PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
c) when the patient waives this right in writing.
PHYSICIAN-PATIENT RELATIONSHIP
 At the heart of medicine lie relationship founded in a
“Covenant of trust” between patient and physician in
which Physician commit themselves to responding to
the need and promoting the welfare of patients.
 PROSPECTIVE PATIENTS
-physician have an ethical obligation to provide care
in cases of medical emergency, physician must also
uphold ethical responsibilities not to discriminate
against prospective patient on the basis of personal or
social characteristics that they must accept them.
 TERMINATING A PATIENT -PHYSICIAN
RELATIONSHIP
- physician responsibility to patient entail an
obligation to support continuity to care for their
patient.
 QUALITY
- physician individually share the obligation to ensure
that care patient receive is safe, effective, timely,
efficient.
 PHYSICIAN EXERCISE OF CONSCIENCE
- physician must act in accordance with the dictates
of conscience is important for preserving the integrity
of the medical profession as well as the integrity of
individual physician.
RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PATIENTS
THE RIGHTS OF THE PATIENTS
1. RIGHT TO APPROPRIATE MEDICAL CARE AND
HUMANE TREATMENT.
Every person has the right to health and medical care
corresponding to his state of health, without any
discrimination and within the limits of the resources,
manpower and competence available for health and medical
care at relevant time.
2.RIGHT TO INFORMED CONSENT
The patient has a right to a clear, truthful and substantial
explanation, in a manner and language understandable to the
patient, of all proposed procedures, whether diagnostic,
preventive, curative, rehabilitative or therapeutic, wherein the
person who will perform the said procedure shall provide his
name and credentials to the patient.
3. RIGHT TO PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
The patient has the right to be free from unwarranted public
exposure, except:
a) when his mental or physical condition is in controversy and
the court order him to submit physical or mental examination
by physician;
b) when public health and safety demands; and
4. RIGHT TO INFORMATION
The patient or his/her legal guardian has a right to be informed
of the result of the evaluation of the nature and extent of
his/her disease, the contemplated medical treatment, possible
complications, changes in the plan of care before its
implementation and the extent to which payment maybe
expected from Phil Health and any charges for which the
patient may be liable.
5. THE RIGHT TO CHOOSE HEALTH CARE
PROVIDER AND FACILITY
The patient is free to choose the health care provider to serve
him as well as the facility except when he is under care of a
service facility or when public health and safety so demand.
They also have the right to consult for second opinion and
subsequent opinion, if appropriate, from another health care
provider/practitioner.
6. RIGHT TO SELF-DETERMINATION
The patient has the right to avail himself/herself of any
recommended diagnostic and treatment procedures. Any
person of legal age and of sound mind may make an advance
written directive for physicians to administer terminal care
when he/she suffers from the terminal phase of a terminal
illness: Provided That
a) he is informed of the medical consequences of his choice;
b) he releases those involved in his care from any obligation
relative to the consequences of his decision;
c) his decision will not prejudice public health and safety.
7. RIGHT TO RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
The patient has the right to refuse medical treatment or
procedures which may be contrary to his religious beliefs,
subject to the limitations described in the preceding
subsection: Provided that, such a right shall not be imposed by
parents upon their children who have not reached the legal age
in a life threatening situation as determined by the attending
physician or the medical director of the facility.
8. RIGHT TO MEDICAL RECORDS.
The patient is entitled to a summary of his medical history and
condition. He has the right to view the contents of his medical
records, except psychiatric notes and other incriminatory
information obtained about third parties, with the attending
physician explaining contents thereof.
9. RIGHT TO LEAVE.
The patient has the right to leave hospital or any other health
care institution regardless of his physical condition:
Provided. That a) he/she is informed of the medical
consequences of his/her decision
b) he/she releases those involved in his/her care from any
obligation relative to the consequences of his decision;
c) his/her decision will not prejudice public health and safety.
10. RIGHT TO REFUSE PARTICIPATION IN MEDICAL
RESEARCH.
The patient has the right to be advised if the health care
provider plans to involve him in medical research, including
but not limited to human experimentation which may be
performed only with the written informed consent of the
patient
11. RIGHT TO CORRESPONDENCE AND TO RECEIVE
VISITORS.
The patient has the right to communicate with relatives and
other persons and to receive visitors subject to reasonable
limits prescribed by the rules and regulations of the health care
institution.
12. RIGHT TO EXPRESS GRIEVANCES.
The patient has the right to express complaints and
grievances about the care and services received without fear
of discrimination or reprisal and to know about the disposition
of such complaints.Such a system shall afford all parties
concerned with the opportunity to settle amicably all
grievances.
13. RIGHT TO BE INFORMED OF HIS RIGHTS AND
OBLIGATIONS AS A PATIENT.
The DOH,in coordination with health care providers,
professional and civic groups, the media, health insurance
corporations, people's organizations,local government
organizations, shall launch and sustain a nationwide
information and education campaign to make known to
people their rights as patients, as declared in this Act such
rights and obligations of patients shall be posted in a
bulletin board conspicuously placed in a health care
institution.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF PATIENTS
OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PATIENTS
.
1. KNOW RIGHTS
- The patient shall ensure that he/she knows and understands
what the patients’ rights and shall exercise those rights
responsibly and reasonably.
2. PROVIDE ACCURATE AND COMPLETE
INFORMATION
- The patient shall provide, to the best of his knowledge ,
accurate and complete information about all matters pertaining
to his/her health , including medications and past or present
medical problems to his/her health care provider.
3. REPORT UNEXPECTED HEALTH CHANGES
-It shall be the duty of every patient to report unexpected
changes to his/her condition or symptoms, including pain, to a
member of health care team.
4. UNDERSTAND PURPOSE AND COST OF
TREATMENT.
- The patient shall ensure that he/she understand the purpose
and cost of any proposed treatment or procedure before
deciding to accept it. He/she shall notify the health care
provider or practitioner if he/she does not understand any
information about his/her treatment.
5. ACCEPT CONSEQUENCES OF OWN INFORMED
CONSENT
- If he/she refuse treatment or do not follow instructions or
advice of the health care provider, he / she must accept the
consequences of his/her decision and thus relieve the health
care provider or practitioner of any liability.
6. SETTLE FINANCIAL OBLIGATIONS
- The patient shall ensure that financial obligations of his/her
health care are fulfilled promptly as possible, otherwise,
he/she shall make appropriate arrangements to settle unpaid
bills in the hospital and/or professional fees of the health care
provider through post-dated checks or promissory notes or any
similar medium.
7. RELATION TO OTHERS
- The patient shall so conduct himself or herself so as not
interfere with the well-being or rights of other patients or
providers of health care.
8. EXHAUST GRIEVANCE MECHANISM
- The patient shall first exhaust the grievance mechanism
provided in this act before filing any administrative or legal
action
WHAT IS MEDICAL MALPRACTICE?
Any person who shall practice medicine in the Philippines
without having previously obtained the proper certificate of
registration issued by the Board of Medical Examiners as
herein constituted, or the lawful Board which was its
predecessor shall be considered as guilty of medical
malpractice. (Sec. 770, RA 1885)
WHAT ARE THE DOCTRINES APPLICABLE TO
MEDICAL MALPRACTICE?
-RESPONDEAT SUPERIOR or “ let the master answer”.
-is governed by the rule on vicarious liability under Art 2180,
which provides:
* The obligation imposed by article 2176 is demandable not
only for one's own acts or omissions but also for those of
persons for whom one is responsible.
*Employers shall be liable for the damages caused by their
employees and household helpers acting within the scope of
their assigned tasks, even though the former are not engaged
in any business or industry.
-RES IPSA LOQUITUR or “the thing speaks for itself”.
- The happening of an injury permits an inference of
negligence where plaintiff produces substantial evidence that
the injury was caused by an agency or instrumentality under
the exclusive control and management of defendant, and that
the occurrence was such that in the ordinary course of things
would not happen if reasonable care had been used.
-The doctrine of res ipsa loquitur as a rule of evidence is
peculiar to the law of negligence which recognizes that prima
facie negligence may be established without direct proof and
furnishes a substitute for specific proof of negligence.
(Batiquin v. CA)
4 ELEMENTS OF RES IPSA LOQUITOR
DUTY
-Defendant had a duty to care for the victim
BREACH OF DUTY
- Defendant failed to provide this care
CAUSATION
- The breach duty caused the victim’s injuries.
DAMAGES
- The victim was indeed injured
3. GOOD SAMARITAN
-is defined as an individual performing volunteer services who
does not receive compensation to reasonably assist a person in
an emergency. It further provides that no good Samaritan shall
be liable for harm caused by an act or omission if:
(1) the good Samaritan was acting in an emergency at the time
of the act or omission;
(2) if appropriate or required, the good Samaritan was
properly licensed, certified, or authorized by the appropriate
authorities for the activities undertaken in an emergency at the
time of the act or omission; and
(3) the harm was not caused by willful or criminal misconduct,
gross negligence, reckless misconduct, or a conscious, flagrant
indifference to the rights or safety of the individual harmed by
the good Samaritan.
DAMAGES
Damages take into account both actual economic loss such as
lost income and cost of future medical care, as well as non
economic losses, such as pain and suffering.
Plaintiffs may receive personal injury damage awards for
physical and emotional harm, as well as property damage that
occurred due to an accident or incident that was someone else
‘s fault.
TYPES OF DAMAGES IN MEDICAL MALPRACTICE
CASES
ECONOMIC DAMAGES
- It refers to the specific costs that arise directly as a result of
the injury.
a) Medical Expenses and Health Care Costs
- At a minimum, a successful medical malpractice lawsuit
should compensate victims for care required following
negligence-related injuries.
b) Future Earnings Capacity and Financial Losses
- Financial losses attributed to medical malpractice injuries
don’t end with medical expenses. Damages reflecting loss of
wages can take multiple forms. Generally, this is classified
based on how long the recovery is expected to take and
whether personal injury victims are able to work part-time or
at all.
2. NON-ECONOMIC DAMAGES
- They are best thought of as the types of harm in which a
specific receipt cannot accurately be attached.
A) LOSS OF CONSORTIUM
- The effects of medical malpractice don’t strike injured
patients alone. Their spouses and close family members also
greatly suffer. The “loss of companionship” account for this
reality, reflecting the victim’s ability to provide care and
affection after a medical malpractice injury.
B) EMOTIONAL, MENTAL PAIN AND SUFFERING
- Emotional damage can sometimes be even more severe.
Many patients struggle with depression, anxiety, or post-
traumatic disorder. Under this approach, the total assessed
economic damages can be multiplied by anywhere between
three and five.
3. PUNITIVE DAMAGES
- In rare cases, medical malpractice goes beyond negligence to
involve extremely reckless behavior or even malicious intent.
With this type of medical malpractice litigation, courts may
seek to punish defendants and hopefully, prevent similar
issues in the future.
ATTENDANCE TO MEDICAL WITNESS COURT
Medical expert witness
- physicians, nurses, surgeons or other licensed practitioners
whose skills and experience qualify them to testify on a
particular area.
* The role of an expert witness in a medical liability case is to
testify to the standards of care in a given case, and to explain
how the defendant did or did not conform to those standards.
SUBPOENA
- A Subpoena is a legal document that commands an
individual to appear in court at a specific date and time to
testify as a witness in a legal proceeding. In the Philippines,
failure to comply with a subpoena without valid justification
may lead to penalties.
2 TYPES OF SUBPOENAS:
A.) SUBPOENA AD TESTIFICANDUM
- a writ commanding a person to appear in court to testify as a
witness.
B.) SUBPOENA DUCES TECUM
- an order that requires a witness to bring documents, books or
other items under his, her or their control, that he/she or they
is bound by law to produce into evidence.
B.) COURT PROCEDURE
1.Arraignment and Plea
2.Pre-trial
3.Trial
4. Judgement
5. New trial or Reconsideration
6. Appeal
1. ARRAIGNMENT AND PLEA
The accused must be arraigned before the court where the
complaint or information was filed or assigned for trial. The
arraignment shall be made in open court by the judge or clerk
by furnishing the accused with a copy of the complaint or
information, reading the same in the language or dialect
known to him, and asking him whether he pleads guilty or not
guilty.
WHEN IS PLEA CONSIDERED NOT GUILTY
When the accused refuses to plead or makes a conditional
plea, a plea of not guilty shall be entered for him.
When the accused pleads guilty but presents exculpatory
evidence, his plea shall be deemed withdrawn and a plea of
not guilty shall be entered for him.
Note: The accused must be present at the arraignment and
must personally enter his plea. Both arraignment and plea
shall be made of record, but failure to do so shall not affect the
validity of the proceedings.
2. PRE-TRIAL
It shall be held within thirty (30) days after arraignment
Plea bargaining
Stipulation of facts
Marking or identification of evidence
Waiver of objections to admissibility of evidence
Modification of the order of trial
Such matter as will promote a fair and expeditious trial of the
criminal and civil aspects of the case.
3. TRIAL (ORDER OF TRIAL)
(a) The prosecution shall present evidence to prove the charge
and, in the proper case, the civil liability.
(Direct examination-cross examination/ re-direct -re-cross)
Direct examination - public prosecutor
Cross examine - defense lawyer
(b) The accused may present evidence to prove his defense,
and damages, if any, arising from the issuance of a provisional
remedyin the case.
(c) The prosecution and the defense may, in that order, present
rebuttal and sur-rebuttal evidence unless the court, in the
furtherance of justice, permits them to present additional
evidence bearing upon the main issue
(d) Upon admission of the evidence of the parties, the case
shall be deemed submitted for decision unless the court directs
them to argue orally or to submit written memoranda.
(e) When the accused admits the act or omission charged in
the complaint or information but interposes a lawful defense,
the order of trial may be modified.
4.JUDGEMENT
Adjudication by the court that the accused is guilty or not
guilty of the offense charged and the imposition on him of the
proper penalty and civil liability, if any.
It must be written in the official language, personally and
directly prepared by the judge and signed by him and shall
contain clearly and distinctly a statement of the facts and the
law upon which it is based.
* Conviction - Guilty
* Acquittal - Not guilty
CONTENTS OF JUDGMENT
If the judgment is conviction, it shall state
1. The legal qualification of the offense constituted by the acts
committed by the accused and the aggravating and mitigating
circumstances which attended its commission;
2. The participation of the accused ( principal, accomplice,
accessory);
3. The penalty imposed to the accused;
4. The civil liability or damages caused by his wrongful act or
omission to be recovered from the accused by the offended
party, if there is any.
If the judgment is acquittal, it shall state
Whether the evidence of the prosecution absolutely failed to
prove the guilt of the accused or merely failed to prove his
guilt beyond reasonable ground.
Note: In either case, the judgment shall determine if the act or
omission from which the civil liability might arise did not
exist.
WHEN IS JUDGMENT OF CONVICTION FINAL?
After the lapse of 15 days to appeal;
When the accused waives his right to appeal;
When the accused applies for probation;
When the case is decided with finality by the Supreme Court
and the right to file motion for reconsideration is closed.
NEW TRIAL AND MOTION FOR RECONSIDERATION
At any time before a judgment of conviction becomes final,
the court may, on motion of the accused or at its own instance
but with the consent of the accused, grant a new trial or
reconsideration.
4.GROUNDS FOR A NEW TRIAL
a.The errors of law or irregularities prejudicial to the
substantial rights of the accused have been committed during
the trial;
b.The new and material evidence has been discovered which
the accused could not with reasonable diligence have
discovered and produced at the trial and which if introduced
and admitted would probably change the judgment.
*Errors of law or fact in the judgement, which requires no
further proceedings
6. APPEAL
Any party may appeal from a judgment or final order, unless
the accused will be placed in double Jeopardy.
(a) To the Regional Trial Court, in cases decided by the
Metropolitan Trial Court in Cities, Municipal Trial Court, or
Municipal Circuit Trial Court;
(b) To the Court of Appeals or to the Supreme Court in the
proper cases provided by law, in cases decided by the
Regional Trial Court, and
(c) To the Supreme Court, in cases decided by the Court of
Appeals.
WHEN IS APPEAL TO BE TAKEN?
An appeal must be taken within (15) days from the
promulgation of the judgment or from notice of the final order
appealed from. This period for perfecting an appeal shall be
suspended from the time a motion for new trial or
reconsideration is filed until notice of the order overruling the
motion shall have been served upon the accused or his counsel
at which time the balance of the periods begins to run.
LEGAL ISSUES
A legal issue is a situation with legal implications that may
necessitate the involvement of a lawyer for resolution
Represents a question or problem addressed and resolved by
the law, covering a broad spectrum of situations, conflicts, or
controversies
Legal issues may arise in various areas of law such as:
CIVIL LAW – involves disputes between individuals or
entities
CRIMINAL LAW – involves offenses against the state
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW – involves issues related to the
interpretation and application of a country’s constitution
HEALTHCARE LAW – involves legal issues specific to the
healthcare industry
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW – involves legal issues related to
government agencies’ actions, decisions, or regulations
EMPLOYMENT LAW – involves disputes between
employers and employees
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW – involves disputes
over the ownership, use, or infringement of intellectual
property rights
REAL ESTATE LAW – involves legal issues related to
property
PARAMETERS OF LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY
Involves certain key elements and standards that individuals or
entities must adhere to Defines legal obligations and duties,
outlining the expectations for responsible and lawful conduct
Primary parameters of legal responsibility include:
DUTY OF CARE – obligation to act with reasonable care and
diligence to prevent harm to others
STANDARD OF CARE – level of care and competence
expected from a reasonable person or professional in similar
circumstances
SCOPE OF PRACTICE – boundaries that define the
professional responsibilities and actions permissible within a
specific profession
LEGAL COMPLIANCE – adherence to applicable laws,
regulations, and legal requirements
ETHICAL STANDARDS – adherence to moral principles and
professional ethics in addition to legal requirements
CONFIDENTIALITY OF PATIENT RECORDS
CONFIDENTIALITY – ethical and legal principle that
governs the protection of sensitive information from
unauthorized disclosure
TYPES OF PATIENT RECORDS
WRITTEN
Traditional method of documenting and maintaining a
patient’s medical information in physical or hard-copy format
Characteristics: paper-based, manual storage.
WRITTEN PATIENT RECORDS
Key Considerations:
SECURE STORAGE – records are stored securely in locked
cabinets or rooms to prevent unauthorized access
TRANSPORTATION PROTOCOLS – when records need to
be transported, secure protocols should be in place to prevent
loss or unauthorized access
RECORD DISPOSAL – when patient records are no longer
needed, proper protocols for secure disposal, such as
shredding, should be followed
TYPES OF PATIENT RECORDS
ELECTRONIC
Digital versions of patients’ health information and medical
history known as Electronic Patient Records (EPR), Electronic
Health Records (EHR), or Electronic Medical Records (EMR)
Characteristics: digital format, interoperability, real-time
updates.
ELECTRONIC PATIENT RECORDS
Key Considerations:
USER AUTHENTICATION – EPR systems utilize user
authentication methods to verify the identity of individuals
accessing patient records
ENCRYPTION – patient data within EPRs is often encrypted,
both during transmission and while stored, to prevent
unauthorized access or data breaches
AUDIT TRAILS – EPR systems maintain audit trails that
record access to patient records, including who accessed the
records and when
CONFIDENTIALITY OF PATIENT RECORDS
HIPAA Privacy Rule
Was issued to implement the requirement of the Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996
(HIPAA)
Assures that individuals’ health information is properly
protected while allowing the flow of health information
needed to promote high quality healthcare and to protect the
public’s health and well-being
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Refers to the exchange of information, messages, or data
through electronic means, utilizing various digital
technologies and platforms among healthcare professionals,
patients, and stakeholders
Various forms such as e-mail, secure messaging systems,
telemedicine platforms, and electronic health records
FORMS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION IN
HEALTHCARE
PATIENT PORTAL:
Secure online platform and hub that allows patients to access
and manage their health information and communicate with
healthcare providers
TELEMEDICINE:
Involves real-time-two-way communication between the
patient and the healthcare provider
Facilitates remote healthcare and clinical services,
consultations and communication
TORTS
Torts are civil laws that address the legal rights of individuals,
particularly in cases where an act or omission results in injury
or harm to another
The term "tort" comes from the Latin word "tortum," meaning
"something twisted, wrung, or crooked
TYPES OF TORTS
INTENTIONAL
Intent to cause a specific outcome or to engage in conduct that
is substantially certain to result in the desired harm
Does not necessarily mean the desire to cause harm but rather
the knowledge that the action is likely to cause harm
INTENTIONAL TORTS
Assault – intentional act causing another person to fear they
are about to suffer physical harm
Battery – intentional and harmful or offensive touching of
another person without their consent
False Imprisonment – unlawfully restraining or confining
someone against their will intentionally
Defamation – making false statements about a person that
harm their reputation
Trespass – unauthorized entry onto another person’s property
intentionally
Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress (IIED) – deliberate
and extreme conduct causing severe emotional distress to
another
UNINTENTIONAL
Commonly referred to as negligence
Harm is caused to another person due to the failure to exercise
reasonable care in a given situation
There is no intent to cause harm
MEDICAL MALPRACTICE – failure to provide the standard
of care expected in the medical profession
NEGLIGENT SUPERVISION – failure to adequately
supervise or train medical staff, leading to patient harm
DIAGNOSTIC ERRORS – mistakes or inaccuracies in the
identification of a patient's medical condition or disease
PRESCRIPTION ERROR – mistakes in the process of
prescribing and administering medications, such as incorrect
dosages or medication choices
DOCUMENTATION ERROR – inaccuracies or omissions in
recording patient information, treatment details, or medical
history within healthcare records
FAILURE TO MONITOR – signifies the neglect or
inadequacy in overseeing a patient's condition, potentially
leading to a lack of timely response to changes or
complications
LEGAL DOCTRINE
A doctrine is defined as a core principle within a system of
knowledge. As the term applies to the law, it refers to one of
these principles that is formed by continued legal precedents.
Legal doctrines are considered crucial within the legal sub-
fields where they apply because they provide a blueprint for
how to resolve a given type of case or legal dispute.
LEGAL DOCTRINES APPLIED TO MEDICAL
MALPRACTICE
Negligence is a failure to use such care as a reasonably
prudent person would use under like or similar circumstances.
Medical negligence uses this theory, but instead of the prudent
person, in the case of radiologic technology, the reasonably
prudent radiographer is used as a model.
Ex. A patient arrives in the radiology department on a
stretcher. After the radiographer has completed the
examination, the patient is transferred back to the stretcher,
but the side rails are not raised. In moving about, the patient
falls and fractures a hip. The radiographer has a duty to protect
the patient from falls by following the standard practice of
raising the side rails and this duty was breached by the
radiographer's failure to lock the side rails in the raised
position.
LEGAL AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS
RA 7431
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7431.
AN ACT REGULATING THE PRACTICE OF
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES,
CREATING THE BOARD OF RADIOLOGIC
TECHNOLOGY DEFINING ITS POWERS AND
FUNCTIONS AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
Sec 1- Title “Radiologic Technology Act of 1992”
▪ Sec 2 - Statement of the Policy
▪ Sec 3 – Definition of Terms:
▪ Sec 4 – Practice X-ray Technology
▪ Sec 5 - Practice of Radiologic Technology
▪ Sec 6 - Creation of the Board of Radiologic Technology.
▪ Sec 7 - Qualifications of Board Members
▪ Sec 8 – Term of Office
▪ Sec 9 - Duties and functions of the Boards.
▪ Sec 10 - Compensation of the Board
Sec 11 - Removal of Board Members
▪ Sec 12 – Supervision of the Board and Custody of its
Records
▪ Sec 13 – Rules and Regulations
▪ Sec 14 – Annual Report
▪ Sec 15 – Requirement for the Practice of Radiologic
Technology and X-ray Technology
▪ Sec 16 – Exemption from Examination in X-ray Technology
▪ Sec 17 - Exemption from Examination in Radiologic
Technology
▪ Sec 18 – Examination Required
▪ Sec 19 – Qualifications for Examination
▪ Sec 20 – Scope of Examination in X-ray Technology Sec
21 - Scope of Examination in Radiologic Technology
▪ Sec 22 – Report of Ratings
▪ Sec 23 – Oath-taking
▪ Sec 24 – Issuance of Certificates of Registration
▪ Sec 25 – Fees
▪ Sec 26 – Penal Provisions
▪ Sec 27 – Appropriations
▪ Sec 28 – Repealing Clause
▪ Sec 29 – Missing in the original text.
▪ Sec 30 – Effectivity Clause
CODE OF ETHICS FOR RADIOLOGIC
TECHNOLOGISTS▪
Article 1: Responsibility to the Public
▪ Article 2: Responsibility to the Patient
▪ Article 3: Responsibility to Colleagues, Allied Health
Professionals and Health Institutions
▪ Article 4: Responsibility to Self
CODE OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
This Code is adopted by the Professional Regulation
Commission (PRC) and the 42 Professional Regulatory
Boards to cover an environment of good governance in which
all Filipino professionals shall perform their tasks. While each
profession may adopt and enforce its own code of good
governance and code of ethics, it is generally recognized that
there is a general commonality among the various codes. This
Code which covers the common principles underlying the
codes of various professions could be used by all professionals
who face critical ethical questions in their work.
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT
Professionals are required not only to have an ethical
commitment, a personal resolve to act ethically, but also have
both ethical awareness and ethical competency. Ethical
awareness refers to the ability to discern between right and
wrong, while ethical competency pertains to the ability to
engage in sound moral reasoning and consider carefully the
implications of alternative actions.
SPECIFIC PRINCIPLE OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT
1. Service to others
2. Integrity and objectivity
3. Professional Competence
4. Solidarity and Teamwork
5. Social and Civic Responsibility
6. Global Competitiveness
7. Equality of All Professionals
MEDICAL RECORD
Medical records are an essential piece of documentation that
follows us throughout our lives. They are both a medical and
legal document that comes with certain stipulations and rights
that prevent the information from falling into the wrong hands
or being unlawfully shared. According to the U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, only an individual or their
personal representative may access these sensitive documents.
A medical record contains information regarding a patient’s
health and medical history. The level of detail, amount of
information, and type of information will vary significantly
from patient to patient. A patient’s medical documentation
will mostly be determined by how much care they require.
COMPONENTS OF A MEDICAL RECORD
IDENTIFICATION INFORMATION -Every medical record
needs to have information that ties it to a patient. Examples of
this could be as simple as your name and date of birth,
extending to your social security, state, or government-issued
identification number.
PATIENT’S MEDICAL HISTORY - This information paints
a picture of a patient, identifying which ailments or illnesses
are acute or chronic, possibly situational or even seasonal.
This history could include: past and present diagnosis, medical
care, treatments and allergies.
MEDICATION HISTORY - What a patient ingests or
otherwise takes that could affect their health is also a part of
their medical record. A patient’s medication history can also
help paint a picture of their health along with possible
complications that have arisen since.
FAMILY MEDICAL HISTORY - Some health issues and
concerns are genetic, which makes them important additions.
TREATMENT HISTORY AND MEDICAL DIRECTIVES -
A treatment history should encompass every treatment that has
has been given, including the efficacy of the treatments.
Medical directives refer to aspects like DNR (do not
resuscitate) orders or their living will. These are essential
documents that outline what is and what isn’t wanted by a
patient if they are unable to communicate regarding their
medical care.
THE USE OF MEDICAL RECORD
• Legal cases can benefit from medical records, depending on
the case.
• Insurance claims are another area where your medical
records may be of service.
ACCURACY OF DOCUMENTATION
ACCURATE MEDICAL RECORDS
One of the first places they will usually turn is to the medical
record. Because of their detailed information, most records
can help pinpoint where mistakes occurred. In effect, they can
help provide patients with better care
RECORD KEEPING
Every medical office likely has its own process for collecting
medical records
PRINCIPLES THAT EACH PRACTICE SHOULD
ENSHRINE INTO ITS ETHICAL STANDARD
• Monitor the security of all records systems.
• Privacy law governs the disclosure of medical records.
• Always remember that detail is important in medical records.
• Keep in mind, doctors may update records.
RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGES AS LEGAL DOCUMENTS
• The legal principles governing the use of radiologic images
in court and other legal proceedings were developed before the
introduction of computers in radiology and nuclear medicine
imaging equipment.
• Radiographic documents has an big role in courts and in
hospitals such as being able to prove that an image has not
been altered and being able to prove that the hardware and
software used to create it were scientifically reliable.
LEGAL RISK REDUCTION/RISK MANAGEMENT
LEGAL RISKS
Legal Risk Reduction in healthcare involves proactively
identifying and mitigating potential legal issues that could
arise in the course of providing healthcare services. This can
include allegations of inadequate patient care, data privacy
issues, and allegations of unprofessional conduct. A key
aspect of legal risk reduction is proper documentation. For
example, a lack of documentation or failure to recognize a
medical emergency can lead to legal action.
RISK REDUCTION
Risk Management in healthcare is a systematic process aimed
at reducing accidents, injuries, and financial risks in the
hospital. It helps to prevent, and properly handle patient,
visitor, and employee adverse events. Risk management
cannot possibly eliminate all risks, but it can help increase
quality assurance
• Risk management in healthcare may include decreasing
malpractice claims, reducing insurance costs, and reducing
patient falls. It ensures a facility is providing high-quality
patient care by operating in compliance with financial,
medical, and legal regulations
PATIENT CONSENT
DEFINITION OF CONSENT
MEDICAL CONSENT
Consent is one of the critical issues in the area of medical
treatment.
The earliest expression of this fundamental principle, based on
autonomy, is found in the Nuremberg Code of 1947.
The Nuremberg Code was adopted immediately after World
War II in response to medical and experimental atrocities
committed by the German Nazi regime.
The code makes it mandatory to obtain voluntary and
informed consent of human subjects.
CONSENT
Consent refers to the provision of approval or agreement,
particularly and especially after thoughtful consideration and
understanding
As per jurisprudence prior provision of consent signifies a
possible defense (justification) against civil or criminal
liability by the doctor.
TYPE OF CONTENT
SIGNED/WRITTEN CONSENT
Signed, written consent form prior to participation
ONLINE CONSENT
Active online consent before the start of the research. For
example, you upload an opening statement at the start of your
online survey
ORAL(RECORDED)CONSENT
Oral consent prior to an interview that is recorded by audio or
video
EXPRESS CONSENT
also known as explicit or direct consent, occurs when someone
explicitly agrees to the collection, use, or sharing of their
personal data. In this particular case, the user must take an
active action to allow consent, for example by clicking on
“Accept” or “Allow“.
For example: when a website pops up, a dialogue asking for
the user’s permission to use cookies and requests the user to
click on it and accept, or when signing up for a new app, a
user may be prompted to agree to the app’s terms and
conditions, outlining the app’s use of personal data.
IMPLIED CONSENT
also known as “indirect consent”, can be defined as a situation
in which an user’s actions imply that they agree to the
collection, use, or sharing of their personal data.
For example: when a user visits a website that sells products
and adds items to their shopping cart. As a result, the website
processes the person’s personal data, such as their name,
address, and payment information, in order to complete the
transaction. The person implicitly consents to the processing
of their personal data for the purpose of fulfilling the purchase.
OPT-IN CONSENT
Opt-In Consent refers to a situation in which a user actively
chooses to agree to the collection, use, or sharing of their
personal data.
For example, when signing up for a newsletter, a user may be
asked if they would like to receive marketing emails. If the
user agrees, this is an example of opt-in consent,
Another example is when an app asks for permission to access
a user’s location data, the user must choose to allow or deny
this request.
OPT-OUT CONSENT
Opt-Out Consent refers to a situation in which an individual is
automatically enrolled in the collection, use, or sharing of their
personal data, but has the option to withdraw consent.
For example, when a customer creates an account with a
website, they may be automatically enrolled in the site’s
marketing emails, but can choose to opt-out and stop receiving
them
NO CONSENT
In exceptional cases, the requirement for informed consent
may be eliminated. This may apply if:
(1) informed consent would not be in the interest of the
participant;
(2) the research involves observing behavior in public spaces,
while no personal data are collected and no information about
specific individuals can be derived from the research data;
(3) the research involves examining behavior at the group
level.
1. When informed consent would not be in the interest of the
participant: This is often the case with consent from parents or
legal representatives. One particular case in which a researcher
could decide not to inform the parents is when the child
explicitly opts for anonymity.
For example, this could occur in the context of online self-help
sites. In such cases, contacting the parents would be more
intrusive to the child’s privacy than not contacting them would
be. In principle, the desire for anonymity should be respected,
and it can be violated only in the following exceptional cases:
a) If failure to inform parents, healthcare professionals or
authorities would clearly be contrary to the child’s interests
(e.g. if the child is in urgent need of medical or psychiatric
care).
b) If failure to inform parents, healthcare professionals or
authorities would bring serious harm to others (e.g. if a child
mentions having committed or intending to commit a serious
crime).
2. When observing behavior in public spaces (e.g. shopping
streets, underground stations or university campuses), no
individual consent is needed, as long as no personal data are
collected and no information about specific individuals can be
derived from the research data.
3. When behavioral research involves examining behavior at
the group level: this include network studies of social
interactions (including bullying) in the classroom, the effect of
a teaching method on class performance or the effects of a
new management technique on teamwork.
In such cases, it may not be possible to obtain informed
consent from every individual (and, in some cases, it could be
undesirable, as it would affect the group process). In such
cases, the researcher should ensure the following:
1. Informed consent must be obtained from the responsible
person, institution or authority (e.g. the management of the
institution or company).
2. Individual privacy and autonomy must be preserved: no
personal data may be gathered without the active consent of
the individuals concerned or their legal representatives.
3. Whenever possible, the relevant groups (including the
parents or guardians of children used as test subjects) must be
informed in advance of any interventions, procedures, and
observations, unless doing so would seriously interfere with
the objective of the investigation. The researcher must provide
evidence of the need to withhold such information and take
measures to prevent any negative consequences of
withholding such information.
4. Interventions and/or procedures must occur at the group
level, and they must not be aimed at specific individuals. The
effects of an intervention can obviously vary from one
individual to another.
5. The research results must be reported only at the group
level. This also applies to reports made to the institution in
which the research was performed.
VALID CONSENT
Valid Consent for an x-ray procedure, as with ay medical
procedure, typically involves several key conditions:
1. INFORMED CONSENT: the patient should receive clear
and comprehensive information about the x-ray procedure,
including its purpose, potential risks, benefits, alternatives,
and what the procedure involves
2. CAPACITY TO CONSENT: the patient must have the
mental capacity to understand the information provided and
make an informed decision. If the patient lacks the capacity to
consent (due to age, cognitive impairment, or other reasons), a
legally authorized representative may provide consent on their
behalf
3. VOLUNTARY AGREEMENT: consent must be given
voluntarily without any coercion, undue influence, or pressure
from healthcare providers or other individuals
4. UNDERSTANDING AND COMMUNICATION: the
healthcare provider should ensure that the patient understands
the information provided and is capable of communicating
their consent or refusal clearly
5. DOCUMENTATION: consent should ideally be
documented, either through a signed consent form or
documented notes in patient’s medical record, indicating that
the patient has been adequately informed and has agreed to the
procedure
6. ABILITY TO WITHDRAW CONSENT: the patient should
be informed that they have the right to withdraw their consent
at anytime before or during the procedure if they change their
mind.
These conditions ensure that the patient has been properly
informed about the x-ray procedure, understand its
implications, and provides consent voluntarily and without
any external pressure. Healthcare providers have a legal and
ethical responsibility to ensure that valid consent is obtained
before performing any medical procedure, including x-ray
examinations
DOCUMENTATION OF CONSENT
Documenting informed consent occurs after explaining the
research and assessing participant comprehension. At
minimum, it involves obtaining the signature of the participant
(or the legally-authorized representative or parent(s), when
approved) as well as the person obtaining consent. The person
obtaining consent indicates he/she has explained the research
to the participant, ensured that the participant understand the
research and that the subject freely consents to participate.
USE APPROVED VERSION
Ensure subjects sign the currently approved consent form by
printing the stamped copy from RIS (not required, but strongly
encouraged).
REQUIRED SIGNATURE
Once participant agrees (or legally authorized representative
[LAR] or parent(s) agrees on participant behalf) to participate
in study, participant (or LAR or parent(s)) should sign and
date the consent form.
The person who has oriented and obtained consent must also
sign and date the consent form, after the participant signs.
A witness signature is not required except in limited
circumstances.
GIVE A COPY, KEEP A COPY
Give subjects a signed copy and keep the original signed copy
in your research file
RESEARCH FILE NOTES
Note in the research file when and with whom the consent
discussion took place and if there were any issues.
MEDICAL RECORD DOCUMENTATION
Include a copy of the consent form in the medical record when
study may affect subject’s health/treatment, and it would be
helpful to share research-related treatment information with
UCSF providers who may not be aware of the subject’s study
participation. Also document when the consent process took
place in the medical record.
Important Note: No changes may be made to the consent form
(including crossing out or striking through the consent form
text or making any changes in the wording) without prior
approval from the IRB.
WITNESS RECORD REQUIRE
Witness signatures are required by federal regulations in very
limited circumstances and can be required by the IRB to
assure an adequate informed consent process for some
research studies.
Examples: Informed consent is obtained using a short form
consent process (when approved by the IRB).
The participant has decision-making capacity, but cannot read,
write, talk or is blind.
The participant’s guardian/legally-authorized representative
cannot read, write, talk or is blind.
When required the witness must be impartial, such as an adult
who is not a member of the study team and preferably who is
not a family member of the participant (unless the person is a
health professional or otherwise knowledgeable about
research). The witness must sign and date the consent form at
the time the consenting process occurs. A signature of the
witness means:
a. The requirements for informed consent have been satisfied.
b. Consent is voluntary and freely given by the participant,
guardian or legally-authorized representative.
RIGHTS TO REFUSAL
The term "right of refusal" in the context of patient consent
refers to a patient's legal and ethical right to refuse or decline a
proposed medical treatment or intervention. This principle is
based on the concept of autonomy, which emphasizes an
individual's right to make decisions about their own body and
medical care.
It's important to note that the right of refusal may be subject to
certain limitations, especially in cases where the patient's
decision may result in serious harm to themselves or others. In
such situations, healthcare providers may need to consider
ethical and legal principles that balance the patient's autonomy
with the duty to protect their well-being.
MISCELLANEOUS LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONCERNS
REQUEST FOR RADIOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS
1. PATIENT CONSENT
- Legal: Ensure that the patient provides informed consent
for the radiological procedure, as required by law.
- Ethical: Respect the patient's autonomy by clearly
explaining the procedure, risks, and benefits before obtaining
consent.
2. PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY:
- Legal: Adhere to privacy laws (e.g., HIPAA) to protect
patient information.
- Ethical: Safeguard patient confidentiality and only share
information with authorized individuals.
3. MINIMIZATION OF RADIATION EXPOSURE:
- Legal: Follow established guidelines and regulations to
minimize radiation exposure, ensuring the procedure is
medically justified.
- Ethical: Prioritize patient safety by using the lowest
possible radiation dose necessary for diagnostic purposes.
4. REFERRAL APPROPRIATENESS:
- Legal: Ensure that referrals for radiological examinations
are based on medical necessity and comply with relevant
regulations.
- Ethical: Refrain from unnecessary examinations and
consider alternative diagnostic methods when appropriate.
5. COMPETENCE AND TRAINING:
- Legal: Radiological procedures should be performed by
qualified and licensed professionals.
- Ethical: Continuous education and training for radiological
staff to maintain competence and stay updated on
advancements in technology and techniques.
LOAN FILMS
1,COPYRIGHT AND LICENSING:
- Legal: Ensure that the loan and use of the film comply with
copyright laws and licensing agreements.
- Ethical: Respect intellectual property rights and obtain
proper permissions for any public screenings or commercial
use.
2. TERMS AND CONDITIONS:
- Legal: Clearly define the terms and conditions of the film
loan, including duration, purpose, and any restrictions.
 - Ethical: Transparently communicate the terms to
borrowers, ensuring they understand and agree to comply with
the specified conditions.
3. AGE RESTRICTIONS:
- Legal: Adhere to age restrictions specified by content
rating systems and local regulations.
- Ethical: Consider the appropriateness of the film content
for the intended audience and avoid providing content that
may be unsuitable.
4. PRIVACY CONCERNS:
- Legal: Respect privacy laws when handling personal
information related to film loans.
- Ethical: Safeguard the privacy of individuals borrowing
films and handle their personal information responsibly.
6. FAIR USE AND PUBLIC SCREENING:
- Legal: Understand the legal implications of public
screenings, ensuring compliance with fair use laws and
obtaining necessary permissions.
- Ethical: Obtain permission from copyright holders before
hosting public screenings to respect the rights of content
creators.
7. DISCRIMINATION AND ACCESSIBILITY:
- Legal: Avoid discrimination in the loan of films based on
factors such as race, gender, or other protected characteristics.
- Ethical: Strive for inclusivity, making films accessible to a
diverse audience and accommodating special needs when
possible.
VISITORS IN THE RADIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
1.PATIENT PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY:
- Legal: Protect patient privacy as mandated by laws such as
HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act)
or other relevant data protection regulations.
- Ethical: Safeguard patient confidentiality by limiting
access to patient information and ensuring that visitors do not
inadvertently breach privacy.
2. INFORMED CONSENT:
- Legal: Ensure that visitors are aware of and agree to any
relevant policies and procedures in the radiology department.
- Ethical: Clearly communicate the expectations and
limitations for visitors, obtaining their informed consent when
required.
3. RADIATION SAFETY:
- Legal: Adhere to radiation safety regulations and
guidelines to protect visitors from unnecessary exposure.
- Ethical: Prioritize the safety of visitors by providing
necessary protective measures and information on radiation
risks.
4. PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT:
- Legal: Uphold professional standards of conduct and ethics
in interactions with visitors.
- Ethical: Demonstrate professionalism, courtesy, and
respect when dealing with visitors to create a positive and
supportive environment.
5. VISITOR IDENTIFICATION AND ACCESS CONTROL
- Legal: Implement appropriate access controls and
identification measures to ensure that only authorized
individuals enter restricted areas.
- Ethical: Clearly communicate and enforce access policies,
preventing unauthorized access to sensitive areas.
6. COMMUNICATION OF RISKS AND INSTRUCTIONS:
- Legal: Provide clear instructions to visitors regarding
safety protocols and potential risks associated with being in
the radiology department.
- Ethical: Ensure that visitors understand and follow safety
guidelines to minimize risks to themselves and others.
7. CULTURAL SENSITIVITY:
- Legal: Avoid discrimination based on cultural or other
protected characteristics.
- Ethical: Be culturally sensitive to the diverse backgrounds
of visitors, ensuring an inclusive and respectful environment.
8. CONSENT FOR OBSERVATION OR EDUCATION:
- Legal: Obtain appropriate consent if visitors are observing
procedures or participating in educational activities.
- Ethical: Respect the rights and autonomy of patients by
ensuring that any observation or educational involvement is
conducted with the necessary permissions.
OTHER LAWS RELATED TO ALLIED HEALTH
MEDICAL PRACTICE
1.PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMMISSION (PRC)
REGULATIONS:
- Legal: Compliance with PRC regulations is mandatory for
allied medical professionals, including licensing requirements
and continuing education obligations.
- Ethical: Uphold the standards set by the PRC to maintain
professional competence and integrity.
1.REPUBLIC ACT NO. 2382 (MEDICAL ACT OF 1959):
- Legal: Defines and regulates medical practice in the
Philippines, including allied medical professions. Compliance
is essential for practitioners.
- Ethical: Adhere to the ethical standards outlined in the
Medical Act to ensure patient welfare and professional
conduct.
3. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10586 (PHILIPPINE RADIOLOGIC
TECHNOLOGY ACT OF 2013)
- Legal: Regulates the practice of radiologic technology,
outlining licensing requirements and professional standards.
 - Ethical: Radiologic technologists should prioritize patient
safety, adhere to radiation safety guidelines, and maintain
confidentiality.
4. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10912 (CONTINUING
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ACT OF 2016):
- Legal: Requires allied medical professionals to engage in
continuing education and professional development to renew
their licenses.
- Ethical: Pursue ongoing learning to stay updated on
advancements in the field, contributing to improved patient
care.
5. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9439 (AN ACT PROHIBITING
THE DETENTION OF PATIENTS IN HOSPITALS AND
MEDICAL CLINICS DUE TO NONPAYMENT OF
HOSPITAL BILLS OR MEDICAL EXPENSES):
- Legal: Prohibits the detention of patients in healthcare
facilities due to nonpayment, emphasizing the right to health.
- Ethical: Healthcare providers should prioritize patient care
and well-being over financial considerations.
6. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9502 (UNIVERSALLY
ACCESSIBLE CHEAPER AND QUALITY MEDICINES
ACT OF 2008):
- Legal: Aims to make quality medicines more accessible
and affordable to the public.
- Ethical: Healthcare professionals should support initiatives
that enhance access to essential medicines, promoting patient
welfare.
7. PATIENT'S BILL OF RIGHTS (REPUBLIC ACT NO.
9439):
- Legal: Ensures that patients have the right to informed
consent, privacy, and other fundamental rights during
healthcare delivery.
- Ethical: Healthcare providers must uphold these rights,
fostering a patient-centered approach to care.
CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
Awareness and appreciation of the values, norms, and beliefs,
characteristic of a cultural, ethnic, racial, or other group that is
not one’s own, accompanied by a willingness to adapt one’s
behavior accordingly.
SOCIOECONOMIC
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Socioeconomic status (SES) refers to an individual's or a
family's social and economic position in society.
It includes factors such as income, education level,
occupation, and access to resources. Understanding SES is
crucial in healthcare because it greatly influences access to
healthcare, health behaviors, and health outcomes.
When providing care, healthcare professionals must consider
the financial constraints, limited resources, and potential
barriers to accessing healthcare that individuals from lower
socioeconomic backgrounds may face. It's important to be
attentive to these factors and offer appropriate support and
resources to ensure equitable and accessible healthcare for all
patients.
ETHNICITY
Cultural sensitivity in ethnicity encompasses an understanding
and respect for the customs, beliefs, and traditions of different
ethnic groups. It involves recognizing the unique cultural
heritage of each group and avoiding assumptions or
stereotypes based on ethnicity.
Culturally sensitive individuals are inclusive and welcoming,
fostering an environment where people from all ethnic
backgrounds feel valued and respected. Cultural sensitivity in
ethnicity also involves advocating for equality and challenging
any discrimination or barriers that may exist based on ethnic
identity.
GENDER
Gender refers to the social, cultural, and behavioral attributes,
roles, and expectations associated with being male or female.
It goes beyond biological differences (sex) and encompasses a
range of identities and expressions, recognizing that
individuals may not strictly conform to traditional notions of
masculinity or femininity.
ISSUE REVOLVING GENDER
1. GENDER INEQUALITY
Disparities in opportunities, access to education,
employment, and resources based on gender.
2. GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
Acts that target individuals based on their gender,
such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, and human
trafficking.
3. GENDER PAY GAP
Differences in earnings between men and women,
often reflecting systemic inequalities in the workplace.
4. GENDER STEREOTYPES
Preconceived notions and expectations about the
roles, behaviors, and characteristics associated with men and
women.
5. LGBTQ+ RIGHTS
Advocacy for equal rights and acceptance regardless
of sexual orientation, gender identity, or expression.
6. REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS
Issues surrounding access to reproductive healthcare,
family planning, and women's autonomy over their bodies.
7. GENDER DISCRIMINATION
Unfair treatment based on gender, affecting various
aspects of life, including education, employment, and social
interactions.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Sexual orientation refers to an individual's enduring
emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to people of the same
and/or opposite sex. Common categories include heterosexual
(attraction to the opposite sex), homosexual (attraction to the
same sex), and bisexual (attraction to both sexes). It is an
intrinsic aspect of a person's identity and is not a choice.
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT SEXUAL
ORIENTATION
1. CHOICE
One misconception is that sexual orientation is a
choice. Scientific evidence suggests that it is a complex
interplay of biological, genetic, hormonal, and environmental
factors.
2. BINARY THINKING
Some erroneously view sexual orientation in a strictly binary
manner, neglecting the diversity of orientations, such as
bisexuality, pan sexuality, and asexuality.
3. PATHOLOGY
Incorrectly associating non-heterosexual orientations
with pathology or mental disorders is another misconception.
Being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is not a mental health issue
4. "CONVERSION" OR "REPARATIVE" THERAPY
Believing that sexual orientation can be changed
through therapy is a harmful misconception. Professional
health organizations widely condemn such practices.
5. STEREOTYPES
Assuming that all individuals with a specific sexual
orientation conform to stereotypes is misleading. Sexual
orientation is just one aspect of a person's identity.
FAMILY STRUCTURE
The family is a basic unit of society in many medical and
social science disciplines. Definitions of family have varied
from country to country, and also within country. Because of
this and the changing realities of the current times, there is a
felt need for redefining the family and the common family
structure types.
Example Scenario: A patient is identified to be unconscious
and incapable of making decision regarding his well-being. In
this given example, the patient is recommended to have a life
changing surgery that could potentially save him/her. How
does family affect this situation?
RELIGION
Religion plays a significant role in many people's lives and has
a deep influence on their beliefs, values, and healthcare
decisions.
Healthcare providers should be aware and respectful of the
religious beliefs and practices of their patients. This involves
understanding dietary restrictions, personal modesty concerns,
prayer needs, or any other religious practices that might affect
the patient's healthcare experience. By acknowledging and
accommodating religious beliefs and practices, healthcare
providers can create a supportive environment that respects
their patients' identity and values.
MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED
Disabled persons are those suffering from restriction or
different abilities, as a result of a mental, physical or sensory
impairment, to perform an activity in the manner or within the
range considered normal for a human being. Terms to further
understand Disabled Persons:
1. Impairment is any loss, diminution or aberration of
psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or
function.
2. Disability- A physical or mental impairment that
substantially limits one or more psychological, physiological
or anatomical function of an individual or activities of
individual record of an impairment
Being regarded as having such an impairment
3. Handicap refers to a disadvantage for a given individual,
resulting from an impairment or a disability, that limits or
prevents the function or activity, that is considered normal
given the age and sex of the individual
Republic Act No. 7277 or “Magna Carta for Disabled Persons,
1992”
“Disabled persons have the same rights as other people to take
their proper place in society.”
7 TYPES OF DISABILITIES MENTIONED IN REPUBLIC
ACT NO. 7277
1. PSYCHOSOCIAL DISABILITY
A psycho social disability pertains to any psychological or
social condition that limits a person’s ability to effectively
interact with others. People with this disability look fine from
the outside but have a tendency to display asocial or anti-
social behavior.
2. DISABILITY CAUSED BY CHRONIC ILLNESS
A disability caused by chronic illness is a disability that results
from complications brought about by the worsening of a
chronic medical condition.
For example, a person living with diabetes may suffer from
complications such as diabetic retinopathy and sepsis due to
the inability of his or her body to process sugar. Diabetic
retinopathy can cause one to go blind, while sepsis can force
one to have his or her limbs removed or experience heart
problems, which could result in a stroke.
3. LEARNING DISABILITY
A learning disability is a disability that makes it
difficult for a person to focus, comprehend, and retain
information. It is usually detected and diagnosed during a
person’s time in school.
4. MENTAL DISABILITY
A mental disability is a mental illness-triggered
disability. People with Down syndrome, bipolar disorder,
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and schizophrenia
belong to this disability bracket.
5. VISUAL DISABILITY
Unlike other disabilities, a visual disability is considered a
disability only when it can no longer be corrected. This means
that a person who can still see clearly while wearing
eyeglasses is not yet classified as visually impaired, regardless
of the grade of his or her eyeglasses.
6. ORTHOPEDIC DISABILITY
An orthopedic disability refers to a disability that interferes
with the ability of the joints, muscles, or limbs to function
normally. It includes people with spina bifida, paraplegia,
quadriplegia, hemiplegia, cerebral palsy, and polio.
7. COMMUNICATION DISABILITY
A communication disability is a disability with two sub-types:
hearing impairment and speech and language impairment. A
person is said to be hearing impaired when he or she partially
or completely lose his or her hearing ability. Meanwhile, a
person with a speech and language impairment has trouble
articulating words.
TREATING MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY
CHALLENGED PATIENTS
In General:
Speak directly with the patient, not to any companion that the
patient may have.
Avoid making assumptions about what assistance the patient
needs. Offer assistance, wait for offer to be accepted and wait
for instructions.
Ask how you can help them and respect their answers.
Presume that patients with disabilities are competent to handle
their own medical care. If patients do not have anyone to assist
them, do not ask them whether they brought an aide or a
companion.
Allow time for history taking and thorough exam.
Use “person-first” language when referring to patients with
disabilities (i.e. person who is blind, person who uses
wheelchair, person with hearing loss) unless the patient asks to
be referred to in another manner.
Don’t be afraid to ask the patient questions if you are unsure.
a. Visually Disabled Patients
Always verbally identify yourself when you approach and
introduce other people in the room.
Do not leave without letting the patient know.
Ask before you help. Always ask how they would like to be
assisted. Ask the person before you touch him/her to offer
help.
Be prepared to provide written materials in an auditory, tactile,
or electronic format of the patient’s preference (CD, Braille,
large print).
Verbally explain procedures before beginning treatment and
ask the patients if they have any questions.
Tell the patient where personal affects (clothes and other
belongings) are in the room and do not move them without
telling the patient.
Staff should be welcoming and describe the physical
environment (doors, steps, ramps, bathroom location, etc.).
Never distract or touch a service animal without asking the
owner.
b. Patients who are Deaf
Ask how best to communicate.
Inform patients that sign language interpreting and real-time
captioning services are available.
If requested, promptly provide sign language interpreting or
real-time captioning service for effective communication.
Family members should not be used to interpret.
Address the patient, not the interpreter.
Be prepared to give written materials as long as they are not
the primary form of communication.
c. Patients who are Hard of Hearing
Do not talk at a distance from them or from another room.
Look directly at the patient when speaking so they can see
your mouth.
Speak normally and clearly. Do not shout, exaggerate mouth
movements, or speak rapidly.
Minimize background noise and glare.
d. Wheelchair Users
Make sure there is a path of access to the room.
Respect personal space, including wheelchair and assistive
devices.
Do not propel the wheelchair unless asked to do so.
Provide accessible equipment as needed.
Provide assistance as needed, such as by clearing obstacles
from the path of travel or helping patients transfer to
equipment if accessible equipment is unavailable.
Do not separate patients from their wheelchairs.
Do not examine patients while seated in their wheelchairs if
the examination requires a person to lie down.
CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
The definition of Cultural Sensitivity is:
Understanding that people differ and are similar in their
cultures, and that these differences and similarities impact
behavior, learning, and values.
A collection of abilities that enable you to comprehend and
gain knowledge about individuals whose cultural backgrounds
diverge from your own.
The Value of Cultural Sensitivity
Numerous facets of our lives are influenced by our culture. It
affects how we communicate with one another and the outside
world.
Individuals who are sensitive to different cultures can live and
work there. They respect and value diversity and are receptive
to understanding things from different perspectives.
SOCIOECONOMIC
What is Socioeconomic?
The social science that examines how social processes
influence and are influenced by economic activity is called
socioeconomic, or social economics for short.
It examines how local, regional, or global economies drive
modern societies to advance, stagnate, or regress.
A person or a group's socioeconomic status is their place on
the socioeconomic scale, which is based on a variety of social
and economic factors like their income, their level and type of
education, their type and prestige of occupation, where they
live, and—in certain societies or parts of society—their
ethnicity or religious background.
THREE LEVELS OF SOCIOECONOMIC:
1. High SES, therefore, indicates a high-income,
high-status occupation and adequate living conditions.
2. The middle class is a socioeconomic stratum that falls in
between the working class and the upper class. Those in the
middle class have enough disposable income to afford minor
luxuries like vacations or restaurants but also rely on
borrowing for big-ticket items like homes and cars.
3. Low SES usually refers to individuals with low educational
achievement and/or low household income.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR YOU TO APPRECIATE
YOUR SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND?
Being from a community that has often been refused stable
and quality opportunities builds resilience and dedication.
People from socioeconomic backgrounds that generally
experience higher levels of poverty and exclusion understand
the value of things. They know how to work hard and be
dedicated to their work.
ETHNICITY
What is Ethnicity?
An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people who identify
with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that
distinguish them from other groups.
Ethnicity describes the culture of people in a given geographic
region, including their language, heritage, religion and
customs.
1. Ilocano
2. Ifugao
3. Bisaya
4. Muslim
GENDER
What is Gender?
Gender includes the social psychological, cultural and
behavioral aspects of being a man, woman or other gender
identity.
How do you define a Gender?
Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and
boys that are socially constructed.
This includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with
being a woman, man, girl or a boy.
What are the 4 Types of Gender?
1. Masculine Gender
- It is used to denote a male sub type.
2. Feminine Gender
- It is used to denote a female sub type.
3. Neuter Gender
- Neuter means neither, which is neither a male or female.
4. Common Gender
- It denotes either a male or female sex.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Sexual Orientation is the emotional, romantic, or sexual
attraction that a person feels towards another person.
Sexual orientation is just something your born with. Culture
can only influence how a person expresses their orientation,
which itself is inborn.
TYPES OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION
1. HETEROSEXUAL
– People who are heterosexual are romantically and physically
attracted to members of opposite sex. Heterosexual are what
we call “straight”
2. HOMOSEXUAL
– People who are homosexual are romantically and physically
attracted to people of same sex.
A. Female who are attracted to another female are called
“Lesbian”
B. Male who are attracted to another male are called “Gay”
3. BISEXUAL
– People who are bisexual are romantically and physically
attracted to members of both sexes.
4. Asexual
– People who are asexual may not be interested in sex, but
they still feel emotionally close to other people
FAMILY STRUCTURE
Family structure refers to the combination of relatives that
comprise a family.
The cultural beliefs of individual family members and the
entire family inform decisions made about the child and the
family. Cultures shape our views on key issues such as family
roles and goals, care-giving practices, learning, education,
school readiness, child behaviors, and the nature of childhood
itself
TYPES OF FAMILY STRUCTURE
1. NUCLEAR FAMILY
Also known as elementary or traditional families, consists of
two (2) parents (usually married or common law) and their
children.
2.SINGLE PARENT
Single Parent Families consist of one parent with one or more
kids.
In these cases, the parent either never married, widowed, or
divorced.
3. EXTENDED FAMILY
Families with two or more adults who are related through
blood or marriage, usually along with children.
This often includes aunts, uncles, cousins, or other relatives
living under the same roof.
4. CHILDLESS FAMILY
Childless families are families with two partners who cannot
have or don't want kids.
In the world of family types and dynamics, these families are
often forgotten or left out
5. STEPFAMILY
A stepfamily is when two separate families merge into one.
This can go several different ways, like two divorced parents
with one or more children blending families, or one divorced
parent with kids marrying someone who has never been
married and has no kids.
6. GRANDPARENT FAMILY
The final family type is the grandparent family.
A grandparent family is when one or more grandparent is
raising their grandchild or grandchildren.
RELIGION
RELIGION absolutely, cultural sensitivity around religion is
crucial.
It involves respecting others' beliefs, customs, and practices,
refraining from imposing one's beliefs on others, and being
open to understanding different perspectives.
It's about fostering an environment of acceptance and
understanding, regardless of one's faith or beliefs.
MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY CHALLENGE
Is a term used to describe individuals who have difficulties
with their mental and physical abilities.
Some people might have challenges with their thinking,
learning, or understanding things, which is called a Mental
Challenge.
Others might have difficulties with their movement, strength,
or coordination, which is called a Physical Challenge.
These challenges can vary in severity and may affect different
aspects of a person's life.
It's important to remember that everyone deserves respect,
understanding, and support, regardless of their challenges.
CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
Also referred to as cross-cultural sensitivity or cultural
awareness, is the knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of
other cultures and others' cultural identities the. Ability to
recognize, understand, and react appropriately to behaviors of
persons who belong to a cultural or ethnic group that differs
substantially from one's own. Cultural sensitivity in
socioeconomic refers to the awareness, understanding, and
consideration of cultural factors when analyzing, formulating,
and implementing economic policies and practices within a
society. Understanding that individuals and communities may
have different values, traditions, and perspectives that
influence their economic behaviors. Recognizing that cultural
factors influence how people approach economic activities
such as saving, spending, investing, and entrepreneurship.
ETHNICITY
Cultural sensitivity in ethnicity involves being aware of and
respectful towards the diverse customs, traditions, values, and
perspectives associated with different ethnic groups. It means
recognizing that people from various ethnic backgrounds may
have unique cultural practices and beliefs. To be culturally
sensitive in ethnicity, one should avoid making assumptions,
stereotypes, or generalizations about individuals based on their
ethnic identity. Instead, fostering understanding, appreciating
diversity, and promoting inclusivity are essential aspects of
cultural sensitivity in the context of ethnicity.
GENDER
consideration to sociocultural norms and discrimination in
order to acknowledge the different rights, roles and
responsibilities of women and men in the community and the
relationships between them. Gender sensitive policy, program,
administrative and financial activities, and organizational
procedures will differentiate between the capacities needs and
priorities of women and men ensure that the views and ideas
of both women and men are taken seriously consider the
implications of decisions on the situation of women relative to
men and take actions to address inequalities or imbalance
between women and men.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Sexual orientation is about who you’re attracted to and who
you feel drawn to romantically, emotionally, and sexually to
have relationships with. Sexual orientations include gay,
lesbian, straight, bisexual, and asexual.
FAMILY STRUCTURE
Cultures shape our views on key issues such as family roles
and goals, care giving practices, learning, education, school
readiness, child behavior and the nature of childhood itself.
The cultural beliefs of individual family members and the
entire family inform decisions made about the child and
family
Respecting Cultural differences in family structure is one
example of cultural sensitivity. In many cultures, the family
unit extends beyond just parent and children, and it includes
grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins and even close family
friends. In other cultures, there may be different norms
regarding gender roles and expectations within the family. By
respecting these differences, we can avoid imposing our own
cultural values and beliefs on others.
RELIGION
Religion and culture are often intertwined. No single religion
encompasses a whole society in the world todat that lives
according to a single set of sacred rules and practices.
Showing respect for different religions and spiritual beliefs is
an important aspect of cultural sensitivity. Religion and
culture are often intertwined. No single religion encompasses
a whole society in the world todat that lives according to a
single set of sacred rules and practices. Showing respect for
different religions and spiritual beliefs is an important aspect
of cultural sensitivity.
MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY CHALLENGE
MENTALLY CHALENGE
Cultural sensitivity in mental health or neurodiversity,
involves an awareness and understanding of how culture
influences the experience, perception, and treatment of mental
health conditions among individuals from diverse cultural
backgrounds. Training mental health professionals to
understand and navigate cultural nuances in diagnosis,
treatment, and communication.
MENTALLY CHALENGE
Recognizing how cultural background may influence
preferences for certain therapeutic approaches or
interventions.
PHYSICALLY CHALLENGE
limitations hinder the person from performing tasks of daily
living. Physical disabilities are highly individualized. Ensuring
that environments and services are accessible and
accommodating to individuals with different types of physical
challenges. Recognizing and respecting cultural perceptions of
disability fosters a more inclusive and respectful approach.