DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND PLANNING (DST 2103)

BACHELOR OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

LECTURE NOTES

LECTURE 2

THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Over the past few years, the policy making process has improved significantly. Improvements
focused on developing the policy process through adoption of new regulations and acts that specify
better policy making procedures, and through developing policy capacities.

In this lecture, we shall look at the policy environments specifically looking at factors for policy
development, Actors in the policy development, Factors for policy failure in LDCs among others.

2.1. DEFINITION OF POLICY

The Methodology for Policy Analysis and Coordination defines policy as “course of action or
inaction chosen by the Government to address a given problem or interrelated set of problems, or the
way in which the courses of action for achieving the appropriate goals are determined”. The term
policy can also be defined as “deliberate action of Government that in some way alters or influences
the society or economy outside the government. It includes, but it is not limited to, taxation,
regulation, expenditures, information, statements, legal requirements, and legal prohibitions”

It would be useful to distinguish between the terms “policy” and “strategy”. The term “strategy”
usually refers to documents with broad objectives that cut across a number of ministries and have at
least a medium-term horizon. In this sense, a strategy cannot be, in and of itself, directly
implemented. Rather, in order for its goals to be achieved, a strategy requires a number of policies
and pieces of legislation to be developed and passed. Thus, an economic development strategy would
have a time horizon of, say, five to ten years, and would require that a large number of ministries
develop policies and legislation that, taken together, would promote the objectives of the strategy.

Policies constitute the output of the policy system and they are almost always embodied in legal acts.
Theoretically, it is possible to distinguish between a policy and a legal draft, and between activities
related to policy development and those related to legal drafting. Simply put, the policy is the content,
or substance, and the legal draft is the embodiment of this substance in a legal language and format.
Policy development is the process of deciding what should be achieved, what should be done to
achieve it, how to do it efficiently and economically, who should do it, etc. For example, following
a political decision to undertake measures to reduce car accidents, policy development would involve
analysis of the causes of accidents, their distribution among different sub-populations and on
different roads, the rules and policies already in place, the experience of other governments, etc. A
number of options for reducing accidents would then be developed – for example, lower speed limits,
better enforcement of existing limits, higher age requirement for first license, and education and
information campaigns. It would then be necessary to assess the costs and benefits of each of the
options and to present the options, recommendations, and supporting analysis to the government for
its decision. All of these steps are part of policy development. Once there is a decision on the
option(s) to follow, the legal drafting can begin, putting the selected option or options into language
that fits the legal tradition, the constitution, etc.

However, in the real world, the distinction is much more blurred, because legal considerations
themselves are often an important aspect of substance. For example, options that require enforcement
of speed limits must specify how and by whom this will be done. This specification has legal
implications, some of which cannot be known until the draft has actually been prepared and lawyers
have taken a good look at the legality of various approaches, such as their implications in terms of
fundamental freedoms. Moreover, the legal act introducing a new policy may clash with other legal
acts, and so the process of legal drafting may require some reassessment of policy decisions and
options.

In practice, therefore, it is very important to use the methods and skills of both policy analysis and
legal drafting when preparing items for government decisions. True, it is normally useful, and 9
reduces waste of effort, to start first with some policy development rather than rushing into drafting
before the main objectives and principles of the policy have been clarified. However, it is not really
necessary and often not useful at all, to separate these activities completely into strictly sequential
steps. Co-operation with legal experts in the early stages of policy development may be a very
efficient way to avoid wasting time looking at options that clash with legal considerations.

2.2. THE POLICY PROCESS

Policy is produced by the policy process, which is normally conceptualised as a cycle. The public
policy process is normally initiated by a political decision (usually in the form of general declaration
of policy objectives), followed by detailed policy development that produces options for more
specific political decisions on the policy instrument to be enacted (passed). Once enacted, the
instrument is implemented and subsequently assessed, which in turn may lead to further policy
development (and possibly amendments to the instrument) or even to reconsideration and
modification of the initial political decision.

The need for new policies or for changes in the existing policies may come from various sources.
Whatever the source, it is important to ensure that appropriate policy process is organised in
ministries and other administration bodies to enable development of policies following the correct
principles.

Public policy development is generally a key function of government Policies define what the
government ministries, departments and agencies do and how they do it. However, it should also be
noted that policies and procedures provide the framework within which organizations operate.
Therefore, having clear policies offers clarity and helps governments and organizations operate more
effectively. It means there will be fewer misunderstandings or debates about what to do in particular
situations.
For those policies which will affect ratepayers, it is good practice for both staff and the community
to be involved in the development of policies through consultation. However, the final decision about
the content and how it works in practice is for those in authority to decide.

Developing and implementing policy is a process of continuous improvement; there is never a

moment when a government stops developing and reviewing policies. Therefore, the broad process
outlined below has been adapted from a series of existing templates and guidelines It is designed to
be readily adapted to suit the policy development processes of all types of Policies and adopted into
Business Management Systems if desired. It is by no means an exhaustive list, nor is it intended to
prescribe the techniques that should be employed, since the details of the process should suit the
issue being addressed, the stakeholders affected and the overall policy objectives.

2.3. THE POLICY CYCLE:

The ‘policy cycle’ is an idealised process that explains how policy should be drafted, implemented,
and assessed. It does not have to be strictly followed, but many Governments aim to complete
policies using the policy cycle as an optimal model. Generally speaking, the policy cycle is comprised
of six steps, as outlined in diagram

Figure: The Policy Cycle

2.3.1. Agenda Setting

Identification of new or existing issues that may require Government action. The first question to ask
in the policy process is whether the issue requires a new policy or is better addressed through other
means. If a new policy is required, a synopsis – or, in the case of significant issues, a discussion
paper – should be prepared that identifies:

• the need for the policy, the issues being addressed and the intended policy objectives;
• major benefits, costs and risks involved;
• consistency with related policies and whole-of-government policies;
• the target audience and key stakeholders;
• the authority required to formally initiate the policy development process and approve the
final document (e.g. CEO and Minister, Head of Department etc);
• the timetable for the policy process including the documents to be produced and other key
deliverables;
• responsibility for leading the policy development process and people to be involved in its
development, such as the development of a policy team;
• consultation arrangements to be adopted at various stages in the policy development process
– identifying how key stakeholders, such as senior management, Councillors and the
community, will be involved. For further information on consultation, see Stage 2 (a) below;
• resources required for policy analysis and consultation within the desired timeframe;
• implementation issues which will need to be addressed.

A briefing note outlining the need for the proposed policy should be presented to the relevant
authorities for resolution to proceed with the development of the policy.

2.3.2. Policy Formulation

To determine which policy will achieve a given set of goals, it is important to start with clarifying
Policy issues and options. Work in this stage should be guided by a small Team or Steering
Committee with representation from all stakeholders if required. The involvement of all stakeholders
is particularly important as it is through such involvement from the outset that ownership of the
policy is taken.

The issue clarification and option review stage is crucial to the success of the policy development
process. It is the stage when key issues and objectives are clarified, strategies are developed and the
feasibility of options tested. Attention should be given to:

a) Consultation: The Project Team manages the consultation arrangements approved in Stage 1.
It is important that the aims and objectives of consultation are clearly identified and
communicated with stakeholders before proceeding with the consultation process so they are
aware of why they are being consulted, how the consultation process will work, and how
much influence they can realistically hope to have in decision-making. The techniques used
should clarify the perspectives of those affected by a policy and ensure the stakeholders and
public have effective and appropriate input into developing policies. The process and strategy
for consultation should be identified in the initial scoping paper.
b) Qualitative and quantitative analysis: An environmental scan should be undertaken to
establish a baseline of information against which to measure performance of the final policy,
and to test the feasibility of options.
 c) Involvement and input by the various service areas: Services covered by the policy need to
be involved in developing and testing feasibility of options. This provides an opportunity to
identify the implications of policy options in terms of potential changes in service processes
or operations.
d) Implementation: This step should start to identify an effective implementation strategy.
Financial and staffing implications, if any, need to be defined. Legislative requirements also
need to be identified and considered.

Further, Policy formulation should also be guided by (I) analysing existing policy; (II) formulating
proposals for new policies; (III) conducting wide consultation with key stakeholders; (IV) mapping
out who is responsible for drafting/implementation; and (V) corresponding policy to legislative
mandate.

2.3.3. Formal Adoption

This entails obtain the appropriate approval for the policy to be formally adopted. This stage involves
the internal release of discussion paper. Such means that a discussion paper is released for internal
stakeholder consultation. It is recommended that a workshop-style event be held with relevant staff,
including senior management, to provide feedback on the draft discussion paper, prior to
development of the final paper. Some stages that may be followed include:

a) a review and revision of the draft policy and discussion paper based on internal comments.
The Project Team assesses the comments on the draft discussion paper and prepares a final
paper.
b) Public consultation through public exhibition of the Discussion Paper. This stage involves
Council approval to release the final discussion paper to the community for comment.
c) Policy Team Develop Draft Policy. The Policy Team convenes to develop the draft policy
based on preferred options identified by the project team and/or outcomes of public
consultation on the discussion paper.
d) Internal Release of Draft Policy. This stage involves release of the draft policy for internal
staff review and comment
e) Review and revise Draft Policy based on internal comments. The Project Team would assess
the comments on the draft policy and prepare a revised policy.
f) Council approval to exhibit Draft Policy for public comment. This stage involves Council
approval to release the draft policy to the community for comment, prior to development of
the final policy
g) Public Exhibition of Draft Policy. Make the draft policy available for viewing at relevant
locations such as local government administrative offices, public libraries or any other
relevant venue.
h) Review and revise Draft Policy based on external comments. The Project Team would assess
the comments on the draft policy and then prepare a final policy. If the revised draft contains
a substantially new policy direction, circulate the revised draft for further comment, and
incorporate the additional comments as appropriate.
i) Council endorsement of Final Policy. The final policy should be submitted to the relevant
authorities for endorsement and approval.
2.3.4. Implementation

The preparation for the implementation of the policy should occur throughout the policy
development process. The mechanisms for implementing the policy need to be developed and tested
through the consultation and analysis undertaken in earlier stages. Ensure the required Government
officials and other key stakeholders have the knowledge and resources to implement the policy, as
well as monitoring policy implementation. Implementation should be supported, where possible,
with accompanying policy guidelines and standard operating procedures.

2.3.5. Evaluation

This stage is intended to assess the effectiveness and success of the policy through quantitative
and/or qualitative research and provide conclusive evidence for the Government to consider. It
involves the monitoring and review of the policy. Implementation will benefit from clarifying the
reporting arrangements and performance measures against which the policy will be monitored.

This stage closes the policy cycle and contributes to issue identification and ongoing refinement of
policies in response to changing circumstances. Policies should identify when and how they will be
reviewed to determine whether they are still required, whether they need refinement or whether a
new policy is required.

The above stages are an ideal model. The actual policy processes will vary depending on the scope
and complexity of the issue, changes in circumstances and priorities over the cycle and feedback
from consultation that requires local government to revisit issues or options.

Depending on the stage in the policy process and the intended audience, the level of detail and
abstraction in policy documents will vary from those that set out broad objectives and principles, to
those that contain more detailed service or departmental-specific proposals.

2.3.6. Maintenance, Succession Or Termination

Following the evaluation, we can review how the policy might be further developed, or provide
additional support for its updating, adaptation, and continuation. Additionally, the policy can be
terminated if deemed redundant, accomplished, or ineffective.
Figure 2: Detailed Policy Development Stages
2.4. SEQUENTIAL PROCESS OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT

Policy development is a sequential process that starts with the creation of a policy. Policies may be
accompanied by one or more set of standards that outline a set of objective minimum requirements
for that policy. Policies may require the adaptation of an existing set of standards, rather than a new
set.

In addition, policies may be accompanied by one or more policy guidelines to help the implementors
of the policy better understand their role in implementation. If the policy guidelines reference routine
tasks or activities that could benefit from detailed step-by-step instructions, then a SOP may be
created for each task or activity.

In some cases (as illustrated below), one policy may require multiple standards, policy guidelines,
and/or SOPs.
Defining Policy, Standards, Policy Guidelines, and Standard Operating Procedures
Essential Criteria for Policy, Standards, Policy Guidelines, and SOPs:
2.5. THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT

Public Policy Environment where policy is made and output is applied. When policy making the
environment cannot be depart from policy process. Sometimes feedback also taken from
environment. Policy is made for the betterment of people but to do this many actors and factors are
involved which are titled here as policy Environment.

Factors and Actors of policy environment:

There are some factors and actors in policy environment which greatly influence the public policy.

Figure: Public Policy Development Process

2.5.1 Political culture:

Every society has a culture that differentiates its member’s values and life style from those of at her
societies. Political culture is transmitted from one generation to another by socialization.
Socialization is a process in which the individual through many experience with parents, friends,
teachers, political leader and others learn politically relevant values, belief and attitude. They
differentiated three political cultures

a) Parochial political culture: In a parochial political culture citizen have little awareness
towards political system, input process or the output process as a political participant. The
parochial expect not from the system. It is essentially non-existent. Example: African Society,
tribal society.
b) Subject political culture: In a subject political culture citizen is oriented and aware toward the
political system and the output process and have little awareness about input process as a
political participants He/She is aware of governmental authority and may like or dislike it but
it is essentially passive. Example: Germany, modern Italy. They are not active about
government is to do or not to do.
c) Participant political culture: In this culture, citizens have a comparatively high level of
political awareness and information toward the political system, its input and output process.
Here, meaningful participation of citizen in politics in occurred. They also understand how
individual and group can influence decision making. Example: The people of U.S.A, UK,
Canada are conscious about political system and active participation in politics.

Limitation of political culture: Some political scientists shy away from using political culture as
an analytical tool. Because it is too imprecise and conjectural in and subject to varying interpretation.
Different scholars clarify it differently. But It has utility in policy analysis.
 2.5.2. Socio-economic conditions

According to Richard Dawsoon and James Robinson also sought socio economic variables have a
stronger impact on policy than political factors. Socio-economic conditions plays vital role in policy
formulation. For Example: Saudi Arabia society is mostly conservative, religious minded, so, it
affect our policy. But in Uganda, religion plays less in our day today life. The people are open
minded hence it doesn’t affect public policy in Uganda.

2.6. ACTORS OF POLICY ENVIRONMENT:

To formulate any public policy, there works some actors who influence the policy. They are:

Figure: Actors & Factors of policy making environment

2.6.1. Official Policy Makers:

Official policy maker are those who have the legal authority to engage in the formation of public
policy. They are:

Legislatures: Legislatures is a form of “Political Theatre” convey the representation of public in

policy making. Legislatures are engaged in central political task of law making and policy formulates
in a political decision-making function. In a democratic country. People expect allocation of
beneficial from them represents their interest when making formulation policy. Legislature is more
important in democracy country than authoritarian for policy formulation. Legislature have a large
role in presidential system (like Uganda) than in monarchic governments like Saudi Arabia whose
public policy is formulated through monarchic order/executive order.
The Executive: To live in an executive centred era, the effectiveness of government substantially
largely depends on executive leadership and action both in formulation and execution of the policy.
Although the presidency may be a lonely place. The president does not act along on policy matter.
Several agency assist him to hold his responsibility. They help to ensure that the president will make
informed decisions, if not always wise decisions. The Ugandan president has greater constitutional
authority and operating freedom to decide the foreign and military policy. Foreign policy of Uganda
is largely a product of presidential leadership and action.

Administrative Agencies: significantly involved in the formation of public policy, administrative

agencies are important source of legislative proposals. Because of their experience and specialized
knowledge the officials are able to identify needed change in existing policy. In complex industrial
society the legislatures for lack of time and information have caused the delegation of discretionary
authority which concludes extensive rule making power to administration agencies. Constitutionally
they make many policy, issue roles for political consequence.

The Courts of Law: Courts of Law play a significant role in the nature and content of public policy
by exercising the power of judicial review and statutory interpretation. It provides explanation where
occur ambiguity. It is the guardian of the constitution. Essentially judicial reviews illustrate the power
of courts to determine the constitutionality of actions by the legislative and executive branch and
declare them null and void if they are found to be conflict with the constitution. The courts are often
called upon to interpreted and decide the meaning of statutory provisions that are unclearly stated.
When a courts accepts one interpretation rather than another it gives effects to the policy preferences
of winning party. Today courts are not only becoming more involved in policy making but also
playing a more positive role to meet legal or constitutional requirements of governments. They
suggest what must to do to meet legal requirements is. The court of Canada, Australia have power
of judicial review But not better than American court.

2.6.2. Unofficial Participants

Unofficial participants are those who do not have legal authority to make public policy. They can
provide information but don’t decide create pressure on government or influence the authority to
formulation any public policy. They are:

Interest groups: An interest group is an important part of policy making in any country either
democratic or dictatorial. Interest groups are a collection of those individuals who try to influence
the government to pass policy in favour of their group interest. They have great role in policy making
depend on whether they are in a democratic or autocratic country. Interest groups take steps to protect
their interest by appointing lobbyist to influence policy making in favour of them. They articulate
the interest of people and express demand present alternative for policy action. They also supply
information to public official both technical and general information which express the nature and
consequence of public policy. public interest group are also a important players in policy process.

Political parties: Political parties are interested in contesting elections in order to control the
personnel of government. Political parties have a great influence in public policy making. They create
consciousness among the voters. In the absence of political party, it is difficult to run the government
in fair way. Political party tries to attain the power in a peaceful way. Not only Ruling party but also
opposition have great influence on public policy. Whenever make any policy, the opposition party
opposed it if this policy is irrelevant, illogical.
Research organizations: Research organizations frequently called the “Think Tank” are another
important player in policy making. These organization staffed with fulltime policy analyst,
researcher. Their studies and report provide basic information and data on policy issue; develop
alternative and proposal for handling the public policy problems. They also evaluate the effectiveness
and consequence of public policy. But that research organization has policy biases. They also engage
in policy advocacy. Many universities have research centre that conduct policy studies and provide
special information to policy maker.

Communication media: The media like newspaper, radio, television participate in policy making
as suppliers and transmitters of information as agenda setters. They express the people opinion
regarding the policy. The newspaper also conducts online survey regarding the public policy whether
they support this policy or not. The opinion of civil society, general people is expressed by this media.
But the ruling party sometime uses the media for their own purpose with interview, press release and
news “leak” they seek to use the media to influence the people regarding the policy.

Development partners: Development partner are those who raise the hand of help curing the crisis
of the country, invest money in development programs, approve grant for developing and under
develop country. They also called Donor Agency. They have great influence on policy making. They
are divided into two parts.

• Bilateral agency: USAID, NORAD (Norway), SIDA(Sweden), CIDA(Canada), JICA,

UKAID.
• Multinational agency: IMF, UN World Bank, Islamic Development Bank, AfDB, , UNDP
etc.

Usually, development partners for developing countries like Uganda to adopt policies that are in line
with their agenda for them to access loans, aid and other funds . such requirements may include;
Open market economy, use the machinery and expertise from the donor country, reduce subsidies
from health, education, increase price of oil, adopt Human rights standards (such as LBGTQ rights)
etc. Through this, they force developing countries to change policy.

2.7. THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT FRAMEWORK

The policy environment includes all aspects surrounding policy-making. This would include the
broader socio-economic aspects that are analysed in organizational strategy-making. Important
sources for research into this broader policy environment – and what are the pressing concerns of the
day - include: the media, research institutes, veterinary bodies, donors, business, and civil society.
The policy-making environment is greatly influenced by the country’s broader socio-economic
situation.

Key questions to be asked when analysing the policy environment include:

• What are the issues?

• How important are these to society?
• What are the existing strategies, policies and laws that cause or relate to these problems and
how are they implemented?
• How could changes in policy help resolve the problems?
 • What type of policy change is needed (legislation, proclamation, regulation, legal decision,
committee action, institutional practice, or other)?
• What are the financial implications of the proposed policy change?

One aspect of the policy making environment that will have an enormous impact upon your advocacy
is the level of openness and transparency. In some open and democratic regimes, it is possible not
only to obtain all relevant information through official channels, but also to take part in relevant
meetings and consultations. Conversely, in regimes that lack openness and transparency it may be
difficult to meet key decision-makers and achieve involvement or consultation (and in some cases
even to obtain information through official channels). Advocacy is more likely to be successful in a
more democratic and open political system.

The policy environment includes the legal, structural, social, economic, political, and other factors
that influence and are influenced by policy making.

2.7.1. The Structural Environment

These include the basic constitutional frameworks such as the traditional and legal structures that
establish rules of policy making. These form the government structures. They are not simply formal;
a structural environment involves rules that dictate how government goes about its business. The
most common components of the structural environment include; statutory, judge-made, common,
customary, and religious law play varying roles in different settings. The importance of these legal
structures depends on the degree to which the rule of law predominates and the judiciary is
independent and strong.

2.7.2. Political Environment

One of the recent global issues is abortion rights. The discussion on acceptance of rights and
formulating policies in different countries depends on political commitment. political commitment
is not just essential but increases in importance as the social setting becomes less conducive to
sensitive issues. In several conservative and right-leaning governments, abortion rights have been
restricted more compared to left-leaning and liberal governments.

Actions by public officials in developing countries tend to carry more immediate impact than those
of their counterparts in the more developed countries. Often, governments are highly centralized,
more insulated, and play a more intrusive role in the national economy (Porter and Hicks, 1994).
Political solutions to problems are often proposed by actors closely linked to government. Azefor
(1988) notes that political commitment to family planning policies and programs is especially
important in Africa, due to the highly centralized nature of the state.

In addition, the institutional and political venues in which political problems and solutions come to
be defined and debated are crucial to agenda setting and the strategies pursued (Porter and Hicks,
1994). Strong political pressures may lead to either crises or opportunities for population policies.
Shifts in the existing system or alliances of key actors may result in different priorities or resource
allocations.

International politics may also affect the environment for a population policy. The rapport with other
countries in the region and perceptions of cooperation or aggression can temper pro- or antinatalist
orientations. Among developing countries, the degree of influence exerted by donors and lenders
may affect the seriousness with which government approaches population policy planning and
development.

2.7.3. Economic Environment

The economic environment includes the growth of the economy, the distribution of wealth in a
society, the size and composition of industry sectors, the rate of growth of the economy, inflation,
and the cost of labour and raw materials. The most common measure of economic activity is the
gross domestic product (GDP). Economic factors are important because various features of the
economy influence the types of policies a society makes. Government policies also affect the
economy, though often in unclear or unexpected ways. For example, governments spend more and
run budget deficits to stimulate the economy when it is in a recession. However, when the economy
is strong, governments should run budget surpluses to make up for the deficits incurred during
recessions.

It is essential to review the economic environment of a country because public policy efforts and the
programs they entail are often justified on economic grounds. The state of the economy affects
competition for resources, and allocation of human, monetary, and infrastructure resources to
population activities may be controversial because it diverts resources from other national priorities.

Economic decision making also comes into play at the level of individuals and households. Children
may be looked at as an additional source of household income. Local conditions can affect decisions
about labor migration, both within national borders and internationally. Migrant pay remittances
contribute substantially to the support of households and communities in many countries.

A number of the legal changes discussed earlier are closely linked to economic policy. Policies that
increase women’s earning power include ...deregulating economies, increasing the demand for
labour, removing barriers to women’s participation, and allowing women equal access to productive
resources. These economic policies lead to rising women’s incomes and altering attitudes about the
role of women (Scribner, n.d.).

2.7.4. The Social Environment

The social environment involves the nature and composition of the population and its social structure.
Demographers study the composition of the population by looking at the distribution of age, race,
gender, and other attributes. A vast amount of demographic data is collected during the National
Census from which several social indicators and social trends can be identified. These trends have
an important influence on public policy making. Such can include the distribution of age, race,
gender, and other attributes.

The demographic environment is important because of its potential to influence political decision
making. McIntosh and Finkle (1985) suggest that attitudes about policy decisions are often
influenced more by real experience with the consequences of population change than by exposure to
population data. Nonetheless, influential technocrats and cadres can play an important role in
exposing policy makers to demographic data and increase the chance that the data will affect their
decisions. Policy makers should have access to data such as rates of population growth, patterns of
migration, maternal and infant mortality, and life expectancy. Unfortunately, in situations where
political control is tied to the numeric supremacy of a particular religious or ethnic group, policy
makers are more likely to disguise or avoid frank examination of demographic trends.
For example: When formulating a policy on “Population Control”, data on fertility which is usually
considered the key demographic variable by which to effect change in the population, mainly by
reducing births through the widespread use of contraception. This can only be done if contraceptive
services and commodities are widely available and easily accessible for users. Surveys and service
statistics provide information on family planning use patterns. Surveys also offer data on the levels
of awareness, demand for and use of contraceptive services. Among contraceptors, it is worthwhile
to study use patterns for the various methods available, by type of method (temporary vs. long-term
and permanent methods).

2.7.5 Ecological Environment

The term ecological environment to refer to the social ecology of an organization, that is, the number
of organizations with which the focal organization has contact, their relationships, and the
environment in which they are located (Hall, 1991). In the context of the policy environment, we
may refer to relationships held by one country with others in the region and globally. Participation
and alliances in international organizations may influence public policy development at home.

2.7.6 Cultural Environment

Cultural influences may be more ephemeral and elusive and hence more difficult to measure, than
other policy environmental influences. Values and norms change over time, with impact filtered
through the behaviour of individuals. The culture experienced by present-day policy makers affects
their development of strategies for the future (Schneider, 1989).

Azefor (1989) argues that the lack of attention to cultural, religious, and social factors in sub-Saharan
Africa caused planners to overlook local priorities and thus contributed to low national commitment
to population policies.

It is relevant to consider local norms, mores, and beliefs about birth, death, and migration. Policy
makers must understand expectations concerning the value of children and their education and labor
contribution to the family. The role and influence of matrilineal or patrilineal family systems and
different forms of marriage should be specified, and their effects on female autonomy clarified.

Policy planners must also consider the role of the media in cultural change. Images and ideas from
around the globe are now readily available through music, videos, movies, news magazines, and
television. The desire for improved living conditions, fostered through awareness of conditions in
other societies, may modify existing ideas about family size and composition. The effects of
openness to outside knowledge, and the influence of religion and gender relations on fertility change
are all important in the short term (Cleland, 1990).

2.7.6 Technological Environment

The technological environment includes developments affected by science, engineering, research,

practice, serendipity, and the introduction of personnel with new ideas. Changes in technology can
trigger changes in organizations, or in this context, in policy. Awareness-raising efforts may be
improved by innovations in communications technology, such as interactive computer models or use
of shared information on the Internet.
 POLICY CONTENTS

Background

This statement may include descriptions of the following where relevant:

• historical context;
• background in regard to the need for such a policy e.g. legal or regulatory
requirements and/or ministerial directives;
• context in which this policy has arisen including e.g. a description of the
conflict or problem the policy will resolve (recognising the legitimate
interests of all parties);
• policy development process (including consultation undertaken); and
• what amendments have been made, if this is an amendment to an existing policy?

Policy Outline

• Operation of this Policy.

• Statement of Intent.
• Definitions.
• Policy Objectives.
• Application of the Policy.
• Acknowledgement.
• Review.

Operation of this Policy

This section should include a description of:

a) what planning, management and operational aspects or activities the policy applies to;
and
b) what specific area within the municipality it applies, if applicable.

For example, for foreshore management:

“This policy applies to foreshore planning and management activities undertaken by

[Council Name], including development, provision of native vegetation buffers, and
protection and restoration of foreshores”.

Statement of Intent

This should state the explicit intent of the policy and its overall scope. It should also
include a list of relevant State and/or Federal legislation with which the policy complies,
or alignment with any existing standards. It should also outline the benefits to be accrued
from the implementation of the policy.
For example, using the Local Government Landscaping with Local Plants Local
Planning Policy from the Local Government NRM Policy Manual to highlight:

“It is the intent of this policy to promote to [Council Name] staff and councilors,
residents and developers (urban, commercial and industrial) the use of local native
species in landscaping and the protection of existing vegetation. This policy
complements, and is consistent with existing standards and specifications for
landscaping.

Major benefits to be accrued from implementation of this policy are three-fold;

(1) reduce requirements for both water and fertilizer, which contributes to the
improvement of downstream water quality;
(2) create habitat for native fauna, and enhance biodiversity values in local government
areas; and
(3) preserve, create and maintain the natural characteristics of the local environment
through vegetation protection and revegetation”.

Definitions

This section should list ONLY unique, unfamiliar, technical terms or terms with special
meanings to assist the reader’s understanding of the basic policy. Terms should be listed
in alphabetical order.

Policy Objectives

These are broad, clear authoritative statements of what the policy aims to achieve. The
objectives should provide clear direction to staff as to the particulars of what is intended
be achieved through the policy.

To highlight, with reference to the Local Government Landscaping with Local Plants Local
Planning Policy

from the Local Government NRM Policy Manual:

“This Landscaping Policy is for Council, developers and property owners to:

a) Increase the use of local native plants in landscaping across public and private land.
b) Ensure that landscaping is more sustainable by:
1. Reducing the amount of irrigation water required;

ii) Reducing the amount of fertiliser required, and to minimise nutrient export to
groundwater, wetlands and the Swan Canning river system;
iii) Reducing threats to biodiversity by avoiding plant selection that may
lead to
future environmental weed problems;
iv) Preserving and enhancing the identity and ‘sense of place’ for the local
community through appropriate landscaping; and
 c) Enhance local biodiversity by conserving existing native vegetation areas and by
restoring and creating new native vegetation areas to create habitat for indigenous
fauna.”

Application of the Policy

This section should explain procedures regarding how to perform activities or tasks, in
order to carry out the intent of the policy. It should identify performance measures,
timelines and key deliverables, and clarify responsibilities for implementation.

Formal guidelines may need to be developed to support the implementation of the policy,
depending upon the issue being addressed.

Acknowledgement

This section should acknowledge the sources used in the development of this policy.

Review

This statement should outline the procedures for review of the policy. In normal
circumstances the responsible officer should be notified 6 months prior to the expiry
date as a reminder to advise that the policy requires review. Policies that ensue as a
consequence of legislation should be reviewed annually to assure legislative
compliance.