Looking into the future

(i) Designing new materials

(ii) Quantum cryptography and
Quantum computation
 Designing new materials
Designing new materials without doing expensive experimentation requires solving
the Schrödinger equation for a large number of electrons in the potential of many
nuclei and ions. The potential energy of the electrons is therefore the energy of
interaction between the electrons and the ions, and the Coulomb energy of their
mutual interaction. The equation cannot be solved exactly even with the most
powerful powerful computers. This is because the memory and the speed needed
for doing this cannot be achieved.
Since exact solutions cannot be obtained, the past 60 years have seen emergence of
methods that give highly accurate solutions of the Schrodinger equation. Using these
methods it is now possible to design theoretically materials of desired properties.
This has found applications in finding materials for all sorts of applications, for
example, efficient catalysts. It has also led to designing drugs for specific treatments.
Discussion of these methods is well beyond the level and scope of this course. Those
interested will learn about these in their future courses.
 What is cryptography?
You are all familiar with cryptography which is the art of sending messages by
a sender to others (receivers) in such a way that any person (eavesdropper)
who it is not intended for cannot understand these.
In cryptography, one usually hides a message either directly (putting written
messages in a closed sealed envelope) or writes it in such a way that even if
eavesdroppers read it, they cannot understand the message unless they know
the method (known as algorithm) of coding it. For example, the algorithm
could be replacing an alphabet in the true message by some other alphabet.
The second component of coding the message is then which alphabet
replaces which one, and this is known as the key. For example, the key could
be replacing each alphabet by its next neighbour, with Z being replaced by A.
 Electronic computation

All of you are also well conversant with electronic computation

which is done by your calculator or the computer. Electronic
computation is based on binary (using 0 and 1) representation
of numbers, known as bits. For example, 0 could be
represented by low voltage and 1 by high voltage in a capacitor.
To perform a calculation, these numbers are then manipulated
using electronic devices known as gates. How this
manipulation is to be done is written as an algorithm.
 Quantum cryptography and Quantum computation
The general idea behind quantum cryptography is to write messages using
quantum states of a system. Its advantage is if an eavesdropper tries to
read it, the message collapses to one of the states and the other person
knows that it has been read. Quantum cryptography also uses an
algorithm and a key.
In quantum computers also, the binary states (0 and 1) are represented by
two quantum states of a system. Since one can also use a superposition
of these states (unlike in electronic representation), quantum computers
offer advantage of parallel computation using both the states together.
However, this manipulation of quantum states requires developing
different kinds of gates and algorithms. This has given rise to the field of
Quantum computing.
Quantum cryptography and computation……..
As we will see, the quantum cryptography algorithm we will
discuss uses two states of a quantum system, as do the quantum
computers. These are known as qubits. So we begin discussion of
these topic with a study of two‐level quantum systems and their
manipulation.
 Lecture 33
Two‐level quantum systems
A comment on choosing the z‐direction:
In general without any field applied, the space is isotropic (that is, it is
the same in properties in all directions about a point, or about the
electron’s position). Thus there is no preferred z‐direction. On the
other hand, when we apply a magnetic field* in a particular direction,
we have disrupted the isotropic symmetry and there is a preferred
direction in space. We take this direction to be the z‐direction. This is
because, as we saw in the case of orbital angular momentum, doing
calculus with 𝐿 is convenient.
*The field applied is magnetic field because that is what interacts with
the angular momentum through the magnetic moment arising from it
for a charged particle.
• In the next slide, take the intensity of light to be so low that there is only
one photon passing through the polarizer at any time.
1
• The quantum state of the photon is taken to be when the
0
polarization of light is in the 𝑥 direction and 0 when the polarization is
1
in 𝑦 direction.
• If the polarization of light is at an angle 𝜃 from the 𝑥‐axis, the quantum
state of the photon is the superposition state cos𝜃 1 sin𝜃 1 cos𝜃
.
0 0 sin𝜃
Interpretation: When a measurement of polarization is made on
the superposition state above, the wavefunction collapses to state
1
with probability . That means if we pass such a photon
0
through a filter with its polarization axis in the direction, the
photon will pass through it with the probability . Similarly,
if the photon is passed through a filter with its polarization axis in
the direction, the photon will pass through it with the
probability .