Received 25 November 2022; revised 16 December 2022; accepted 16 December 2022.

Date of publication 6 January 2023;

date of current version 11 January 2023. The review of this article was arranged by Associate Editor Lixin Dong.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/OJNANO.2022.3233485

Greenhouse Gas Detection Based on Infrared

Nanophotonic Devices
CHUNHUI HAO1,2,3 , XIAO FU1,2,3 , XIAOYONG JIANG4 , YUTONG LI1,3 , JUYI SUN1,3 , HAITAO WU1,3 , HE ZHU1,3 ,
QING LI1,2,3 , YUNHAI LI5 , ZHANGCHENG HUANG 4 , FANG ZHONG1,2,3 , TING HE1,2,3 , JINSHUI MIAO 1,2,3 ,
AND WEIDA HU 1,2,3
1
School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024,
China
2
State Key Laboratory of Infrared Physics, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200083, China
3
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
4
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, Frontier Institute of Chip and System, and the Zhangjiang Fudan International Innovation Center, Fudan University,
Shanghai 200433, China
5
Nantong Academy of Intelligent Sensing, Jiangsu 226009, China
CORRESPONDING AUTHORS: JINSHUI MIAO; ZHANGCHENG HUANG; WEIDA HU (e-mail: jsmiao@mail.sitp.ac.cn; huangzc@fudan.edu.cn;
wdhu@mail.sitp.ac.cn)
This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grants 62261136552, 62005303, and 62134001, in part by the
National Key Research and Development Program of China under Grant 2021YFA0715602, in part by the Hangzhou Key Research and Development Program of
China under Grant 20212013B01, in part by the Open Research Projects of Zhejiang Lab under Grant 2022NK0AB01, and in part by the Science and Technology
Commission of Shanghai Municipality under Grant 21YF1454700. (Chunhui Hao, Xiao Fu, and Xiaoyong Jiang contributed equally to the work.)

ABSTRACT Most greenhouse gases come from biological activities and industry which will lead to global
warming and show an impact on human life. With the need of green transformation of the global economic
structure and seeking for higher quality of human life, the detection and management of greenhouse gases, as
well as most hazardous gases in the environment, are increasingly demanding. Applications in different fields
require sensors that can detect gas volume fractions with magnitudes from 10–9 to 10–4. Greenhouse gas
detection plays an important role both in the agriculture and industry field. In this review, we first summarize
the mechanism of several common gas detectors used currently. Then, the advantages of nanostructured gas
sensors are discussed. Finally, the applications of infrared gas sensors based on nanophotonic devices are
described in detail. This review has been an outlook on the future development of infrared gas sensors based
on nanophotonic devices.

INDEX TERMS Environment and climate, greenhouse gas, nanostructures, photonic device.

I. INTRODUCTION greenhouses, inflammable and explosion CH4 detection in the

In recent years, the continuous growth of greenhouse gas
emissions has created global warming [1], [2], [3], which
causes the melting of glaciers [4], and rising sea levels [5],
bringing a serious challenge to human beings. The whole
world has made active efforts to alleviate climate warming,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions has become the consensus
of all countries [6], and carbon peaking and carbon neutral-
ity [7] have long become a worldwide issue. Greenhouse
gas, mainly consisting of CO2 and CH4 , can absorb long
wavelength radiation from the ground and radiate longer
wavelengths back to the ground, which results in global
warming. Besides, it is important to detect greenhouse gas
in daily life, such as CO2 detection in confined spaces and
living environment, etc. In addition, Real-time monitoring of
CO is also important as it’s toxic and can be converted to CO2
while burning.
Currently, there are many detection methods for CO, CO2,
and CH4 gases, such as catalytic combustion gas sensors
based on the thermal effect of combustion, semiconductor gas
sensors based on charge transfer, electrochemical gas sensors
based on chemical redox reactions, and infrared gas sensors
based on infrared absorption spectroscopy. Among them, in-
frared gas sensors are widely used in gas detection because
of their better stability, better selectivity, faster response, high
signal-to-noise ratio, broader measure range, higher accuracy,
and long service life. In recent years, the development of

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10 VOLUME 4, 2023
FIGURE 1. Different gas sensor detection principles. (a) Principle of catalytic combustion gas sensor. (b) Principle of semiconductor type gas sensor.
(c) Principle of the electrochemical gas sensor. (d) Principle of the infrared gas sensor.
nanotechnology has provided excellent, sensitive materials for
sensors, such as nanoparticles, nanotubes, two-dimensional
layered semiconductors, etc., which are of great importance
for achieving low cost, miniaturization, and high accuracy
detection.
This paper mainly summarizes the current gas detection
methods commonly used to detect CO, CO2 , and CH4 ,
comparing the feature of common gas sensors, including cat-
alytic combustion gas sensors, semiconductor gas sensors,
electrochemical gas sensors, and infrared gas sensors, focus-
ing on the detection principles based on infrared absorption
spectroscopy and the advantages. The development of nanos-
tructured devices is introduced, mainly discussing 0D, 1D,
2D, and special structured nanophotonic devices [8], [9] ap-
plied to infrared gas detection, highlighting the advantages of
nanostructured devices in the direction of gas detection, and
providing new ideas for the future development of miniatur-
ized and high-precision gas sensors.
II. WHY INFRARED GAS SENSORS?
Common gas detection techniques include catalytic combus-
tion gas sensors [10], [13], [12], semiconductor gas sensors
[13], [14], electrochemical gas sensors [15], [16], and infrared
gas sensors [17]. Here, we briefly introduce the working prin-
ciple of these sensors.
A. CATALYTIC COMBUSTION GAS SENSOR
Catalytic combustion gas sensors use the thermal effect of
catalytic combustion to detect gas concentrations. In certain
temperature conditions, the flameless combustion of com-
bustible gas occurs on the surface of the detection device and
with the presence of a catalyst. Then it outputs an electrical
signal proportional to the concentration of the combustible
gas. By measuring the change in resistance of the platinum
wire, we can deduce the concentration of the combustible
gas. As shown in Fig. 1(a), the detection and compensation
sheets form a measurement bridge [18]. When the environ-
ment in which the sensor is located changes from clean air to a
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combustible gases-enriched atmosphere, the resistance of the
detection piece increases. The resistance of the compensation
piece remains. So, the measuring bridge loses balance. Then
it outputs a signal which is proportional to the concentration
of combustible gases. Based on this principle, Hosoya [19]
reported a CO gas sensor with a smooth trend and repeatable
signal with CO concentration, with a sensitivity of 0.0053
for 500 ppm CO and a response time of about 50-75s. This
type of gas sensor is mainly used for detectable gases. It has
the advantages of good output signal linearity and low price.
Meanwhile, it also has some problems, such as the inability
to distinguish which flammable gas it is. However, it usually
works on dark fire; there is the risk of ignition and explosion.
Besides, most steam of organic elements has a toxic effect on
the sensor.
B. SEMICONDUCTOR GAS SENSOR
Semiconductor gas sensors use a sensitive semiconductor gas
sensing element. As shown in Fig. 1(b), oxygen is adsorbed
on the semiconductor surface, reducing the number of freely
moving electrons within the device. When the concentration
of the measured gas increases, the measured gas reaches the
semiconductor surface. A chemical reaction occurs between
the measured gas and the oxygen adsorbed on the semicon-
ductor surface, accompanied by a charge transfer [13]. Then
this will further cause a change in the semiconductor resis-
tance. We can detect the gas by measuring the change in
semiconductor resistance. For example, Amarnath et al. [20]
used NiO-In2 O3 nanospheres coated with graphene oxide to
obtain a CO2 gas sensor with a detection limit of 5 ppm and
a sensitivity of up to 40% at room temperature for 50 ppm
CO2 with good selectivity. The semiconductor gas sensor is
the most common type of gas sensor. It is widely used in com-
bustible gas leak detection devices in houses and factories,
detecting methane, natural gas, liquefied gas, hydrogen, etc.
The disadvantage is that it is less stable and more influenced
by the environment.
11
HAO ET AL.: GREENHOUSE GAS DETECTION BASED ON INFRARED NANOPHOTONIC DEVICES
C. ELECTROCHEMICAL GAS SENSOR
Electrochemical gas sensors [15], [16] use the electrochemi-
cal activity of the target gas to electrochemically oxidize or
reduce it (Fig. 1(c)). They can be used both to distinguish
the gas composition and detect the gas concentration. Their
principle is the movement of the electrode from one phase to
another, which can be a solid or a liquid sample [21]. They
can accurately measure trace levels (ppm) of gases in the
air or for environmental monitoring, such as O2 , CO, H2 S,
CO2 , SO2 , NH3 , HCN, HF, and other corrosive or toxic gases.
Phawachalotorn [22] investigated an electrochemical gas sen-
sor with high selectivity for CO. The sensor has a fast response
with a sensitivity of up to 8.83 mA/decade at 500°C. However,
the process must involve oxygen in the redox reaction.
D. INFRARED GAS SENSOR
Infrared gas sensors rely on the absorption of light [23] with
a specific frequency in the infrared spectrum by the gas
(Fig. 1(d)). Infrared light is directed from the transmitter to
the receiver [24]. When there gas exists, it absorbs infrared
light. The amount of infrared light received is reduced, thus
reflecting the gas concentration. Zhangxiong Chen [25] built
a CO2 detection system using the principle of infrared ab-
sorption spectroscopy. The system utilizes a hollow fiber as
a gas chamber. The response time is 23s. And it achieves a
detection limit of 263 ppb. What’s more, Lin Liu [26] uses a
hollow waveguide (HWG)-enhanced tunable laser absorption
spectroscopy sensor to detect exhaled CH4, which achieves a
48ppb detection limit. This type of sensor is very selective. It
only detects gases that absorb light with specific wavelengths.
Secondly, since it is monitored based on optics, this sensor is
not easily damaged by harmful gases. Its response is fast and
stable. Its lack of chemical reactions makes it explosion-proof.
It has a high signal-to-noise ratio and strong anti-interference
capability as well as a long service life and high measurement
accuracy.
Infrared absorption spectroscopy [27] can characterize the
structure of the target gas molecule and to analysis the molec-
ular vibrations between atoms of the gas molecule and the
rotation of the gas molecules quantitatively.
Molecules are in motion all the time. The molecular vi-
brations are accompanied by the absorption of energy. The
molecule can jump from a lower (E1 ) to a higher (E2 )
energy level when gas molecules absorb photons with the
energy that meets the conservation law of energy E2 -E1 =hv.
When the difference between two energy levels becomes
smaller, the lower the frequency of the light absorbed and the
longer the corresponding wavelength of the absorbed light.
The infrared absorption spectrum is based on molecular vibra-
tions and rotational jumping. Molecules are made up of atoms.
Due to the difference in electronegativity of the particles,
they exhibit different electronegativities, called dipoles. The
dipole moment of a molecule is usually used to describe the
magnitude of the molecule’s polarity. For a given molecule,
the frequency of the dipole is determined. Only when the
12
frequency of the radiation matches the dipole frequency do the
molecules interact with the radiation, creating transitions [28].
Different molecular vibrations correspond to different posi-
tions of the infrared absorption peaks. It is worth noting that
not all molecular vibrations give rise to infrared absorption,
only vibrations that change in dipole moment can give rise to
an observable infrared absorption spectrum. That molecule is
considered to be infrared active [29].
Different gas molecules contain different functional groups,
the corresponding IR characteristic absorption peaks are dif-
ferent. We call these characteristic absorption peaks molecular
fingerprints. And different gases have different abilities to
absorb infrared light due to molecular vibrations and rotations
[30]. For different gases, we can achieve the selection of gases
by adding narrow-band filters or integrating other materials in
the light source or detector to achieve narrow-band spectral
emission or absorption. Therefore, the absorption bands of the
infrared spectrum can be used to determine what gases are
present in the air and how much each gas is present. This is
also how to use Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer to
detect gases.
Carbon emissions release greenhouse gases (carbon diox-
ide, methane, etc.) to the environment due to industrial
production and economic activities. In this paper, we mainly
discuss three gases: greenhouse gas such as carbon dioxide,
carbon and monoxide, and toxic and harmful gases such as
methane. Fig. 2(a)-(c) shows the molecular structures of the
three gases, they have different infrared absorption according
to the extra vibration frequencies of the three gases. As shown
in Fig. 2(d), carbon dioxide has a strong infrared absorption
near 4.26 μm, carbon monoxide has a robust infrared absorp-
tion near 4.67 μm, and methane has an absorption band at
3.3 μm (This data is from HITRAN Database). The absorp-
tion bands of the three gases are different, and the selection of
the bands is realized through filters, etc., to identify the gases
and deduce the concentrations.
At present, there are two most common technical solu-
tions for gas detection based on infrared absorption spec-
troscopy: tunable semiconductor absorption spectroscopy
(TDLAS) [32], [33] and non-dispersive infrared absorption
spectroscopy (NDIR) [34]. TDLAS mainly uses the narrow
linewidth of the laser and the change in wavelength with
the injection current to measure single or several close and
indistinguishable spectral lines of molecules [35], [36]. Al-
though the system has high precision and good selectivity
with this technical solution, the cost of the laser is relatively
high [37], [38], [39], and the total system size is enormous,
which is not conducive to miniaturization. In addition, it
uses a single-wavelength laser, which detects only one gas
and does not allow for multi-component gas detection at the
same time [40]. The NDIR technique is more widely used.
It usually uses a broad-spectrum infrared light source instead
of a narrow-band laser, with a filter in front of the detector
[41], [42]. With this technical solution, although the cost
can be very low, in terms of volume, it is relatively large,
especially for multi-gas detection, which requires multiple
VOLUME 4, 2023
FIGURE 2. Infrared absorption spectroscopy. (a) CO molecular structure diagram. (b) CO2 molecular structure diagram. (c) CH4 molecular structure
diagram. (d) Mid-infrared absorption spectra of three gases [31].
detectors and inevitably cannot perform well in terms of cost
and volume.
III NANOSTRUCTURED INFRARED GAS SENSORS
The development of nanotechnology provides a good idea
for solving these problems, given the shortcomings of the
traditional technical solutions mentioned above [43], [44],
[45]. Compared to conventional sensors, nanosensors achieve
a smaller size and higher accuracy. Secondly, the use of
nanotechnology, from the atomic point of view, dramatically
enriches the theory of sensors and promotes the development
of sensors. At present, nanosensors have been widely devel-
oped in biological [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], aviation [51],
[52], [53], and national defense [54] fields.
Nanostructured infrared gas sensors, mainly through the
light source and detector improvements, outperform conven-
tional NDIR gas sensors in terms of size, power consumption,
and lifetime. This review article will discuss several ways to
achieve infrared gas detection using nanostructures.
A. QUASI-ZERO-DIMENSIONAL (0D) MATERIAL GAS
SENSORS
Nanoparticles [55], [56], [57], [58] (mainly noble metal parti-
cles) have excellent size-dependent optical properties. When
the size of the material is reduced to the nanometer level,
broadband absorption enhancement occurs, enabling efficient
photoelectric conversion processes. This can be used as an
infrared-sensitive element. In addition, the absorption band of
nanoparticles generally appears to be blue-shifted; the absorp-
tion band is shifted to the short-wave direction. Under some
specific conditions, red-shift phenomenon also occurs. These
properties have been used to construct optical nanosensors.
Colloidal quantum dots (CQDs) are a new type of semi-
conductor nanomaterial with a tunable band gap and solution-
preparable and processable properties. Zhiyou Deng [59]
VOLUME 4, 2023
presented a colloidal quantum dot infrared photodetector.
They demonstrated the photoconductivity in the mid-infrared
by using a 1Se 1Pe jump with HgSe doped quantum dots
(Fig. 3(a)). This is the first report of photoconductivity based
on intraband leaps in doped colloidal quantum dots. The ma-
terial exhibits intraband photoluminescence, which makes it
a possibility to replace mid-infrared light sources. Further-
more, the intraband leap of quantum dots provides a selective
spectral detection, which allows for high performance infrared
detection by tuning the material.
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) [60] are characterized
by a wide variety, high functionality, large porosity, specific
surface area, and tunable pore size. At present, flexible [61],
[62], conductive [63], [64], and stable MOF materials with
specific catalytic [65], [66], [67] properties have been widely
used in various research fields, and the material research of
luminescent MOFs is relatively weak. The choice of organic
ligands plays a decisive role in the luminescence of MOF
materials. By changing the structure, pore size, and functional
sites within the MOF, the sensitivity and selectivity of the
MOF can be affected. At the current stage, the catalytic prop-
erties of MOF structures are mainly used for gas detection.
The research on the catalytic performance of MOF structures
has focused on combining MOF with nano metallic particles.
The combination can provide a robust pore structure. The
functional groups on the ligand can regulate the nature of
electrons. This collects specific gas molecules and promotes
the device’s reaction with the gas.
Mujibur R.’s team [68] also investigated the combination of
MOF with nano metallic particles to achieve the detection of
CO2 gas. This work demonstrates the feasibility of using MOF
structures to achieve on-chip gas sensors with an estimated
detection limit of 52 ppm. The device structure is shown in
Fig. 3(b) in which a Si3 N4 nanofilm is suspended on a Si
substrate covered by a gold nano patch array of MOF film.
13
HAO ET AL.: GREENHOUSE GAS DETECTION BASED ON INFRARED NANOPHOTONIC DEVICES

FIGURE 3. 0D material devices for infrared gas sensors. (a) TEM images of HgSe CQDs and their post-wash and photoluminescence spectra (reproduced
with permission from Ref. [59], © American Chemical Society 2014). (b) Schematic illustration of a plasmonic enhanced MOF device, the components
from top to bottom are MOF film, gold nanopatch array (Au-NPA), Si3 N4 nanomembrane and Si, the transmission spectral profile of the device and the
CO2 detection limit achieved using the device (reproduced with permission from Ref. [68], © American Chemical Society 2018). (c) Plasmonically
enhanced thermomechanical detection of infrared radiation, the absorption spectra of the devices, and the corresponding detector responsiveness
(reproduced with permission from Ref. [69], © American Chemical Society 2013).

However, since the monometallic particles are usually pre-
cious metals, this dramatically increases the production cost,
which is an urgent problem to be solved.
The nanoplasmonic thermomechanical detector can ab-
sorb infrared radiation by converting optical power into heat
through an array of nano-slot antennas. Compared with the
discrete nano-antenna array, the nano-slit configuration pro-
vides optimal thermo-mechanical coupling due to its uniform
double-layer material coverage. The heat generated is con-
verted into a temperature rise in the beam-type nanostructure.
The different thermal expansion coefficients of the two ma-
terials cause bending. This change converts the mechanical
signal into an electrical signal, allowing the detection of gases
(Fig. 3(c)) [69].
In addition to the design of the detector, some teams have
improved the light source by developing narrow-band infrared
light sources instead of broad-band sources. For a typical
NDIR sensing system, a broadband light source combined
with a narrowband filter is usually used to achieve band selec-
tion. The detection of different gases is achieved by switching
between different filters. However, the use of filters leads to
the loss of most of the radiant energy of the light source,
and the light loss of the whole system is more serious.
Therefore, the development of narrow-band mid-infrared light
sources with adjustable radiation wavelengths is the main re-
search direction of many researchers. They solve the problem
of low power efficiency of the gas sensors system and the high
cost of the laser.
As for a single gas detector, a narrow-band light source
or detector is necessary. The surface plasmon (SP) resonance
(SPR) is a way to achieve narrow-band detection, which can
be generated at the metal/dielectric interface. Integration of
this structure with a broadband light source can achieve nar-
rowband emission. In addition, the integration of the structure
into the detector enables narrow-band detection at the detec-
tor. Lee [70] et al. built a CO detection system based on this
method. This system replaces the filter in the conventional de-
tection scheme and reduces the cost. The infrared light source
and detector both use SPR [71] technology. The designed
infrared light source has lower power consumption than the
broadband infrared light source. The developed sensor can
identify the absorption spectrum in specific wavelength bands.
Using this system, they achieved the detection limit of CO
50 ppm. The IR light source has an Au/SiO2 /Au triple-layer
structure. On the top Au is a hexagonal hole pattern. The
cluster generates a waveguide structure with narrow-band ra-
diation through thermal energy, while the waveguide structure
matches the 4.6 μm characteristic wavelength of CO. The
narrow-band detector has an Au/amorphous Si: H/Au three-
layer structure. An Au grating pattern on the top absorbs the
infrared light with a wavelength of 4.6 μm. An amorphous
Si: H layer absorbs energy to change the resistance, thereby
realizing the gas concentration detection process.
B. ONE-DIMENSIONAL (1D) MATERIALS GAS SENSORS
In 1991, Iijiman [72] discovered carbon nanotubes for the
first time, and subsequently, more researchers have launched
research on Carbon nanotubes (CNTs). CNTs [73], [74] can
be seen as tubular structures formed by the curling of graphene
or as an elongated fullerene structure. Its unique design gives
it many properties that are unmatched by other materials.
Currently, most of the research is based on the resistive prop-
erties [75], [76] of CNTs to detect gases, especially NO2
gas, which is considered an ideal device for NO2 detection.
In this section, we focus on some of its optical properties.
CNTs have good light absorption properties from visible and
infrared wavelengths. Several articles have been reported on
the infrared spectrum of CNTs. As early as 2001, Akihiko

14 VOLUME 4, 2023
FIGURE 4. 1D material devices for infrared gas sensors. (a) Single carbon nanotube field effect transistor infrared detector (reproduced with permission
from Ref. [80], © American Institute of Physics 2015). (b) Nanotube-enhanced CMOS-MEMS thermal emitter (reproduced with permission from Ref. [81],
© Nature Publishing Group 2021).
Fujiwara [77] first observed the photoconductivity effect of
single-walled CNTs, demonstrating that they can function as
photoconductive materials. Subsequently, William B. Euler et
al. [78] also studied the photoconductivity effect of CNTs and
showed that they could generate photocurrents at low bias
voltage. In 2010, Chen, Hongzhi, et al. [79] improved the CNT
infrared detector to further enhance the device performance,
reporting the highest open-circuit voltage (0.45 V) at that
time. In addition, as shown in Fig. 4(a), De Luca, A. [80]
improved the CNT-based infrared detectors by integrating
CNTs into thermopile detectors. The absorption performance
of the device has been dramatically improved (+370%). The
team applied the obtained device to a CO2 infrared gas sensor,
and the detected infrared signal (4.26 µm) was increased by a
factor of four. This laid the foundation for subsequent infrared
detectors based on carbon nanotubes. As shown in Fig. 4(b),
Daniel Popa et al. [81] proposed an enhanced CNT thermal
emitter based on the CMOS-MES process. The emission of
a specific wavelength band of a mid-infrared light source is
achieved by combining a CMOS micro-heating plate with a
dielectric-encapsulated CNT film. The sensor system consist-
ing of this device has about eight times higher sensitivity to
CO2 than conventional MEMS devices. This is attractive for
various low-cost, low-power, and high-precision detection in
the MIR spectral region.
C. TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) MATERIAL GAS SENSORS
2D layered materials show dramatic potential for optoelec-
tronic applications [82], [83], [84]. There are strong covalent
or ionic bonds within the layers. The layers are bound by
VOLUME 4, 2023
weakly van der Waals forces between them. They have pecu-
liar properties and functions due to their unique 2D structure.
With the development of nanotechnology, new 2D functional
structures with excellent optoelectronic properties have been
designed. 2D materials are much smaller than the wavelength
of light in one dimension than conventional materials. They
can obtain lower dark currents and noise [85], which enables
many sensitive infrared detectors [86] based on 2D materials
and their heterojunctions [87] to operate at room tempera-
ture. At present, the research on 2D materials [8], [88] is
mainly focused on black phosphorus (Bp) [89], graphene [90],
transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) [91], and hexagonal
boron nitride [92], [93], etc.
Weida Hu [94] et al. reported a b-AsP long-wave infrared
photodetector combined with van der Waals heterojunction
[95] to obtain a specific detectivity of 4.9 × 109 Jone in the
3-5 μm range (Fig. 5(a)) at room temperature [96]. Compared
with other detectors in the mid-infrared band, the b-AsP de-
tector has broadband MIR response, fast speed, and excellent
anisotropic optical response. This work opens the way for new
MIR technologies in the future.
Van der Waals heterostructures are artificial heterostruc-
tures. Different 2D materials can be stacked together in a
selected order by van der Waals forces. This offers many
new possibilities for the construction of MIR light-emitting
devices with large tunability and high integration. Ali Javey’s
team [89] exploited Bp’s strained lattice structure and mem-
brane nature to achieve continuous and reversible tuning
of mid-infrared electroluminescence by using Bp-MoS2 het-
erostructures on flexible substrates. This structure can replace
15
HAO ET AL.: GREENHOUSE GAS DETECTION BASED ON INFRARED NANOPHOTONIC DEVICES

FIGURE 5. 2D material devices for infrared gas sensors. (a) Device performance of b-AsP mid-infrared photodetectors measured at room temperature
(reproduced with permission from Ref. [94], © AAAS 2017). (b) Structure of Bp-MoS2 heterojunction diodes and electroluminescence intensity
(reproduced with permission from Ref. [100], © CIOMP 2020). (c) Mid-infrared resonant cavity LED based on Bp (reproduced with permission from Ref.
[101], © American Chemical Society 2022). (d) The sensor chip consists of h-BN nanoribbons (reproduced with permission from Ref. [92], © American
Chemical Society 2022).

light sources for infrared gas detection to achieve specific
spectral emissions. Research on the structure of Bp is not lim-
ited to photodetectors, and many teams use the properties of
Bp to demonstrate mid-infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
They want to acquire high quantum efficiency emission and
effectively improve the performance of light sources. Most of
the mid-infrared LEDs [97], [98] based on 2D semiconductor
Bp are Bp/MoS2 heterojunctions [99], [100]. For example,
Xinrong Zong [100] presented a van der Waals heterostructure
for MIR light-emitting applications. The device is constructed
from thin films of BP and transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDCs), where Bp serves as the MIR light-emitting layer.
This structure enhanced the photoluminescence intensity of
MIR by ∼200%. As shown in Fig. 5(b), the structure has a
strong luminescence intensity near the CO2 absorption peak
and is therefore expected to be useful as a light source for
mid-infrared gas detection. What’s more, Ali Javey’s team
[101] also studied Bp structure and proposed a new structure
to improve low external and wall-plug efficiencies based on
Bp/MoS2 heterojunctions (Fig. 5(c)). They employ a thin film
of indium tin oxide (ITO), which can shunt the lateral parasitic
resistance of the MoS2 layer. This is an important way to
improve wall-plug efficiency. The operating lifetime is also
extended. They use gold and Al2 O3 thin films to form an
optical cavity. The emission can be coupled to the resonant
mode of the cavity. It can enhance the emission efficiency of
the Bp-based LEDs. Based on this structure, they achieved
4.43% EQE at a 3.65 μm peak, higher than common inter-
band cascades and LEDs. This work drives the potential of
Bp-LEDs as a next-generation MWIR light source.
Bruno Paulillo [92] et al. demonstrated a mid-infrared
CO2 gas sensor that utilizes the phonon polarization mode
in an h-BN nanoresonator [102] functionalized by a thin
CO2 -adsorbed polyethyleneimine (PEI) layer (Fig. 5(d)). As
the CO2 concentration increases, the phonon polarization
resonance shifts toward lower frequencies, weakens, and
broadens. The advantage of this material over other graphene
and plasmonic nanostructures is the high Q value and the high
extinction phonon polarization mode. It is expected to act as a
small sensing component for indoor air quality monitoring.
D. SPECIAL NANOSTRUCTURES GAS SENSORS
Infrared nanostructured absorbers with metal-insulator-metal
(MIM) structures can absorb light with different wavelengths
by designing the shape and size of the structure. In addi-
tion, these structures have near-unit absorption coefficient
with almost no limitation on the angle and polarization of
light. Thus, MIM structures are ideal candidates to estab-
lish novel plasma-enhanced infrared sensing microsystems,
such as spectrally selective microbolometer radio thermome-
ters [103], nano-/microelectromechanical systems (N/MEMS)
resonant infrared sensors [104], etc. Fig. 6(a) illustrates a
MIM structure, an ultra-narrowband infrared absorber devel-
oped by a team led by Matteo Rinaldi [105], that consists of a
SiO2 film sandwiched by a top cross-shaped Au nanoantenna
and a bottom Au backplane. By changing the thickness of the
layer, the strong SP confinement and the reconfigurability of
the MWIR spectral absorption bands can be observed. The
device performance is close to the predicted physical limit:
3% of the half-maximum full width at 5.83 µm with near-
unit absorption (η > 99.7%), independent of the angle and
polarization of the incident IR radiation. These distinctive
and outstanding absorption properties are very critical for
developing miniaturized, cost-effective, high-resolution spec-
trometers.

16 VOLUME 4, 2023
FIGURE 6. Cross-shaped resonant structure-based devices for infrared gas sensors. (a) Schematic image of absorber for ultra-narrow IR based on MIM
structure, absorption spectra of narrow-band infrared absorbers plotted against the absorption spectra of common gases (reproduced with permission
from Ref. [105], © Wiley 2018). (b) Compact mid-infrared gas sensor based on all-metamaterials (reproduced with permission from Ref. [106], ©
American Chemical Society 2020). (c) Vertical nano-gap infrared metamaterial absorber (reproduced with permission from Ref. [108], © Wiley 2021).

FIGURE 7. Ultra-surface devices based on Au nanodiscs for infrared gas sensors. (a) Multi-gas detection system based on narrow-band infrared
super-surface emitter (reproduced with permission from Ref. [110], © MDPI 2022). (b) Mid-infrared gas sensor based on nano-antenna integrated
narrow-band detector, the relationship curves of CH4 , CO2 , CO concentration and detector voltage response (reproduced with permission from Ref. [30],
© Nature Publishing Group 2020). (c) Microwave MTM-lined disc (reproduced with permission from Ref. [29], © Nature Publishing Group 2021).

The key to implement compact infrared gas sensors with
multiple wavelengths in a small size is concentrating the
multispectral absorber arrays on the same chip. The emer-
gence of metamaterials is of great importance to solve this
problem. Subwavelength structures designed with artificial
architecture which exhibit physical properties that are not
found in natural materials are called metamaterial perfect ab-
sorbers (MPAs). Fig. 6(b) shows a gas sensor using a plasma
metamaterial as an on-chip optical filter to achieve a narrow-
band response to the characteristic absorption peak of CO2
[106]. Integrating the metamaterial into the light source and
detector reduces the size by 30 compared to conventional gas

VOLUME 4, 2023 17
HAO ET AL.: GREENHOUSE GAS DETECTION BASED ON INFRARED NANOPHOTONIC DEVICES
TABLE 1. Gas Sensors Based on Nanostructured Devices
sensors, while power consumption is reduced by 80%. They
introduced a concept of the all-metamaterial gas sensor. By
combining a metamaterial-enhanced microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) device with non-resonant cavity design,
they overcome the integration limitations of conventional
NDIR sensors for the first time. As shown in Fig. 7(b), the
MPA consists of cells with subwavelength. Each MPA cell
consists of a crossing resonator separated from the metal back-
plane by a dielectric spacer. The resonant frequency of the
MPA can be tuned in the mid-infrared spectral band by chang-
ing the size of the cell. The proposed all-metamaterial concept
provides a way to realize a more compact mid-infrared gas
sensor.
Surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) [107] spec-
troscopy is reported to be a powerful technology to char-
acterize very small quantities of target gas molecules. The
mechanism is mainly based on an electromagnetic field en-
hancement that detects the interaction between light and metal
18
such as Au/Ag and enhances the photoelectric field in a
narrow region of the nanostructure surface [107]. The light
scattering and absorption cross-section of the molecule are
both enhanced. Many researchers use the metamaterial ab-
sorber (MA) to achieve an efficient SEIRA platform. Joo-Yun
Jung’s team [108] study the MA with a vertical nanogap and
its unit cell structure (Fig. 6(c)). The unit cell structure is
similar to the one we mentioned above. They coat the 1-
octadecanethiol (ODT) molecules on the metal surface based
on the original structure. The cell structure is optimized to
have a plasma resonance near 3.5 μm. Experimentally, they
found that 36% of the recorded high reflectance difference
SEIRA [109] signal was obtained in the smallest 10 nm thick
vertical nanogap. This structure can be applied to gas sensing
in the future.
Adding a gold MPA structure to the top of the microheater
narrows its emission spectrum. This is also an effective way to
achieve selective infrared emitters. As shown in Fig. 7(a), the
VOLUME 4, 2023
selection of wavelength is achieved by adjusting the geometry
of the MPA and changing the bias. Using this method, Dana
Cristea’s team [110] achieved narrow-band CO2 , CO, and
CH4 detection with high selectivity of the whole system.
Xiaojing Mu [111] et al. integrated CMOS-compatible
metamaterial absorbers with an innovative porous MOF to
achieve fast and highly sensitive detection of methane gas.
The MOF traps more gas into the metamaterial absorber by
enhancing gas sensing using light-matter solid interactions
and subwavelength localization. By this method, the sensitiv-
ity can be improved by a factor of about 1000. MOF structures
can significantly enhance the sensing ability of metamaterials
for specific gases which can provide an idea for future minia-
turized gas sensors with high sensitivity and detection limits.
Based on this method, the geometry-related properties of the
structure can be investigated to further extend the application
of the technique to the detection of gases such as CO2 and CO
in the future.
In 2020, Fei Yi [30] led a team to integrate a metamaterial
narrow-band absorber onto a lithium tantalate (LT) single-
crystal silicon wafer for multi-gas detection (Fig. 7(b)). The
metamaterial structure consists of a gold nanodisk antenna
on the top layer, a dielectric layer, and a metal backplane.
The nanodisc can absorb infrared radiation and convert it
into thermal energy, thus increasing the temperature of the
LT substrate. The temperature change generates a pyroelec-
tric current, we can read the signal by the circuit to realize
gas detection. The metal antennas have different sizes and
correspond to various infrared bands. Therefore, by adjusting
the size of the metal antenna on the pyroelectric detector,
the response of other wavelength bands can be achieved. The
team has detected multiple gases by packaging pyroelectric
detectors with integrated metal antennas of different sizes.
With the development of metamaterials, scientists began
to conduct further research on hypersurfaces since 2011. A
metasurface is an artificially layered material with a thickness
less than the wavelength, which consists of nano metallic
structures of different morphologies. Optical super surfaces
are the longest and most advanced of them. It can regulate the
polarization and frequency of electromagnetic waves through
subwavelength microstructures. It is an emerging material
that combines optics and nanotechnology. Ashwin K. Iyer’s
team [29] reported on a study of surface-enhanced infrared
absorption spectroscopy using micro-disc hypersurfaces [112]
towards low-cost, more compact integrated gas sensors on
a chip. This study presents a micro-hypersurface cell for
surface-enhanced infrared spectroscopy of the 15 μm vibra-
tional band of CO2 . As shown in Fig. 7(c), the small super
surface cell consists of a metal disc with interlaced graphical
gaps to realize a resonant metamaterial structure. The resonant
wavelength of the device can be tuned by varying the size and
feature dimensions of the super surface element.
A comparison of the above-nanostructured devices is
shown in Table 1. The narrow-band mid-infrared light source
and detector are realized by growing Au arrays on substrates
in a periodic arrangement. Two-dimensional materials, such
as black phosphorus, are tuned by adjusting the stress to
VOLUME 4, 2023
change their band gap to achieve tunability in the corre-
sponding band. The integration of CNTs, or metamaterials,
with light sources and detectors also realizes wavelength
selectivity. In addition, the combination of nanostructured de-
vices with MOF, which can absorb CO2 , effectively improves
the detection sensitivity of the system, etc. Nanostructured
devices show great potential for gas detection with miniatur-
ization, cost-effectiveness and high performance.
IV CONCLUSION
Catalytic combustion gas sensors, semiconductor gas sensors,
electrochemical gas sensors, and infrared gas sensors are the
main methods for detecting greenhouse gases. Infrared ab-
sorption spectroscopy is a non-contact measurement, which
is better than other types of sensors in terms of service life
and sensitivity. It is also less susceptible to interfering gases
and has a higher selectivity. Infrared absorption spectroscopy
is widely used now. Conventional infrared gas sensors based
on non-dispersive types suffer from low accuracy, which is
not suitable for situations where high detection accuracy is
required. Applying infrared gas sensors based on laser spec-
troscopy to civilian scenarios is difficult due to cost and
volume limitations. The development of nanostructured gas
sensors provides a feasible solution to achieve low-power,
low-cost, and miniaturized gas sensing components.
In this review, we discussed several schemes for detect-
ing gases, combining the advantages of nanostructures, and
briefly summarized some of the work on nanostructure-based
infrared gas sensors in recent years. Based on the current state
of nanotechnology development, scientists have been working
on nanotechnology research based on metal nanoparticles,
nanoantennas, 2D materials, etc., which would provide ideas
for the future realization of miniaturized and susceptible gas
sensors.
IV CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There is no conflict of interest among authors.
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