. The
increase in ash content would lead to the increase in water absorp-
tion due to the production of a more porous matrix. Fine OPA con-
cretes exhibited lower permeability than those of OPC concrete.
Water permeability of high strength concrete mixes incorporat-
ing 20%, 40% and 55% of fine OPA (8.0 lm) replacement levels were
studied using the steady flow method [40]. At 28 days of age, mixes
with 20% and 40% OPA replacements exhibited lower water perme-
ability readings than that of the control mix. At 90 days of age,
mixes with OPA replacements exhibited even lower water perme-
ability readings than their 28 day readings. At both ages, 20% and
40% OPA concrete mixes exhibited lower permeability readings
than the control mix even though having higher water/binder
ratios. The study recommended a 20% OPA replacement level
because it resulted in a more impervious concrete. The authors rea-
soned this to the faster pozzolanic reaction of the fine OPA and also
to the packing effect producing a denser concrete. Tangchirapat
et al. [24] stated that even when a 30% replacement level was used,
lower permeability values were gained in comparison to the con-
trol mix. Tangchirapat and Jaturapitakkul [49] examined both
coarse and fine OPA when incorporated as cement replacements
in concrete by using the steady flow method. They found that
coarse OPA concretes exhibited higher permeability values than
the control mix, but much lower values at a later age. This was
attributed to the higher water demand of coarse OPA concrete
mixes to maintain the same workability as the control mix. Fine
OPA concrete mixes exhibited lower permeability values. The same
findings were illustrated by Tanchirapat et al. [44] when using fine
OPA at 20% in recycled aggregate concrete. Megat Johari et al. [30]
studied the effect of replacing cement at levels of 0%, 20%, 40% and
60% by treated ultrafine OPA having a median particle size of
2.06 lm. The study investigated the porosity, initial absorption,
gas permeability and water permeability of high strength concrete
incorporating ultrafine OPA at the ages of 1, 3, 7 and 28 days.
Porosity results showed that the incorporation of ultrafine OPA
reduced the porosity of high strength concrete. The higher content
of fine OPA, the greater the reduction in porosity with longer peri-
ods of water curing. In the case of initial surface absorption test
(ISAT), result showed a similar trend to that of porosity. ISAT read-
ings decreased with an increase ultrafine OPA content. The authors
attributed the reduction in porosity and ISAT readings to the high
reactive nature of the ultrafine OPA and its packing effect. In the
case of gas permeability, ultrafine OPA mixes exhibited consistent
reductions in their gas permeability coefficients. At the age of
28 days, the mix with a 60% content of ultrafine OPA exhibited a
reduced gas permeability coefficient by 76% in comparison to the
control mix. In the case of water permeability, the incorporation
of ultrafine OPA as a cement replacement significantly reduces
the water permeability coefficient of high strength especially at a
longer curing age. Results show that after 3 days of age, ultrafine
OPA lowered the coefficient of water permeability in spite of the
seeming trend of higher water permeability coefficients at higher
OPA content which could be attributed to the dilution effect. At
28 days of age, a 33% reduction in the coefficient of water perme-
ability for the mix with 60% ultrafine OPA content in comparison
to the control mix.
6.2. Carbonation
Rukzon and Chindaprasirt [55] investigated the carbonation of
blended OPA mortars in an indoor environment. Three grades of
OPA were used in this study coarse OPA (55.0 lm), medium OPA
(20.0 lm) and fine OPA (7.2 lm). Cement was replaced by OPA at
replacement levels of 20% and 40% by weight of cement. The
sand/binder ratio used was 2.75 and a water/binder ratio of 0.5.
A type (F) super-plasticiser was used for the sake of increasing
the workability of the mortars and to maintain a similar flow of
110 ± 5%mm. The carbonation of the mortars was determined
using 40  40  160 mm mortar bars according to the procedure
stated by RILEM CPC18. All specimens were moisture cured in a
chamber at a temperature of 23 ± 2 °C. At the age of 28 days, the
specimens were placed in the accelerated carbonation with 5%
CO2, RH of 50% and a temperature of 23 ± 2 °C. Carbonation was
tested after the carbonation periods of 3, 7, 14, 28 and 60 days.
The mortar bars were broken at one end and a solution of phenol-
phthalein was sprayed on to the fresh surface to identify the car-
bonation depth. The average carbonation depth was defined
using digital photography of the identified surface. Results show
that an increase in carbonation was exhibited by the OPA mortars
in comparison to the control mortar. However, fine OPA mortars
exhibited lower carbonation depths than the medium and coarse
OPA mortars. In addition, the authors noticed a reduction in the
average pore size in the fine OPA paste in comparison to coarser
OPA and OPC mortar specimens. The reduction of super-plasticiser
dosage and average pore size reduced the carbonation depth in the
mortar. Finer OPA incorporation resulted in an increase in hydra-
tion when compared to the use of coarser OPA. This increase
resulted in an increase in the consumption of Ca(OH)2, hence,
increasing the depth of carbonation exhibited by the mortar. The
authors concluded that carbonation of OPA mortars were clearly
affected by the fineness of the OPA particles with finer OPA exhib-
iting lower carbonation depths in comparison with coarser OPA
due to the better dispersion and filler effect of the fine OPA despite
the higher pozzolanic activity. This made the fine OPA mortar den-
ser and hence, better able in resisting the CO2 ingression.
6.3. Chloride penetration and corrosion resistance
Chindaprasirt et al. [54] investigated the rapid chloride penetra-
tion and corrosion resistance of high-strength and high workability
concrete incorporating 10%, 20% and 30% replacement levels of
20.0 lm OPA. All concrete mixes had a constant cementitious con-
tent of 600 kg/m3, a constant water/binder ratio of 0.3 and a super-
plasticiser dosage maintaining a high workability ranging from 200
to 250 mm. Cylindrical specimens with dimensions of
100  200 mm were prepared in accordance to ASTM C39 for the
determination of rapid chloride penetration. After the cylinders
 M.Z. Al-mulali et al. / Cement & Concrete Composites 55 (2015) 129–138
were water cured until the ages of 6, 27 and 89 days of age, they
were sliced to 50 mm thick slices then had their perimeter coated
with epoxy. The epoxy coated slices were conditioned and tested at
the ages of 7, 28 and 90 days according to the method specified in
ASTM C1202. The accelerated corrosion test was conducted on
cylindrical specimens of 100  200 mm with embedded steel bars
of 12 mm diameter and a length of 200 mm. The steel bars were
secured so that they protruded from the top surface of the cylinder
by 44 mm thus providing sufficient concrete cover at the bottom
and sides. The test was conducted at the ages of 7, 28 and 90 days
by subjecting the specimens to an impressed voltage of 12 V cd.
The concrete condition was visually monitored at 4 h intervals
and the time of first concrete cracking was recorded. Results for
the rapid chloride penetration test show that the charge pass of
OPA concrete specimens continuously decrease with the increase
in OPA replacement levels up to 30%. Such results indicate that
chloride penetration is reduced by partially replacing cement by
OPA. The addition of higher fineness OPA causes the segmentation
of large pores and increases nucleation sites for precipitation of
pozzolanic reaction products in the cement paste. The corrosion
results show that the time for initial cracking of concrete speci-
mens was increased with the increase in OPA content. The results
indicated that a 30% OPA concrete was found to be more effective
in increasing the time of first concrete cracking in comparison to
the 10% and 20% OPA content concretes. The authors attributed
this to the increased pozzolanic reaction and reduced Ca(OH)2 of
the 30% OPA concrete specimens. Although a 30% replacement
was more effective in decreasing the chloride penetration and
increased the corrosion resistance, the authors recommended a
20% replacement of cement by OPA. This was due to the increased
amount of super-plasticiser dosage needed to obtain the required
workability making the mix more expensive to produce.
High strength concretes with ultrafine OPA (2.06 lm) contents
of 20%, 40% and 60% were tested for their corrosion resistance
[30]. Rapid chloride permeability test was used to assess the corro-
sion resistance. Results show, in comparison to the control mix, the
total charge passed (TCP) were significantly reduced in the case of
ultrafine OPA high strength concrete specimens. At 28 days of age,
the authors noticed a clear and consistent trend that TCP values
reduced with the increases ultrafine OPA content. Specimens with
a 60% ultrafine OPA content showed a reduction in TCP values of
84% in comparison with the control specimens.
6.4. Sulphate resistance
The expansion and compressive strength loss of concrete bars
containing OPA with varying particle size and different levels of
replacements was evaluated by Jaturapitakkul et al. [29]. Concrete
bars containing OPA were exposed to 5% MgSO4 solution for
24 months. It was found that higher the fineness of OPA used
reduced the expansion level of the concrete bars. The use of fine
OPA in replacing cement not only decreased the calcium hydroxide
content of hydrated cement, but also assists as a filler leading to
the reduction of voids between the aggregates and hydration prod-
ucts, leading to a denser concrete. The same findings were obtained
when testing for the loss in compressive strength. A 20% replace-
ment level of cement by fine OPA would have no adverse effect
on the expansion and loss in compressive strength of concrete bars
in a 5% MgSO4 solution [24,26]. Hussin et al. [38] stated that mortar
bars containing 10 lm OPA exhibited lower expansion and loss in
compressive strength than both the control mix and mortar bars
with 45 lm OPA when immersed in a 10% Na2SO4 solution for
3 months. This was attributed to the high reactivity of fine OPA
causing a lesser amount of calcium hydroxides and more C–H–S
gel causing the densification of the matrix making it more resistant
to the sulphate attack. Recycled aggregate concretes incorporating
137
fine OPA as cement replacement exhibited lower expansion in
comparison to the control and recycled aggregate concrete mixes
when immersed in a 5% Na2SO4 solution [44]. This is reasoned to
the fact that when cement is replaced, the amount of both Ca(OH)2
and C3A are reduced in the hardened concrete; thus, reducing gyp-
sum formation and ettringite re-crystallisation. Furthermore, OPA
with high fineness is also responsible for the pozzolanic reaction
and enhanced the pore structure, resulting in a highly imperme-
able matrix.
6.5. Alkali–silica reaction
Limited studies have been conducted on the effect of OPA incor-
poration on the expansion due to the alkali–silica reaction (ASR).
Awal and Hussin [23] showed that OPA, similar to fly ash, reduced
the expansion due to the ASR. Furthermore, the more reduction
was exhibited by specimens having a higher level of replacement
of cement by OPA. This was attributed to the pozzolanic reaction
between the high amounts of silica with the alkalis leaving fewer
alkalis to react with the aggregate.
7. Conclusions
This study reviewed the studies which incorporated OPA as
cement or sand replacement in the production of concrete, mortar
and cement pastes. These studies studied the effects of OPA
replacement as cement or sand replacement at different levels of
replacement. In addition, the studies used OPA with different fine-
ness to investigate the effect of fineness on its pozzolanic reactiv-
ity. The studies showed that coarse OPA is a weak pozzolanic
material; hence, it needs to be treated in order to enhance its phys-
ical and chemical characteristics. These treatments include grind-
ing to increase the fineness of OPA and heat treatment to reduce
its carbon content. Results show, that increasing the fineness of
OPA increased its pozzolanic reactivity and as a result enabling it
to replace cement at levels higher than 20%. Concrete mixes con-
taining fine OPA as cement replacement showed superior
strengths, less drying shrinkage, less water permeability, less
water absorption and more resistance to sulphate attack than their
correspondent control mixes. Mortar mixes with 20% replacement
of cement by fine OPA exhibited higher compressive strengths and
less carbonation ingress depth than the 100% cement mortar. In
addition, heat treated ultrafine OPA having a median particle size
of 2 lm, when used as a cement replacement in high strength con-
crete, produced samples exhibiting superior engineering and trans-
port properties than the control mix even at a replacement level of
60%. Foamed concrete samples with OPA (sieved through a 600 lm
sieve) replacing sand at levels of 10% and 20% exhibited higher
compressive, tensile splitting and flexural strengths than 100%
cement foamed concrete samples.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of
Universiti Sains Malaysia under USM RUI Grant (Ref. No. 1001/
PPBGN/811234).
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