Glass

Is a super cooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline
inorganic substance.

Introduction and History of Glass

 Egypt circa 2500 B.C.-The earliest known human-made glass objects (beads)
 1st Century B.C.-glass blowing begins
 13th Century-specialized glass production was an art, a science, and a state secret in the
republic of Venice
 14th Century-glass-making spreads through Europe
 The industrial revolution applies mass production to many types of glass
 Analysis of glass found at a crime scene can yield trace evidence

Characteristics of Glass

 Usually transparent
 Primarily composed of silica, with various amounts of elemental oxides
 Exhibits conchoidal fracture

Physical Characteristics

 Density-mass divided by volume

 Refractive index (RI)-the measure of light bending due to a change in velocity when
traveling from one medium to another
 Fractures
 Color
 Thickness
 Fluorescence
 Markings-striations, dimples, etc.

Composition of Glass (continued)

Made by melting the following ingredients at extremely high temperatures

Sand

 The primary ingredient

 Also known as silica or silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Lime or calcium oxide (CaO) is added to prevent the glass from becoming soluble in water

Sodium oxide (Na2O) is added to reduce the melting point of silica or sand

Three categories of substances found in all glass

Formers

 Makes up the bulk of the glass

 Examples: silicon dioxide (SiO2) in the form of sand, boron trioxide (BO), and phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O)

Fluxes

 Change formers' melting points

 Examples: sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and potassium carbonate (K2CO3)

Stabilizers

 Strengthen the glass and make it resistant to water

 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the most frequently used

The raw materials for making glass are all oxides

- The composition of a sample can be expressed in percentage of different oxides

- Example: the approximate composition of window or bottle glass is

Silica (SiO2)-73.6%
Soda (Na2O) - 16.0%
Lime (CaO) – 5.2 %
Potash (K2O) -0.6%
Magnesia (MgO) -3.6%
Alumina (Al2O3)-1.0

Common Types

Soda-lime-used in plate and window glass, glass containers, and electric lightbulbs
Soda-lead-fine tableware and art objects
Borosilicate-heat-resistant, like Pyrex
Silica-used in chemical ware
Tempered-used in side & rear windows of cars Laminated-used in the windshield of most cars

Types of Glass

Obsidian is a natural form of glass that is created by volcanoes

Soda-lime glass

 The most basic, common, inexpensive glass also the easiest to make
 Used for manufacturing windows and bottle glass
Leaded glass

 Contains lead oxide which makes it denser

 Sparkles as light passes through it (light waves are bent)
 Used for manufacturing fine glassware and art glass
 Is commonly called crystal

Laminated glass
 Constructed by bonding two ordinary sheets of glass together with a plastic film
 Also used by automobile manufactures

COMPARING GLASS FRAGMENTS

TO COMPARE GLASS FRAGMENTS, A FORENSIC SCIENTIST EVALUATES TWO

IMPORTANT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

 REFRACTIVE INDEX
 DENSITY

Methods of Comparison: Density and Measurements

Density comparison

 A method of matching glass fragments

 Density (D) is calculated by dividing the mass (M) of a substance by its volume (V)

D=M/V

- Example
 A solid is weighed on a balance against known standard gram weights to determine
its mass
 The solid's volume is then determined from the volume of water it displaces
 Measured by filling a cylinder with a known volume of water (v1), adding the
object, and measuring the new water level (v2)
 The difference (v2-v1) in milliliters is equal to the volume of the solid
 Density can now be calculated from the equation in grams per milliliter

Flotation comparison

 A sample of glass is dropped into and sinks to the bottom of a liquid containing an
exact volume of a dense liquid, such as bromobenzene (d = 1.52 g/mL)
 A denser liquid, such as bromoform (d = 2.89 g/mL), is added one drop at a time
until the piece of glass rises up from the bottom and attains neutral buoyancy

 Neutral buoyancy occurs when an object has the exact same density as the
surrounding fluid, and neither sinks nor floats, but is suspended in one place
beneath the surface of the fluid
Refractive Index

 When a beam of light moves from one medium into another, there is a change in its
speed change, and therefore, direction
 Refractive Index-a tool used to study how light bends as it passes from one
substance to another
 Normal line is perpendicular to the glass surface
 When a beam of light moves from less dense medium (air) into a more dense
medium (water):

 Its speed slows, and

 Bends light toward the normal line

 When a beam of light moves from a more dense medium (glass) into a less denser
medium (air):

 Its speed increases

 And bends light away from the normal line line

Determination of Refractive Index

Immersion method-lower fragments into liquids whose refractive index is different

Match point-when the refractive index of the glass is equal to that of the liquid

Becke line-a halo-like glow that appears around an object

immersed in a liquid. It disappears when the refractive index of the liquid matches the refractive
index of the object (the match point).

Application of Refractive Index to Forensics

Immersion method-used when glass

fragments found at the crime scene are
small Piece of glass Level of liquid

 Place the glass fragment into different

liquids of known refractive indexes

 The glass fragment will seem to

disappear when placed in a liquid of
the same refractive index
Becke Line a halo-like effect appearing at the edges of a glass fragment when the reflective index
of the glass and liquid are different

 If the line is inside the glass perimeter, the glass index is higher than the index of the liquid
 If the line is outside the glass perimeter, the glass index is lower

GLASS FRACTURE PATTERNS

 BY ANALYZING THE RADIAL AND CONCENTRIC FRACTURE PATTERNS IN

GLASS, THE FORENSIC SCIENTIST CAN DETERMINE THE DIRECTION OF
IMPACT BY APPLYING THE 3R RULE.

3-R RULE

 RADIAL CRACKS FOR A

 RIGHT ANGLE ON THE
 REVERSE SIDE OF THE FORCE

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN GLASS

THE PRINCIPLE OF RADIAL CRACK-

states that" stress line on a radial crack will be
at right angle to the rear side of the glass.

THE PRINCIPLE FOR CONCENTRIC

CRACK-states that line on a concentric crack
will be at right angle to the front which the blow
came rather than
the rear side.

Why Radial and Concentric Fractures Form

Glass after an impact shows radial fractures (red) and concentric circle fractures (blue)
Sequencing

A high-velocity projectile always leaves a wider hole at the exit side of the glass.

Cracks terminate at intersections with others. This can be used to determine the order in which
the fractures occurred.

Determining the direction from which a bullet was fired

Compare the size of the entrance hole to the size of the exit hole
Exit holes
 Always larger, regardless of the type of material that was shot
 A larger piece of glass is knocked out of the surface where the bullet is leaving
because glass is elastic and bows cutward when struck

Path of a Bullet Passing through Window Glass

 The angles at which bullets enter window

glass help locate the position of the shooter
 Bits of the glass can fly backward (backscatter), creating trace evidence

Comparing Glass
 Investigation/Analysis includes
 Finding
 Measuring
 Comparing

Glass as Evidence

Class characteristics: physical and chemical properties such as refractive index, density, color,
chemical composition

Individual characteristics: if the fragments can fit together like pieces of a puzzle, the source can
be considered unique

Class Characteristics (Density and Refractive Index)

 The general composition of glass is relatively uniform and offers no individualization
 Trace elements in glass may prove to be distinctive and measureable characterístics
 The physical properties of density and refractive index are used most successfully for
characterizing glass particles, but only as a class characteristic - This data (density and
refractivity) gives analysts the opportunity to compare and exclude different sources of data

Individual Characteristics
 Only occurs when the suspect and crime scene fragments are assembled and physically fitted
together
 Comparisons of this type require piecing together irregular edges of broken glass as well as
matching all irregularities and striations on the broken surfaces
 Most glass evidence is either too fragmentary or minute to permit a comparison of this type

ANALYSIS OF GLASS

1. SPECTROGRAPHICTEST an instrumental method of analysis which determines the

presence of trace elements.

2. X-RAY DIFFRACTION TEST- not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. It determines

the type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION- the most sensitive method of determining

differences of composition of glass samples and depends upon the study of physical properties of
glass.

Density-done by flotation, a rapid and convenient method of determining the density of small
glass fragments.

Refractive index done by immersion method.

4. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION- determines the differences in the appearance of

the fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical properties,
5. POLISH MARKS optical glass and other glassware are usually polished.

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run
2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other crimes of
violence.
Considerations for Collection
 The collector must consider that fragments within a questioned sample may have multiple
origins. If possible, the collector should attempt an initial separation based on physical
properties.
 The collector must consider the possibility that there may be a physical match to a known
sample (e.g., a piece of glass to a fractured vehicle headlamp). When an attempt to make a
physical match is made at the site of collection, the collector should take precautions to
avoid mixing of the known and questioned samples.
 Any glass samples collected should be documented, marked (if necessary), packaged, and
labeled.

Collecting the Sample

 The glass sample should consist of the largest amount that can be
practically collected from each broken object and packaged separately. The sample should be
removed from the structure (e.g., window frame, light assembly). The inside and outside surfaces
of the known sample should be labeled if a determination of direction of breakage or
reconstruction of the pane is desired.
 When multiple broken glass sources are identified, it is necessary to sample all sources.
 A sample should be collected from various locations throughout the broken portion of the
object in order to be as representative as possible.
 The sample should be collected with consideration being given to the presence of other types
of evidence on that sample (e.g., fibers,
blood).