CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel

Research

Report on Fly Ash Utilization

Prepared by

Ms. Rohan Mehra

rohanmehr327@gmail.com

June 19, 2023

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Introduction

Fly Ash is the fine particulate residual outcome of pulverized coal burning obtained primarily
from coal-based electricity generation plants. Considering the exponential increase in
demand of electrical energy, coal has been backbone for the public demand of electricity all
over the word.
Owing to this load on thermal power plants, there is a significant increase in production of
fly ash and disposal of fly ash which is consider as negative effect on environment.
Thus Utilization of fly ash is becoming a concern for everyone.
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Fly Ash Properties

Physically, fly ash occurs as very fine particles having minute average diameter, and has low
to medium bulk density, high surface area and light texture. Chemically, Fly Ash is
considered as amorphous and mixture of Ferro-alluminosilicate minerals.
However, the chemical and physical properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal used,
combustion methodology adopted, and temperature regulation during combustion and
method of collection. Following are some of the physical and chemical properties of fly ash:

Physical properties of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash

Properties Fly ash Bottom ash

Particle size, µm 10 – 100 (Round) 100 – 10000 (Angular)

Compaction behavior
Compressibility, % 1.8 1.4
Bulk density, kg/m3 1041 1762
Moisture content, % 10 – 35 12 – 26
Porosity, % 0.4 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.4

Permeability, cm/s 10-6 – 10-4 10-3 – 10-1

Shear strength
Cohesion, Pa 1 – 1.17x106 0
Angle of internal friction, o 25 – 45 35 – 45

Sp. Gravity 1.6 – 3.1 2.1 – 2.7

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  Even though there is some degree of variability of constituents owing to the
variation in coal source, however, more often the primary constituents are SiO2,
CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3 along with some amounts of MgO, Na2O, etc.
 Fly ash particles generally fall in silt range and are typically finer as compared to lime
and Portland cement. The size of fly ash particles varies from 10 to 100 microns
having a spherical shape.
 Colour of fly ash principally depends on the mineral composition of coal source, it
may have a dark or black shade or tan colour.
 The specific gravity of fly ash depends on the degree of coal pulverization, particle
shape, and coal type. It varies considerably from 1.6 to 3.1.
 Fly ashes sourced from bituminous coals tend to be acidic and those from sub-
bituminous tend to be alkaline, this is heavily dependent on the chemical
composition of ash.
 Even though fly ash has greater surface area but the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
is on the lower side due to the non-plastic nature, however, CEC can be increased by
modifying the fly ash. Also, lower CEC signifies lesser water absorption and this
property can be and has been used favourably while stabilizing expansive soils.

Chemical Composition of Fly Ash

Component Bituminous Sub-bituminous Lignite Coal

SiO2 (%) 20-60 40-60 15-45

Al2O3 (%) 5-35 20-30 20-25
Fe2O3 (%) 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO (%) 1-12 5-30 15-40
LOI (%) 0-15 0-3 0-5

Fly Ash Classification

 Class C Fly Ash has high cementing abilities and these are formed from the burning of
subbituminous coal. This kind of fly ash has lime in excess of 20% and also does not
need an activator (based on ASTM C 618 standards) for the formation of
cementitious compounds.
 Class F Fly Ashes are generated from the combustion of bituminous and anthracite
coals. These ashes have less than 10% lime content and need an activator (based on
ASTM C 618 standards) like Portland cement, quick lime, etc. for the formation of
cementitious compounds.

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Fly Ash Production and Utilization in India

As of now, in India 73.1% of the total electricity is produced by the coal-based electricity
generation plants and this production rate and dependence on such plants is expected to
remain the same in the coming years. The fly ash generation during 2020-2021 was 232.56
million tonnes due to combustion of 686.34 million tonne Coal/Lignite and fly ash utilization
was around 214.91 million tonne which suggests an effective usage of 92.41% respectively.

Fly Ash Generation and Utilization during the Year 2014 to 2021

S No. Year Fly Ash Fly Ash Fly Ash

Generation Utilization Utilization in
(Million-tons) (Million-tons) Percentage

1 2014-2015 184.14 102.54 55.69

2 2015-2016 176.74 107.77 60.97

3 2016-2017 169.25 107.1 63.28

4 2017-2018 196.44 131.87 67.13

5 2018-2019 217.04 168.4 77.59

6 2019-2020 226.95 189.01 83.28

7 2020-2021 232.56 214.91 92.41

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 Fly Ash Generation and Utilization during the Year 2014
to 2021
250

200

150

100

50

0
2014-2015 2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 2019-2020 2020-2021

Fly Ash Generation Fly Ash Utilization

Fly Ash Utilization in Percentage

Modes of Fly Ash Utilization during the Year 2020-2021

S No. Mode of Utilization Quantity of Fly Ash Percentage

Utilization in the (%)
Mode of Utilization
(Million-tons)

1 Cement 60.0229 25.81

2 Mine Filling 14.4187 6.20
3 Bricks & Tiles 30.1832 12.98
4 Reclamation of Low 36.2463 15.59
Lying Area
5 Ash Dyke Raising 18.4722 7.94
6 Roads & Flyovers 34.9851 15.04
7 Agriculture 0.0773 0.03
8 Concrete 1.9189 0.83
9 Hydro Power Sector 0.0611 0.03
10 Others 18.5267 7.97
11 Unutilized Ash 17.6469 7.59
Total 232.5595 100.00

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 Major Modes of Fly Ash Utilization during the Year
2020-2021

Cement Mine Filling Bricks & Tiles

Reclamation of Low Lying Area Ash Dyke Raising Roads & Flyovers
Agriculture Concrete Hydro Power Sector
Others Unutilized Ash

Utilisation of Fly Ash in Mining

Mine Filling:
Mine filling refers to the practice of backfilling underground mine workings to provide
structural support, reduce subsidence, and improve safety. Mine back filling has
demonstrated to be an attractive option for those plants located near the coal mine.
Two methods can be used, dry fly ash injection or wet slurry injection.

Dry fly ash injection consists of drilling 6 inch diameter boreholes into the mine void and
placing steel casing down to that level. The dry fly ash is then injected at relatively low
pressure (12–30 psi) into the mine void. The dry fly ash easily flowed 65 feet in either
direction from the borehole along the shaft as it filled to the mine roof.

Fly ash-water slurry injection is conducted in much the same manner as dry ash injection
with the exception of the use of higher injection pressures (up to 100 psi) and a slightly
larger 10 inch borehole being drilled.

Benefits of utilizing fly ash in mine filling:

 Using fly ash in mine filling helps reduce the environmental impact associated with
fly ash disposal in landfills. It provides a beneficial reuse option for this industrial by-
product.
 Fly ash is often less expensive than traditional backfill materials, making it a cost-
effective alternative for mine filling operations.
 Fly ash, when properly mixed and consolidated, can provide excellent structural
stability, reducing the risk of collapses and subsidence in underground mines.

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Acid Mine Drainage Treatment:
Acid mine drainage (AMD), a waste from mining sites is highly acidic, rich source of sulfate
and heavy metals. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a significant environmental issue that occurs
when sulfide minerals, typically found in rocks associated with mining activities, react with
air and water to produce acidic solutions. These acidic solutions can contaminate surface
water, groundwater, and soil, leading to detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems
and human health.
Acid mine drainage (AMD) from a South African coal mine was neutralized with fly ash (FA)
from a local power station. An immediate increase in pH and subsequent decrease in the
electrical conductivity (EC) values were observed with the addition of FA.
Fly ash can be utilized in the treatment of acid mine drainage (AMD) due to its alkaline
properties and ability to neutralize acidity.

AMD is produced when sulphide minerals, such as pyrite, found in association with the coal
or overburden, come into contact with oxygen and water during mining. Sulphide minerals
undergo oxidation, which results in the generation of sulphuric acid that mobilizes rock
constituents. AMD is characterized by high acidity (pH 2–4), high sulphate concentrations
(1–20 g/l) and frequently contains high concentrations of Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd. The
extreme pH and high ionic content are responsible for highly toxic wastewater.
Fly ash contains high levels of calcium oxide (lime) and other alkaline components. When
mixed with AMD, fly ash can raise the pH and neutralize acidity. This alkaline amendment
helps to reduce the solubility of metals and decrease their mobility in the water.

Mine Reclamation:
FA can be used as a soil additive that may improve physical, chemical, and biological
properties of the disturbed soils and is a source of readily available plant micro- and
macronutrients.
Application of FA has been investigated for agronomic benefits namely to increase the pH of
acidic soils, improve soil structure, and enhance the nutrient status of soils.
FA, which can be acidic or alkaline, may be used to buffer the soil. Generally, the EC of soil
increases with FA application and so does the metal content. Alkaline FA readily reacts with
acidic components in soil and releases nutrients such as S, B, and Mo in the form and
amount beneficial to crop plants. FA addition generally decreased the BD of soils, which in
turn improved soil porosity and workability and enhanced water retention capacity.
It can be spread over the disturbed soil to create a stable base for future vegetation growth.
The fine particles in fly ash help to fill voids and improve soil structure, reducing erosion and
promoting the establishment of vegetation.

Haulage Roads:

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Fly ash can be used as a stabilizing agent in the construction of haulage roads. When mixed
with soil or aggregates, it improves the stability and load-bearing capacity of the road
surface. Fly ash particles fill the voids between soil or aggregate particles, enhancing
compaction and reducing settlement.
Mining operations often generate significant amounts of dust, which can pose health
hazards and impact visibility. Fly ash can be applied to the surface of haulage roads as a dust
suppressant. Its fine particles adhere to the surface of dust particles, increasing their weight
and preventing them from becoming airborne. This helps in controlling dust emissions and
improving air quality within the mine site.
Haulage roads in mines are often exposed to erosion due to heavy vehicle traffic and
weather conditions. Fly ash can be used as an erosion control measure on haulage road
surfaces. It acts as a binding agent, stabilizing the soil particles and reducing erosion. This
helps to maintain road integrity and minimize sediment runoff into nearby water bodies.
Fly ash enhances the strength and durability of road materials, reducing cracking and
rutting. This results in a smoother and more resilient road surface that can withstand heavy
loads and traffic.

Stability of Coal Mine Overburden Dump:

The management of overburden (OB) materials needs proper attention to safe mining
operations. Several mine OB dump failures have been occurred due to inappropriate
geotechnical and geometrical parameters. Increasing consumption of coal in thermal power
plant also generates huge amount of ash which adversely affect the environment and its
utilization is a great challenge.
It was found that up to 30% fly ash can potentially modify the compaction characteristics,
California bearing ratio value, unconfined compressive strength, and shear strength
parameters of OB dump material.
The OB materials have been dumped in the form of slope or embankment. The instability of
the OB dump has been a major concern for the mining industries for several years. The
nature of coal waste embankments is different from the common soil or rock embankments
due to their petro-graphic nature. The limited area for dumping and increasing amount of
OB materials results in the greater height of dump, and creates possible threats to dump
instability.
Fly ash has been utilized as filling materials in the mine site. The notification issued by
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Govt. of India stated that at
least 25% fly ash should be mixed with external and internal OB dump at mine site located
within 100 km by road from thermal power plant.

Effect of Addition of Fly Ash in mixture of Overburden;

 The addition of fly ash in mine OB dump materials decreases the Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and increases the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC).
 The decreases in the MDD of fly ash treated mine OB dump materials reduces the
overall weight of the mine OB dump and thus provides extra stability.

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  The addition of fly ash in the mine OB dump increases the cohesion value and
decreases the angle of internal friction.
 The incorporation of fly ash in mine OB dump materials may be an alternative
approach for the fly ash utilization and to increase the dump stability.
 The studies show that up to 20–30% fly ash can be utilized safely and economically in
the mine OB dump.
 It was observed from literatures that addition of fly ash up to 30% in mine OB dump
materials with and without additives improved the CBR and UCS value and satisfies
the minimum strength criteria to get utilized in the construction of mine haul road.
 The application of fly ash in OB dump will help to provide the key nutrients; increase
the water holding capacity; reduce the metal toxicity, and neutralize the acidity of
the mine spoil, which will be beneficial for establishing vegetation cover on mine OB
dump and amendment of mine spoil.

Application of Coal Ash to Post mine Land for Prevention of Soil Erosion in Coal
Mine in Indonesia:
Indonesia is one of the largest coal exporters in the world, and the amount of coal
production and the export has grown at an annual average rate of more than 10% since
2000. The increase in domestic demand for coal with economic growth has promoted the
energy policy such as the conversion to coal-fired power generation and the construction of
new coal-fired plant in Indonesia. This change created the problem of the disposal of a large
amount of coal ash.
In the past studies, coal ash was applied to post mine land with the aim of improving soil
conditions for plant growth; however, heavy rain in the tropical climate may cause soil
erosion with the change in soil conditions. The effects of application of coal ash to post mine
land on soil erosion by performing the artificial rainfall test as well as physical testing. The
results indicate that the risk of soil erosion can be reduced significantly by applying the coal
ash which consists of more than 85% of sand to topsoil in the post mine land at the mixing
ratio of over 30%.
Few Samples Fly ash and bottom ash were taken in a coalfired power plant in the K mine in
Indonesia: FA1 and BA1. Another type of fly ash was also sampled in B coal-fired power
plant in Japan: FA2 having different physical and chemical properties for the test.
The simulated topsoil mixed with coal ash was prepared to discuss the application of coal
ash to post mine land for the purpose of prevention of soil erosion. The artificial rainfall test
was performed with the samples in addition to the grain size analysis, the standard test for
the Atterberg limits, falling head permeability test, and water retention test, aiming at
understanding the change in risk of soil erosion by applying coal ash to topsoil. The main
conclusions from the experiments are summarized as follows:

(i) The risk of soil erosion was significantly reduced by applying coal ash to topsoil
which was considered industrial waste with a focus on physical characteristics of the
ash.
(ii) The application of the coal ash which consisted of more than 90% of clay and silt to
topsoil promoted soil erosion. Meanwhile, soil erosion was prevented by mixing the
coal ash which consisted of more than 85% of sand at the mixing ratio of over 30%.
However, the mixing ratio of coal ash to topsoil has to be decided in consideration
of the effects of soil composition on plant growth as well as that on soil erosion.

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(iii) Microporous structures in FA1 affected water retention capacity, leading to
prevention of soil erosion. The coal ash of FA1 with the structures showed high
water retention in spite of low content of clay.
(iv) For the purpose of prevention of soil erosion by mixing coal ash in topsoil in post
mine land, microporous structures in coal ash and soil composition which affect
permeability and water retention capacity are useful to select coal ash and to decide
the mixing ratio.

Phytoextraction of heavy metals from coal fly ash for restoration of fly ash
dumpsites:
Metal accumulation by plants from soil contaminated with FA has been used to restore soil
quality via a phytoremediation technique.
Fly Ash contains huge amount of toxic metals like Zn, Pb, As, Ni, Cd along with many other
essential elements as well.
Greenhouse experiments conducted on rice plants showed that application of FA
significantly increased N, S, Ca, Na and Fe content of the plants (Sikka and Kansal 1955).

FA is a loose material; therefore, phytoremediation of FA dumpsites requires its surface

stabilization on first place by plants like grasses that are robust with deep-penetrating roots.
In this study, the Saccharum plants have proved its adaptive potential in growing on coal FA.
These plants are perennial as natural colonizer is favourable for its potential for the
revegetation of FA dump sites. The plants can extract Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb and As from FA and
stabilize them in the underground part and act as sink for these heavy metals. At the end of
the study period, a considerably less amount of the metals were detected in the shoots
(with low TF values) matching with low DNA damage.

Carbonised Fluidised Fly Ash (CFFA); A New Product for Mining Engineering
Purposes:
Carbonized fluidized fly ash refers to a type of ash produced during the combustion of coal
in a fluidized bed boiler.
During the Fluidised bed combustion limestone is added to eliminate sulfhur dioxide
emissions, a side effect of this process is that it increases the CaO in the fly ash resulting an
significant limitation in application in mining techniques. By carbonation, meaning addition
of CO2 which reacts with CaO to play an active role, which increases the utilization rate of
FFA into future application in mining techniques.
From the analysis of existing knowledge, it can be assumed that the product obtained from
the FFA carbonation process used in mining engineering, in particular, makes it possible to:
 Reduce the free calcium oxide content of FFA, which reduces chemical hazards.
 Eliminate free hydrogen emissions from co-combustion ash used for goaf filling.
 Increase the efficiency of sealing mine goafs by improving the penetration capacity in
the cavein rubble.
 Improve the stability of the backfill setting processes and increase its resistance to
saline mine water.
Dense FFA suspensions are applied in mine workings. They are transported by gravity from
the level of a mine shaft to mine workings or goafs in order to fill them. These suspensions
may be used for sealing caving goafs, liquidating excavations, filling old voids in the rock

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mass, making backfill belts and plugs, liquidating shafts, and as a component of self-
solidifying backfill and in technologies related to fire prevention.
The use of dense slurries based on combustion by-products has a number of advantages.
The preparation is technically simple and uses, for example, tanks equipped with stirrers,
barbotage or circulation pumps.

Application of three-phase foam to fight an extraordinarily serious coal mine fire:

A serious gas explosion occurred in Baijigou Coal Mine of Ningxia Province in China on
October 24, 2003. It resulted in sealing off the entire coal mine. A three-phase foam, which
was composed of mud, nitrogen, and water, was used to fight the underground fire. It was
injected into the fire zone through boreholes on the ground surface. Due to the simplicity
and reliability of this technology, the fire was successfully extinguished.

Throughout the world, underground coal mine fires have become a serious problem
resulting in huge economic losses and serious environmental problems including air
pollution, vegetation ruin, and soil desertification.
In order to overcome the shortcomings of traditional fire mitigation technologies, a new
technology consisting of a three-phase foam was conceived. The three-phase foam is
composed of non-combustible material (ash fly or mud), inert gas (nitrogen), and water,
which are all effective materials for fire control.
Following nitrogen infusion into the slurry containing the foam agent, the three-phase foam
increases rapidly in volume. It can stack upon itself, which helps fill the mine goaf and cover
the coal left in the goaf. The nitrogen encapsulated in the foam can remain a longer time in
the goaf to extinguish the mine fire. In addition, three-phase foam contains solid materials
such as fly ash or mud, which become part of the foam surface. This helps keep the foam
stable for a longer period of time. As the foam cells rupture, the fly ash and mud, as a result
of its viscosity, can cover the coal in the goaf uniformly and minimize further oxidation of
the coal. This technology is especially suitable for extraordinarily serious mine fires.

The application of grouting three-phase foam massively through boreholes drilled on the
surface to extinguish an extraordinarily serious mine fire. From this work, the following
conclusions reached:
(1) Three-phase foam makes full use of slurry, nitrogen, and water, which are all effective
materials to prevent or mitigate a mine fire. It is a comprehensive fire controlling material
that is especially suitable for combating a complicated mine fire where fire and methane are
present.

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(2) The technology of injecting three-phase foam through boreholes on the surface has
many advantages, including large capacity, simplicity, reliability, and so on. Specifically, the
three-phase foam can cover the fire area quickly over a large area so the fire can be
extinguished quickly and effectively.
(3) This technology played the key role in extinguishing the fire in the Baijigou Coal Mine. It
resulted in the recovery of partial production at full-mechanized caving face 1 month after
the gas explosion and the return to full production 1 year later.

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