Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Research paper

Deep-water channels in the lower Congo basin: Evolution of the T

geomorphology and depositional environment during the Miocene
Quan Lia,b,d, Wei Wua,c,∗, Jianshe Liangd, Hongquan Kangd, Weiqing Liua, Guangxu Wanga,
Lulu Caie
a
The Institute of Resources and Environment, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, China
b
Shandong Key Laboratory of Depositional Mineralization & Sedimentary Mineral, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
c
Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
d
CNOOC International Ltd, Beijing 100028, China
e
CNOOC Research Institute, Beijing 100028, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Deep-water channel systems are an important component of the “source to sink” system from continental slope
Seismic facies to deep-sea basin. They are also the critical reservoir type in deep-water hydrocarbon exploration. The study of
Deep-water channel systems geomorphology evolution, filling processes and controlling factors of the Miocene deep-water channel in the
Lithofacies Lower Congo Basin is conducive to deepening our understanding of basin dynamics, and to improving the
Sedimentary processes
prediction accuracy of deep-water reservoirs. Based on 3D seismic data, cores, thin sections, well logging data,
Channel type
we study the Miocene seismic stratigraphic characteristics, deep-water sedimentary units, lithofacies and
Controlling factors
Miocene channel types. Using the techniques and means of seismic geomorphology, we discuss the occurrence, devel-
Lower Congo basin opment, recession and extinction processes of channel complexes and controlling factors. The Miocene was
divided into seven 3rd-order sequences. Each 3rd-order sequence is subdivided into two (lower/upper) seismic
stratigraphy units, with initial flooding surface (FS) as the separated boundary. The seismic characteristics of the
lower/upper unit suggest the occurrence of alternating turbidite/hemipelagic sedimentary units. Seismic units
such as erosional surface, filling channel, levee, lobe, MTD and background slope deposits are described. Fifteen
deep-water lithofacies are identified and they are determined to be composed of clay, silt, fine-coarse sand,
gravel, and conglomerate. The deep-water channels in the study area are interpreted four types: single-stage
erosional channel, single-stage aggradational channel, vertical aggradational channel complexes and lateral
migration channel complexes. The different types of channel are the results of interaction of flow energy and
accommodation space. On this basis, we propose that tectonic uplift is the driving force for the formation of the
deep-water sandy channel system, and that high frequency sea-level fluctuation in West Africa controls the
development of third-order sequences and restricts the scale of the deep-water sandstone accumulation. In ad-
dition, the avulsion processes controlled by climate variations are the main factors to influence channel complex
filling process.

1. Introduction regarding the composition, development processes, and controlling

Sedimentological studies in deep-water basins are one of the key
issues in the research of basin dynamics (Kneller, 2003; Deptuck et al.,
2003; Sultan et al., 2004; Peakall et al., 2007; Hodgson et al., 2011;
McHargue et al., 2011; Xie et al., 2012), and currently represent the
frontier field in global hydrocarbon explorations and related scientific
research studies (Pang et al., 2007; Parsons et al., 2010; Li et al., 2013;
Peakall, 2015). Deep-water channel systems have been the main re-
search subject of deep-water sedimentology studies, and studies
factors of deep-water channels have represented the key issue in ex-
ploration studies of deep-water channel systems in recent years (Keevil
et al., 2006, 2007; Kane et al., 2008; Babonneau et al., 2002; Su et al.,
2014). Deep-water channel systems are important “source-sink” com-
ponents of the continental shelf to deep-sea sedimentary tract, and
make up the majority of the most important submarine geomorphic
elements (e.g., Fildani et al., 2013). These systems are not only the
main transportation route for terrigenous detrital sediment to deep-sea
locations, but they also represent the main depositional sites of deep-

∗
Corresponding author. The Institute of Resources and Environment, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, China.
E-mail address: wei@hpu.edu.cn (W. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104260
Received 13 September 2019; Received in revised form 17 January 2020; Accepted 28 January 2020
0264-8172/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Li, et al.
water sand-rich sediments (Bouma, 2001; Andrew and Senastian, 2006;
Peter and Tanya, 2011; Hofstra et al., 2018). Their transportation and
migration processes control the sedimentary structures developed
within their channel complexes (McHargue et al., 2011; Dykstra and
Kneller, 2009). During the course of deep-water channel development,
differences occur between degrees of vertical accretion and lateral
migration, while multiple phases of cutting-filling combine to form
sand body complexes of a range of sizes and shapes. These include
lateral migration complexes, vertical accretion complexes, and complex
migration complexes. At the present time, these channel complexes are
considered to be the most important potential hydrocarbon reservoirs
for oil and gas exploration in passive continental margin basins (Wynn
et al., 2007; Xie et al., 2013). Meanwhile, deep-water channel sedi-
ments are known to contain key sedimentary and climatic information
of the adjacent areas (Marsset et al., 2009; Picot et al., 2016). Deep-
water channels have become a focus for hydrocarbon explorers, sedi-
mentologists, and paleoclimatologists (Piper and Normark, 1983;
Pirmez and Flood, 1995; Ortiz-Karpf et al., 2015; Gingele et al., 2004;
Amos et al., 2010; Gong et al., 2013; Lin et al., 2018a,b; Wu et al., 2018;
Zhao et al., 2018a, 2018b; Picot et al., 2019).
In recent years, much progress has been made in determining the
filling and evolution of deep-water channel-levee systems, as well as the
classification of deep-water channel types, filling patterns, and control
factors with the applications of high-resolution seafloor imaging tech-
niques and three-dimensional seismic data acquisitions in deep-water
sediment (Babonneau et al., 2002; Abreu et al., 2003; Pirmez and
Imran, 2003; De Ruig and Hubbard, 2006; Fildani et al., 2006; Deptuck
et al., 2007; Kolla et al., 2007; Xia et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2018a,
2019). For example, the research conducted by Pirmez and Imran,
(2003) revealed that, in order for deep-water channels to achieve their
smooth flow and concave channel shape characteristics, it is required
that the curvatures, gradients, and channel widths and depths are
continuously adjusted in order to respond to changes in fluid flow and
sediment loads. These findings emphasized the relationship between
the changes in the gradients of highly curved channels and the in-
tensities of the turbidity current. Sylvester et al. (2011) carried out
investigations regarding the relationships between the erosion inter-
faces of slope channel systems, geomorphic evolution and stratum ar-
chitecture. In previous related studies, using three-dimensional simu-
lations, it was proposed that submarine channel-levee systems could
potentially form complex deep-water channel systems only through
simple single channel erosion, migration, and superposition processes.
The filling-erosion processes that lead to multi-stage migration of single
channels do not require changes in the fluid flow (Sylvester et al.,
2011). Zheng et al. (2012) proposed a new understanding that the thick
massive sandstone formations which are known to be widely developed
in deep-water fans, mainly belong to sandy clastic flow deposition. This
hypothesis was supported by analyzing the sedimentological char-
acteristics and identification marks of sandy clastic flow in the Zhujiang
Formation deep-water fans of the Baiyun Depression, and was further
established in the “source-channel-sink” coupling relationship of a
sandy clastic flow deposition model of deep-water fans (Zheng et al.,
2012). Wu et al. (2018) identified six types of sedimentary element,
which were then divided into five evolution stages by studying the
filling processes of the Lingshui section of the central canyon in the
Qiongdongnan Basin. Additionally, the complete sedimentary-filling
sequence of the deep-water canyon was established, and the controlling
effects of the sea level changes, tectonic activities, and sedimentary
supply on the deep-water sedimentary structures and sedimentary
system were discussed in detail (Wu et al., 2018). In another related
study, Chen et al. (2017) discussed the sedimentary characteristics and
controlling factors of the Oligocene deep-water channel-lobe in the
eastern African Rovuma Basin, and pointed out that the sand-rich deep-
water sediment, such as that found in channels and lobes, were con-
trolled by factors such as “ice house” climate and sedimentary supply. A
sedimentary model of the Oligocene deep-water channel-lobe in the
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
Rovuma Basin under the influence of Antarctic underflow was estab-
lished in the aforementioned study by Chen et al. (2017).
Over the last 20 years, a number of studies have addressed geo-
metric shape identification, internal architecture anatomy, overlapping
relationships, and control factors of deep-water channels. However,
there has been no consensus among researchers on the theories re-
garding deep-water channel sedimentation processes, the relationship
with the background slope deposits, and sedimentation modes. Due to
the complicated long-term interactions of channel cutting, vertical ac-
cretion, and lateral migration, various forms of deep-water systems
have been identified. At the present time, no single facies model can
accurately explain all changes which occur in complex deep-water en-
vironments. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out detailed research on
the sedimentation, filling processes, and sand distributions in different
deep-water environments, as well as reconstruct the evolution of filling
processes of deep-water channels. This is needed in particular for the
formation processes of channel complexes in order to elaborate accu-
rate predictions of deep-water sandstone reservoirs.
Due to the resolution limit of conventional seismic data, it is diffi-
cult to identify the spatial filling and evolution processes of channel
complexes with traditional seismic interpretations. A great deal of
progress has been made in seismic acquisition technology in recent
years, including continuous refinement of seismic resolution to the
point of being able to interpret seismic geomorphology. Additionally,
the sedimentary elements and sedimentary details of deep-water
channels have been more finely delineated (e.g., Gong et al., 2011;
Reijenstein et al., 2011; Alfaro and Holz, 2014; Li et al., 2017a, 2017b).
Meanwhile, the progress which has been made in flume experiments
and hydrodynamic simulation research has greatly improved our un-
derstanding of the sedimentary filling processes and dynamic me-
chanism of deep-water channels (Peakall et al., 2007; Foreman et al.,
2015). However, since deep-water sediment has not been directly
monitored or observed, laboratory simulations cannot fully reflect
deep-water sedimentary environments. Therefore, research regarding
erosion-filling process responses, internal structures, and genetic me-
chanism of ancient gravity flow channels must rely on the indirect or
static results of seismic investigations and on wireline logging data.
In previous studies, from architectural analysis, Marsset et al.
(2009) and Picot et al. (2016, 2019) suggested that the architecture of
the Late Quaternary Congo turbidite system is controlled by a combi-
nation of internal and climatic factors. Channel avulsion results in
abandonment of the ancient channel down-dip of the avulsion point,
the migrations processes of avulsion points controlled architectural
patterns (e.g., Marsset et al., 2009).
Some studies were carried out on the Miocene deep-water channels
in the Lower Congo Basin, including gravity flow channel character
(e.g., Cui et al., 2015), using seismic lithofacies to predict deep-water
turbidite sandstones (e.g., Liu et al., 2016), sequence stratigraphic
characteristics and sedimentary system identifications (e.g. Wang et al.,
2016), channel type divisions and identification of filling processes (e.g.
Cai et al., 2016).
However, early research studies were based on the sedimentary
evolution under the control of third-order sequence stratigraphic fra-
mework, and no discussion focused on deep-water channel's evolution
of the geomorphology and depositional environment during the
Miocene under the constraints of higher-order sequence framework.
Research regarding the aforementioned filling evolution under a high-
order sequence stratigraphic framework is very important for accu-
rately recovering the development processes of deep-water channel
complexes, as well as being vital for successful sand body predictions.
In the present study, based on the comprehensive interpretation of
2000 km2 3D seismic data from Block A of the CNOOC Congo-
Brazzaville, two deep-water drilling and logging wells are used to es-
tablish a Miocene sequence stratigraphic framework in the Lower
Congo Basin. The types of lithofacies are described by one continuous
drilling core, and organically combined with deep-water sedimentary
Q. Li, et al.
elements in the sequence framework. This was done in order to classify
types of deep-water channel, analyze deposition and filling processes of
the deep-water channels, and finally to provide a framework for dis-
cussion of the deposition processes and controlling factors of different
types of deep-water channels. Relationships among deep-water channel
sedimentary systems and structures, sea level changes, and paleocli-
mate changes were further clarified in this study, in order to provide
insight for the study of the sedimentary processes of deep-water chan-
nels.
2. Geological setting and previous work
The Lower Congo Basin is one of the richest oil and gas basins in the
world, and is developed on the crystalline basement of a Precambrian
system. The sedimentary strata include Cretaceous, Paleogene, and
Neogene, while an older Jurassic system occurs locally. The basin is
bounded in the north by the Mayumba Plateau; in the south by the
Ambriz arch; in the east by the Precambrian Basement; and in the west
by the Continental Margin (Wang et al., 2016). The basin has a total
area of 68,000 km2.
It has been determined that the tectonic evolution of the Lower
Congo Basin is closely related to the splitting of the South Atlantic
Ocean. Its evolution can be divided successively into rift, transition and
drift stages (Dickson et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2008). Among these, the
Early Cretaceous Berriasian Stage to the mid-Early Cretaceous Barre-
mian Stage is considered to cover the basin rifting stage. Under east-
west tensile stress, the basin underwent a south to north rift, which
filled river and lake sedimentary systems. During the late- Early Cre-
taceous, the Aptian Stage was a transitional stage of the basin, in which
a restricted lagoon environment developed and widely distributed salt
strata were deposited. This salt deposition indicated the transition from
a continental environment to a marine environment. Then, during the
late- Early Cretaceous Albian to early Oligocene, the early drift stage
occurred. Uplift of the West African continent and the rapid fluctuation
of the sea level produced, a series of salt rafting structures that were
formed under the action of gravity. Additionally, a carbonate platform
and deep-sea clastic sandstone were deposited at that time.
During the Cenozoic, particular tectonic and climatic conditions
(structural deformation and uplift of the margin, humid climate) re-
sulted in an increase of the Zaire (Congo) River sediment load and
thereby of the terrigenous supply to the Lower Congo basin (Reyre,
1984; Lavier et al., 2001; Leturmy et al., 2003). After several shifts
along a N–S axis (Karner and Driscoll, 1999), the Zaire River mouth
became stabilized in its present position in the Oligocene. Since early
Oligocene and throughout the Quaternary, the Congo River underwent
a sharp increase in its sand carrying capacity.
As detailed in Fig. 1, a large amount of terrigenous debris was
transported to the deep-water basin through the east-west Congo
Canyon, eventually forming a deep-water fan complex with a thickness
of 6000 m (Anka, 2004; Brice et al., 1982; Droz et al., 1996; Karner and
Driscoll, 1999).
The Congo Fan examined in this study is one of the largest deep-
water fans in the world. It had started to develop at the end of
Oligocene period and is located along Congo-Brazzaville and Angola on
the continental margin of West Africa. It is supplied by the Congo River
point source, with a length of about 4370 km, an overland catchment
area of 3.7 × 106 km2, and an average flow rate of 42,800 m3s-1
(Weering et al., 1984). The deep-water fan extends 800 to 1000 km
from east to west, with a minimum width of 400 km from north to
south. The study area is located in the northwest section of the Congo
Fan, with an area of approximately 2000 km2 and a current water depth
of between 500 and 1200 m (Fig. 1). From the Early to Late Miocene
period, the Congo River migrated from south to north, which resulted in
migration of the Congo Fan in a southeast to northwest direction. The
study area previously hosted different development positions of the
Congo Fan. The main target formation of Paloukou is Miocene in age
3
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
and has a thickness of 1200 to 1500 m with a burial depth ranging from
1500 to 3500 m. The target formation is composed of siltstone, sand-
stone, mudstone, silty mudstone, and argillaceous siltstone, along with
locally observed conglomerate (Liu et al., 2016).
2.1. Previous work
Wang et al. (2016) divided the Miocene section of the Lower Congo
Basin into seven 3rd-order sequences based on the seismic reflection
features and gamma ray (GR) curve shape property combining analysis
of structural development history. Results shows that the scale of the
gravity flow in every 3rd-order sequence is significantly different from
each other. The scale of gravity flow deposits in SQ3-SQ7 is larger than
in SQ1-SQ2. And many channel-incised structures can be found within
the sequence of SQ3-SQ7. To demonstrate the relation between relative
sea level fluctuations and the development of the deep-water gravity
flow deposit units, plane views for root-mean-square amplitude attri-
butes were developed for seven third-order sequences on the basis of
fine seismic interpretation of sequence stratigraphy and identification
of deep-water gravity flow deposit units. The developing scales of the
deep-water gravity flow deposits reflected by the altitudes are well
matched with the relative sea level fluctuations (Wang et al., 2016).
However, early research studies were based on the 3rd-order se-
quence stratigraphic framework, and no discussion focused on sedi-
mentary filling evolution processes of the deep-water channel com-
plexes under the constraints of the higher-order sequence framework.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Materials
The primary source of data for this study is conventional time-mi-
grated 3D seismic reflection data. The 3D volume covers an area of
2000 km2 (see Fig. 1, black rectangle), with an effective bandwidth of
10–80 Hz, a vertical sample interval of 2 ms two-way time (TWT) and a
12.5 × 12.5 m horizontal bin size. Based on a dominant frequency of
45 Hz in the Miocene stratigraphy, and a velocity in the interval of
interest of approximately 2200 m/s, the vertical resolution of the data is
estimated to be roughly 12 m.
The polarity of the seismic data is SEG negative; i.e., a downward
increase in acoustic impedance is represented by a positive (red) re-
flection and a downward decrease in acoustic impedance is represented
by a negative (black) reflection. Seismic interpretation and attribute
analyses were undertaken on seismic workstations using Petrel and
PaleoScan software.
Two wells are located in the study area, including one cored well
(well B) (Fig. 1). An entire suite of well logs was collected at these wells
and used for detailed lithofacies, stratigraphic architecture, and age
analysis.
The drilling core and logging data from the wells revealed that silt,
fine sandstone, and mudstone comprise the Miocene strata. The data
from Well A and Well B provided key facies information for a further
detailed analysis within the channel complex. The high quality sonic
and density logs from the wells allowed seismic-well ties, then well data
were used to calibrate seismic interpretations in the area of interest (see
Fig. 1). After the seismic well-tie was completed, the geological sig-
nificance of key seismic reflections was determined, and seismic facies
were tied to depositional facies.
3.2. Work flow and key techniques
3.2.1. Work flow
Geological marker beds were selected to systematically establish the
isochronous sequence stratigraphic framework of the Miocene
Formation in the study area. This was done by using observed seismic
reflection termination relationships as a means of comprehensively
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Fig. 1. Location of the study area and geological context: (a) Location of the Lower Congo Basin in West Africa; and the study area (black rectangle). (b) Location of
the 3D seismic survey A and wells in the Lower Congo Basin. The dashed lines show the lications of seismic profiles in Fig. 7a and 7b. The block boxes illustrate the
attribute maps in Fig. 4a and b, 5,6a, 6b, 10 and 11. (c) Stratigraphic section for the Lower Congo Basin showing the primary lithology, strata, color and structural
evolution, modified from Zhang et al. (2017). (c) Geoseismic cross-section showing the structural and strata configuration of the study area, modified from Wang
et al. (2016). See Fig. 1a for the location of the cross-section. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)

comparing logging and seismic data. The selected geological marker
beds were related to seismic reflection events, e.g. the maximum
flooding surface (condensed section), parallel unconformity, and iso-
chronous marker beds were traced regionally.
Secondly, based on the established 3rd order sequence stratigraphic
framework (Wang et al., 2016), well log and core data were used in
combination with the depositional history determined by regional tec-
tonics to identify sedimentary units and corresponding lithofacies of the
deep-water channel system (Zhao et al., 2019). In accordance with the
seismic characteristics of deep-water sedimentary cycles, and the
traceable correlation of the identified key interfaces, the Miocene strata
in the lower Congo Basin could accurately be divided into fourteen
seismic sequences, as illustrated in Fig. 7b. The seismic-well ties
showed high-amplitude reflection responses to sandy deposits, and in-
dicated that high-amplitude reflections in the deep-water environment
most likely represent sand-rich facies. Following the methodology de-
scribed by Mayall et al. (2006), five main seismic units were identified
in this study, which was based on planform geometry, and cross-sec-
tional reflection characteristics (geometry, amplitude and continuity).
Next, their relationships to the different lithofacies were then inter-
preted and tied.
Thirdly, the filling and evolution processes of deep-water sedi-
mentary facies and sedimentary systems were investigated through a
series of stratigraphic slices in high-order seismic sequence frameworks.

4
Q. Li, et al.
3.2.2. Key techniques
Slices from 3D volumes can be studied using different seismic at-
tributes to highlight seismic facies variations within the 3D seismic
cube. Various reflection attributes such as root-mean-square amplitude,
dip magnitude, dip azimuth, semblance and curvature, to name a few,
can be observed to yield direct images of depositionally and structurally
significant features (Posamentier, 2004). These attributes were used to
identify and better understand the detailed internal architecture and
depositional processes in the subsurface. The study of depositional
systems using 3D seismic derived images has been referred to as seismic
geomorphology (Posamentier, 2000).
Stratigraphic slicing is a key technology in seismic sedimentology
analysis processes (e.g., Zeng et al., 1998a, b; Posamentier et al., 2007;
Xia et al., 2018, 2019). The seismic amplitude characteristics of stra-
tigraphic slices provide important lithologic and geomorphological in-
formation for sedimentary microfacies analyses (e.g., Dong et al.,
2015). One of the key conditions for seismic geomorphological imaging
is the extraction of amplitude data from sedimentary interfaces (e.g.,
geological time interfaces) (e.g., Zeng and Ambrose, 2001).
The isochronous stratal slice method displayed good results in the
accurate characterization of deep-water channel complexes with com-
plicated internal architecture caused by multi-stage erosion and over-
lapping filling processes within high-order sequence.
Fig. 2 shows different slice methods for analyzing deep-water
channel complexes within the same high-order sequence framework.
Fig. 2b shows that the time slice, stratal slice, and proportional slice
methods were unable to effectively reveal the relationship between the
two channel complexes. On the contrary, Fig. 2c shows that the iso-
chronous stratal slice method of PaleoScan had effectively traced the
intersection relationship of the two channel complexes. On this basis,
through the application of a serial slice comparative analysis method of
seismic sedimentology, the spatio-temporal evolution law of deep-water
channel complexes was effectively depicted in order to reveal the
evolution characteristics of the sedimentary microfacies. In this study,
the top and bottom seismic isochrons of the continuous and traceable
third-order sequence were selected as the constraint formation. Then,
PaleoScan software was applied to automatically trace within the lower
unit of third-order sequence to produce 50 continuous isochronous
stratigraphic slices were established, as detailed in Fig. 10. The occur-
rence, development, and disappearances of the channel complexes in
the lower unit of third-order sequence, as well as the change processes
of the deep-water sedimentary element combinations, were successfully
Fig. 2. (a) Diagrammatic sketch of three different slicing methods. (b) Equal-proportion stratum slice; and (c) Data-driven isochronous stratal slicing by using
Paleoscan (this study). (d) Fourier spectrum of the channel complex in Miocene.
5
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
depicted. It was found that the cognition degree of the filling evolution
of the composite channels had increased to a certain extent.
4. Results
4.1. Results from seismic analysis
4.1.1. Seismic facies and configuration
1) Channels
Two types of erosion surfaces were observed in the study area: A
large-scale composite erosional surface at the bottom of the channel
complex (Fig. 3f), and a local erosional surface of the single-stage
channel (Fig. 3b). The width of erosional surface is between 1.3 and
2.8 km and is marked by several incisions of underlying reflectors.
Additionally, two types of sedimentary channel fill were observed
above this surface. The first type is characterized by discontinuous high
amplitude reflection and a lateral migration of the channel axis (Fig. 3a).
The second type is characterized by high amplitude and continuous re-
flection. The filling was interpreted as a vertical superposition of the
channel (Fig. 3e). The local erosional surface of the single-stage channel
shows that the width of the incision ranges from 200 to 350 m (Fig. 4a).
This erosional surface occurs either inside the complex channel belt or at
the bottom of the simple channel. The parallel and low amplitude re-
flection fill which occurs above the surface is interpreted as a fill related
to the abandonment of the channel (Fig. 3f).
In this study, single-stage turbidite channel superposition to form
turbidite channel complexes. Due to the limitation of seismic data re-
solution, it is difficult to distinguish a single-stage channel in the lower
unit of the channel complex (Fig. 3d, e, f). The seismic facies of turbi-
dite channel complexes are composed of stacked, high-amplitude re-
flection groups (HARs), which have a confined or unconfined geometry
in cross-section.
The planform geometry of channel complex imaged from the attri-
bute maps indicated that the HARs had elongated, shoe-string forms,
with low sinuosity (Fig. 4a). The top of the channel complex is occupied
by single-stage erosional channel. The erosion and filling of deep-water
channels displayed a meandering form along the horizon slice, which
was similar to a high sinuosity meandering river (Fig. 4b). The single-
stage turbidite channels were laterally and vertically stacked to form
channel complexes up to about 50 m deep and 2.8 km wide.
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Fig. 3. Seismic profiles showing the different types of architectural elements in the study area. (a) Graded turbidite channel (e.g., Kneller, 2003). Note the LAPs (e.g.,
Abreu et al., 2003); (b) Single-stage channels and outer levees; (c) Terminal lobes; (d) Channel complex and deepwater muddy sediment. Note the basal erosional
surface of the channel complex; (e) lateral migration of channel axis within the channel complex; (f) Example of an abandoned channel complex. Note the outer
levees of the channel complex and the last channel and its inner levee within the channel complex. Note the filling unit which marks the channel complex
abandonment.

Fig. 4. Two types of single-stage channel root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude and corresponding interpretations: (a) single-stage incisional deep-water channel; and
(b) single-stage aggradational deep-water channel.

6
Q. Li, et al.
2) Levee
Two types of levee are observed in the study area: inner levees
(Fig. 3f) and outer levees (Fig. 7f). The outer levees bound the channel
complexes. The inner levees controlled the thicknesses of longitudinal
single-stage channel deposits. In seismic cross-sections, the inner levee
shows a characteristic gull-wing shape with medium-high amplitude
and very continuous reflections (Figs. 3f and 4b). Moderate-high am-
plitude reduction to low amplitude along the turbidite channel edge
outward on left side can be observed in the cross-section (Fig. 3b).
Wedge-shaped configuration characterizes the outer levees of channels.
For example, on the lower slope, the dip angles of the outer levees
changed from 0 to 0.1° at the bottom to 0.2–0.3° at the top. The
thicknesses of the outer levees range between 25 and 50 ms. The levee
reflections lack continuity with those of the channel-fill, except for the
last-stage deposits. The base of the channel belt is generally flat, but
may be slightly uneven due to variable depth of thalweg scour.
3) Lobe
The terminal lobes are characterized on seismic by a high amplitude
and very continuous reflections. Small-scale lobes consist of 1–2 events
(Fig. 3c), which form lobate elements on planar seismic data probes
intersecting the end of channels, with low single-stage erosion events
and incision depths of less than 40 m observed (Fig. 3c).
Large-scale lobes are developed at the ends of channels, and are
characterized by strong single-stage erosion events and incision depths
greater than 70 m, and consisting of 4–5 events (Fig. 5). The widths of
planar lobes were found to reach up to 4 km. In addition, multi-stage
distributary channels were observed above the lobes, and the width-
depth ratios of the distributary channels were found to be significantly
lower than those of the feeding channels (Fig. 5).
4) Background slope deposits
The upper units of each third-order sequence (Fig. 4b) are char-
acterized on seismic by low-medium amplitude, medium-high fre-
quency, and parallel continuous reflections (Fig. 3d). In Well A of the
study area, the low amplitude continuous and parallel seismic reflec-
tions SQ7U calibrated as mudstone typical of pelagic or hemipelagic
Fig. 5. Characteristics of the deep-water terminal lobe root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude and corresponding interpretations. (a) Plane geometry of the terminal lobe
in the study area; (b) Seismic profile (X-X′) showing a terminal lobe. Note the domed shape of the top of the lobe; (c) Seismic profile (Y-Y′) crossing the feeder channel
of the terminal lobe.
7
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
low-energy argillaceous deposit formed during the “starvation period”
of the basin (Fig. 4a). Pelagic sediments are widely distributed as the
main sedimentary unit at the top of the third-order sequence. In addi-
tion, homogeneous mudstone deposits were found to exist. Since clastic
flow during that stage was low, this indicates that a potential maximum
flooding event had occurred.
5) Mass transport deposits (MTD)
MTDs in seismic profiles are identified by the external “bottom flat
and top convex” reflection patterns and internal chaotic and dis-
continuous and low amplitude reflections. The MTD are located at the
bottom of the channel complexes (Fig. 3d). Internal reflector horizons
are bounded by the outer levees of the channel complexes, and are
interpreted as slump deposits formed by erosion on both sides of the
channel walls.
4.1.2. Different types of channel-levee systems
The study area contained two types of developed single-stage
channel (Fig. 4). The first type corresponds to a simple incision with
very thin or without associated levees (Fig. 4a). The second type is
characterized by a channel accretion and well developed levees
(Fig. 4b). Different single-stage channel reflects different hydrodynamic
conditions and sedimentary backgrounds.
Two types of channel complex are identified in the study area
(Fig. 10). The first type corresponds to mainly vertical superposition
channel complex within confined environment condition (Fig. 10a).
The second type is characterized by mainly lateral migration channel
complex within unconfined environment condition (Fig. 10b). The
different types of channel-levee systems are summarized as follow.
1) Single-stage erosional channels
In this study, the erosional channel exhibited linear trajectories
characterized by high curvatures, with an average curvature of 1.5,
channel widths between 100 and 200 m, depth range of 20–30 m and
width-to-depth ratios of 3–10 (e.g., Clark et al., 1992). As detailed in
Fig. 9a, the amplitude attribute disclosed that the channel thalwegs had
strong amplitudes and high continuous reflections, while levees are
poorly or not developed (Table 1).
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

2) Single-stage aggradational channels

meander cut-off and straightening phenomenon, high-

Large volume of high-energy gravity flow, bypass, U or

Fine grained turbidity current, sandy sediment waned
Low sinuosity to straight channel with silty mudstone
and layered sandstone fill, low-energy hydrodynamic
High sinuosity channel with coarse sandstone fill,

Low-density and diluted current with unconfined

In this study, these observations indicated low sinuosity conditions

High-density turbidity current, with unconfined

on the planes, with a sinuosity of 1.1–1.5, channel widths ranging be-

High-density turbidity current with confined

environment, high content sandy sediment
tween 90 and 180 m; and depths of 18–30 m (e.g., Clark et al., 1992). In
the seismic profiles, the thalwegs could be described as having low

environment, sandy sediment waxed

amplitudes and continuous filling characteristics. The levees on both
sides were found to be asymmetric accumulations with medium to
strong amplitudes, medium to low frequencies, and good continuity.
energy to less-energy flow
Depositional environment

They exhibit typical “seagull” shapes, which reveal that the aggradation
heights of the levees have a ranged of 15–30 m (Table 1).

V-shaped channel
environment
3) Vertical superposition type channel complexes

Seismic profiles indicate that the channel complexes show multi-

flow

directional swing of single channel within the confined environment.

Typical “seagull” shape, decrease thickness from
proximal to distal, flat basal surface, aggradation

The high amplitude reflectors are truncated by later erosive channels,

Upward widening (U-shaped)channel form, not

Lateral and vertical stacking low to moderate

with an overall parallel overlapping pattern observed. The seismic fa-

develop levee, with erosional basal surface,

single-stage channel, swing, high frequency

Lateral and vertical stacking high sinuosity
Lateral migration high sinuosity channel.

cies of turbidite channel complexes are composed of stacked, medium

continuous, high-amplitude reflection groups (HARs), which have a
sheet-like geometry, and are totally confined in the center of large-scale
sinuosity single-stage channel,

erosional surface.
convex upwards top surface

Low sinuosity channel base

Sheet-like geometry, drape

Due to the limitation of seismic data resolution, it is difficult to

distinguish a single-stage turbidite channel in cross section. Based on
Reflection geometry

the characters of vertical seismic facies, we identified four stages (St1

through St4), as detailed in Table 1 and Fig. 6a. These four units have
obvious differences in the assemblage of seismic facies.
geometry

avulsion

Stage 1 is composed of one or two high-amplitude seismic events,

directly lay upon the erosional surfaces, and were confined to the
thalweg. There also exist transparent, discontinuous-to-chaotic reflec-
Single-stage aggradatioanl channel filling, high-

tion packages, with low-to-moderate seismic amplitudes, and occa-

Sub-parallel, low amplitude, continuous, low

to moderate amplitude. Moderate frequency,

sional reflection continuity. Stage 2 is composed of a series of lateral or

Strong amplitude, low continuous, medium

Single-stage erosional channel filling,high-

Medium to strong amplitude, continuous,
Parallel, high amplitude, continuous, low

vertical sticking single-stage erosional turbidite channels. This unit

Lobe complex filling, high- amplitude

appears high-amplitude, moderate continuity reflections. Stage 3 is

medium to low frequency reflection

composed of a series of lateral or vertical sticking single-stage ag-

amplitude, moderate continuity

gradational turbidite channels. This unit is characterized by high to

moderate amplitude, low to moderate continuity, relative high fre-
Erosion and lag deposit

quency reflections. Stage 4 is composed of high amplitude, high con-

continuous reflection

moderate continuity
Reflection character

frequency reflection

frequency reflection

frequency reflection

tinuity, and relative low frequency reflections.

The widths of the superposed channel complexes are between 1.5
and 3 km, and depths could potentially reach 200 m.
Characteristics of the different type of channel-levee systems and interpretation.

4) Lateral migration type channel complexes

Channel

Channel

Stage 4:

Stage 3:

Stage 2:

Stage 1:

The lateral migration type of channel complexes refers to the ero-

Levee

sion of the lateral superposition features formed by early channels, due

to the lateral migration of later channels, with obvious evidence of
channel abandonment. The width of the single-stage channel is only
150 m, and the width of the superimposed channel zone reached
Cross-section

1.5 km. Thicknesses of drilled sand bodies were found to be very thin,
ranging from 40 to 100 m (Fig. 6b, Table 1).

4.2. Seismostratigraphic framework

Planform

In this study, and at this seismic resolution, there exists a recurrent

motif of two (lower and upper) seismic units within every third-order
sequence (Fig. 7). The lower unit is characterized by a basal un-
Different type of channel-levee

conformity interpreted as an erosional surface with numerous incisions

Vertical superposition channel
Single-stage erosional channel

related to the presence of channel/levee/lobe systems. The upper unit is

Single-stage aggradational

Lateral migration channel

characterized by low amplitude continuous parallel reflectors typical of

background slope deposits (hemipelagic sediments).
It was found to be difficult to divide the system tracts in the third-order
complexes

complexes

sequence. However, the lower and upper seismic units were separated by a
channel

reflection event, which could be traced across the study area. By tracing the
systems
Table 1

reflection event using seismic isochronous markers, a high-order seismos-

tratigraphic correlation framework was established.

8
Q. Li, et al.
Fig. 6. Two types of channel complex fill characterized by root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude and corresponding interpretations; (a) channel complex dominated by
vertical aggradation. Note the evolution processes divided into four stages (St1-St4); (b) channel complex dominated by lateral migration (Zhang et al., 2017
interpreted this migration configuration as indented channel).
The Miocene strata on study area can be divided into 14 high-order
seismic units: U1L, U1U, U2L, U2U, U3L, U3U, U4L, U4U, U5L, U5U,
U6L, U6U, U7L and U7U (Fig. 7).
Reflectors of higher amplitude in every seismic unit suggest the
presence of seismic sub-units. These seismic sub-units represent dif-
ferent scale single-stage channel or different types of channel com-
plexes.
4.3. Lithofacies and deposit types
In the study area, Well B is the only continuous coring well. It
comprises many types of deep-water lithofacies. The coring section is
located in SO7L. Various types of lithofacies were identified through the
core description, and are composed of clay, silty sand, fine sand to
coarse sand, gravel, and conglomerate, respectively (Fig. 8).
1) Lithofacies 1: Homogeneous clay
Lithofacies 1 is mainly composed of dark gray clay (Fig. 8a), and
contains a trace of silty sand and 7% extremely fine quartz particles
with an average particle diameter of 40 μm and obvious subangular
shapes. This type is generally associated with organic flakes. The
mudstone exhibits a local bioturbation and an extremely low porosity of
around zero (Fig. 9a). The lithofacies in this example suggests a hy-
drostatic sedimentary environment produced by hemipelagic deep-
water deposition.
2) Lithofacies 2: Silty clay with lentils of siltstone
Lithofacies 2 is composed of gray silty mudstone containing granitic
clasts, mixed with yellow layered siltstone, and contains flaky fine sand
masses (Fig. 8b). The silt was observed to be lenticular or layered, with
a mm to cm silt layer caused by siderite diagenesis. The clay matrix
contains 80% of siderite and 15% of quartz. The siderite is flaky and
nodular with an average grain size of less than 5 μm. Granitic clasts are
composed of fractured fine sand with a high quartz content, very fine
9
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
grain size (average grain size: 40 μm), and a very irregular shape. The
fine sand usually exhibits lamellar structural characteristics, and the
organic matter is rich, with a flaky or lumpy appearance (small ore
bodies). It was also observed that there are local biological dis-
turbances, and the porosity is almost zero (Fig. 9b). These lithofacies
are interpreted as fine suspended sediment.
3) Lithofacies 3: Silty mudstone and layered sandstone
Lithofacies 3 consists of gray silty mudstone, black mudstone, and
muddy yellow layered siltstone. Primary depositional fabric has been
disturbed by biological disturbances (Fig. 8c). The average composition
of clay matrix consists of 75% of siderite and 17% of quartz. The
average diameter of the particles is 50 μm, and their shape is very ir-
regular. The organic matter is rich, with a flaky or lumpy appearance
(small ore-bodies) (Fig. 9c). This type of lithofacies is found in the se-
diment filling which marks the abandonment stage of deep-water
channels.
4) Lithofacies 4: Cross bedding siltstone
The fourth type of lithofacies is composed of interbedded black
mudstone and beige siltstone, parallel to fine sand or undulated fine
sand layers with thicknesses of 2–3 cm. It is in direct contact at its base
and top with a clay layer with thin silty sand (Fig. 8d). Siderite is rare in
this lithofacies, and the composition only contains approximately 10%
of quartz. The particle size is very fine, with an average particle size of
only 25 μm. Particles are characterized by a very irregular shape. The
lithofacies is interpreted as the sedimentary product under the condi-
tions of weak flow energy.
5) Lithofacies 5: Graded siltstone facies
This lithofacies is composed of interbedded beige siltstone, sand-
stone, and gray mudstone. The graded siltstone is characterized by a
centimeter-level parallel bedding with bioturbation in the middle of
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Fig. 7. (a) Characteristics of sequence boundaries from the well-seismic calibration, the flooding surface (FS) separated the upper deep-sea in-situ deposition system
from the lower gravity flow deposition system; and (b) Sequence stratigraphic framework in the study area. (Note: The evolution processes of channel complexes in
the lower unit of SQ7 interpreted in depth in Discussion). See Fig. 1b for the location of the seismic cross-section and wells.

mudstone (Fig. 8e). The content of quartz is approximately of 25%,
with fine particle sizes, slender and sub-circular shapes, and mid-to
good particle sorting. The average particle size is 50 μm (Fig. 9d). It was
determined that this type of lithofacies developed either on top of high-
density flow or in a muddy turbidite.
bedding (Fig. 8g). The clay matrix represents 33% of the composition.
This lithofacies is considered to correspond to low-density and gravity-
flow deposit.
8) Lithofacies 8: Massive fine sandstone

6) Lithofacies 6: Cross-bedded fine sandstone
This lithofacies is composed of fine sandstone, with bedded mud-
stone as very fine flaky sandy layers (thickness of 5–6 cm), which al-
ternately occur with clay layers and parallel or sub-parallel wavy
bedding organic matter locally (Fig. 8f). The clay matrix accounts for
0–6% and contains local organic matters (Fig. 9e). This type of litho-
facies was determined to have mainly developed at the bottom of the
formation stages of waterways. It is interpreted in this study as low-
density turbidite sediment transported at the bottoms of channels.
7) Lithofacies 7: Graded sandstone
It corresponds to the classic Bouma sequence section, including a
medium-coarse grained sandy layer; massive medium-coarse sandstone
segment (Ta) at the bottom; parallel sandstone bedding (Tb); and wavy
sandstone bedding segment (Tc), which gradually transitions upward to
silty mudstone. The sandstone to siltstone shows horizontal and parallel
This lithofacies is composed of fine to medium sandstone with no
visible internal structure (Fig. 8h), in which clay debris and clay par-
ticles are present. The particles are poorly sorted with sub-circular to
sub-angular shapes. The microscopical observation allowed to identify
two types of particles. The first type corresponds to coarse particles
with an average size of 1 mm and sub-rounded shapes. The second type
consists of fine particles with an average particle size of 120 μm char-
acterized by sub-angular shapes. It is locally rich in clay matrix. This
lithofacies would correspond to the direct and rapid deposition of
suspended fine sandstones by high-density turbidite sandstone. Petro-
graphic observation of the Lithofacies 8 under a microscope reveals an
average porosity of 25% (Fig. 9f), which probably corresponds to high-
quality reservoirs units.
9) Lithofacies 9: Bedded fine sandstone
Lithofacies 9 shows characteristics similar to those of Lithofacies 8.
However, horizontal or cross-bedding are observed in the sediment. The

10
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Fig. 8. Lithofacies and sedimentary structures within SQ7L. (a) Homogeneous clay; (b) Silt clays with lenticular siltstone; (c) Silty mudstone and layered sandstone;
(d) Cross-bedded siltstone; (e) Graded siltstone facies; (f) Cross-bedded fine sandstone; (g) Graded sandstone; (h) Massive fine sandstone; (i) Bedded fine sandstone;
(j) Massive, gravelly coarse sandstone; (k) Gravelly coarse sandstone; (l–n) Matrix debris flow; (o) Conglomerate facies.

sandstone is characterized by medium particle sizes with sub-rounded
to sub-angular shapes (Fig. 8i). Additionally, two particle grades occur:
coarse particles with an average particle size of 750 μm; and fine par-
ticles with an average particle size of 150 μm. Lithofacies 9 is a deposit
interpreted as resulting from high-density turbidite sedimentation ac-
companying traction currents. Microscope observation of thin sections
from this lithofacies shows a porosity range of 24–37% (Fig. 9g), which
indicates an excellent hydrocarbon reservoir potential.
10) Lithofacies 10: Massive gravelly coarse sandstone
This lithofacies is composed of coarse sandstone with sub-angular or
sub-circular particles (Fig. 8g). Particle size is generally bimodal from
extremely fine to medium particles, and coarse particles (particle size to
5 mm), with an average particle size of 130–220 μm. The porosity was
found to be as high as 34% (Fig. 9h). Lithofacies 10 is assumed to be the
depositional product of suspended coarse gravel and high density tur-
bidity currents, and is interpreted as sandy turbidite channel fill.
11) Lithofacies 11: Gravelly coarse sandstone
This lithofacies is composed of coarse sandstone contains quartz
gravel and a large number of thick siltstone, mudstone, and sandstone
deposits (Fig. 8k). Parallel bedding and horizontal bedding are ob-
served locally. This lithofacies shows the characteristics of a high-
density glutenite turbidite associated with traction erosion. The por-
osity range lies between 25 and 27% (Fig. 9i), which may be char-
acteristic of the sandy lobes at the end of channels.

11
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Fig. 9. Thin section images of Well B. (a) Depth of 1654.05 m, mudstone with local bioturbation and extremely low porosity. (b) Depth of 1709.05 m, silty mudstone
containing sidetrite, local biological disturbances and porosity of almost zero. (c) Depth of 1760.2 m, silty clay with thin silt lamine, and low inter-granular porosity
in silt lamine, with unconnected pores. (d) Depth of 1695.57 m, quartz with fine particle sizes, slender and sub-circular shapes, and mid-to poor particle sorting, and
low porosity. (e) Depth of 1694.65 m, very fine, well-sorted, sub-rounded grains, clay lamine and organic matter, inter-granular porosity in non-clay lamine. (f) Depth
of 1754.58 m, fine sandstone with quartz grains, poor sorting, long grain, sub-rounded, and rich in intergranular porosity. (g) Depth of 1647.4 m, medium fine sand,
well classified, the largest particles are sub-rounded, fine sub-angular, very good intergranular porosity, light clay around the particles. (h) Depth of 1655.18 m,
medium coarse sand, no visible internal structure, poor sorting, the largest particle is sub-rounded, finest is sub-angular. Very good intergranular porosity, presence of
heavy minerals. (i) Depth of 1655.7 m, coarse sand, very poorly sorted, with fine sub-angular and coarse sub-rounded grains. Very high inter-granular porosity. (j)
Depth of 1610.7 m, heterogeneous sand, sub-angular to sub-rounded grains. Very low intergranular porosity, unconnected pores. (k) Depth of 1671.25 m, medium to
coarse sandstone, very poorly sorted, with sub-spherical and rounded grains, and clay cement. Very low inter-granular porosity. (l) Depth of 1664.7 m, sandy clay to
silty clay with quartz granules, subtle lamination, poorly sorted sub-rounded grains, zero porosity.

12) Lithofacies 12 to 14: Matrix debris flow
In lithofacies 12 to 14, clay matrix clastic flow deposits (Lithofacies 12)
(Fig. 8l), silty clay matrix clastic flow deposits (Lithofacies 13) (Fig. 8m),
and sandy matrix clastic flow deposits (Lithofacies 14) (Fig. 8n) are ob-
served. Essentially, unsorted boulders are observed in these lithofacies and
show different characteristics and grain sizes. Indeed, there are medium to
coarse gravel quartz particles, decimeter-grade pebbles, regenerated siderite
clay nodules, and bioclastics (Fig. 9j–i). The content of quartz particles,
plant debris, and biological debris suggest that these sediment types origi-
nated from a near-source inland shelf, rather than from slope or basin floor
environments. Therefore, lithofacies 12 to 14 are interpreted as the product
of direct and rapid transportation of sediment from the continental shelf to
the basin.
13) Lithofacies 15: Conglomerate facies
Lithofacies 15 consists of medium-grained sandstone (cored at
1746.5 m) at the bottom and quartz conglomerate (cored at 1739.6 m) at
the top, which contains dolomite mudstone or light brown siderite, along
which localized quartz particles occur (Fig. 8o). The structure appears to be
deformed, with medium to fine sandstone which developed with parallel
bedding. This type of lithofacies is characterized by a high porosity (30%) as
revealed by the thin rock sections. The permeability has been reduced due
to clay richness. It was interpreted in this study that this lithofacies re-
presents conglomerate deposits at the bottom of channels.
5. Interpretation
5.1. Chronostratigraphic framework
The seismic characteristics of the lower unit/upper unit suggest the
occurrence of alternating turbidite/hemipelagic sedimentary units
which could correspond to the 3rd order sequences previously identi-
fied in the Miocene deep-water gravity flow deposits by Wang et al.
(2016).
1) Regional erosional surface
As detailed in Fig. 7b, eight 3rd-order sequence interfaces were
identified in the study area. The sequence boundaries are composed of
medium-low frequency, chaotic, and high amplitude seismic reflectors.
Moreover, channel complexes of different scales form the regional
erosion unconformity surfaces, which suggest high energy deposition.
The sections located beneath the interfaces consist of high-frequency,
parallel, and weak amplitude seismic reflections, typical of low energy
deposition features. The sequence interfaces on the logging curves are
characterized by abrupt lithological changes, and the Gamma Ray (GR)
curves on the interfaces display “bell shaped” or “box shaped” forma-
tions, which suggest sandstone assemblage deposition (Wang et al.,
2016). The sections located under the interfaces display a “sawtooth”
curve, indicating deep-sea mudstone deposits, as detailed in Fig. 7a.
2) Flooding surface
The high-order sequence stratigraphic unit was observed to be a
sedimentary cycle body defined by a marine or lacustrine flooding
surface. For example, it was found to consist of the fourth- and fifth-
order sedimentary cycles within the third-order sequence (Lin et al.,
2002). In this study, the flooding surface in the third-order sequence
was selected as the interface of the high-order sequence, and then the
third-order sequence was subdivided.
Examinations of Well A revealed that the interface could be traced
and compared on a large-scale within the study area (Fig. 7a). It was
observed that on the seismic profile, the seismic reflection features of
poor continuity, strong amplitude, and high frequency were dominant

12
Q. Li, et al.
below the flooding surface. In addition, the reflection features of high
continuity, weak amplitude, and medium-to low-frequency were found
to dominate above the interface. The logging curves and lithologic
profiles indicated that this interface was characterized by a lithologic
change with deep-sea argillaceous deposits above the interface, and
coarse clastic gravity flow/turbidity flow deposits below the interface.
The two types of deposit were essentially separated by a surface cor-
responding to both the maximum regression surface and first flooding
surface.
5.2. Interpretation of different channel-levee-lobe systems and sedimentary
processes
1) Single-stage erosional channels
Kneller (2003) suggests that the purely erosional channel usually shows
the simple, single-stage features, and they are commonly rather straight.
However, in this study, the single-stage erosional channel shows high si-
nuosity in planform. Many formerly erosional channels are defined by the
deposits that fill them, which are not directly related to the processes that
formed the original erosional conduit (Kneller, 2003).
The single-stage erosional channels mainly occur in the lower unit
of SQ2. The strong amplitudes and high continuous reflections in
channel thalwegs suggest gravelly coarse sandstone and massive coarse
sandstone facies (lithofacies 7, 10, 11, 15). The convex shapes on the
top surface of channels (Fig. 4a, AA′, CC′) may be caused by differential
compaction in the later stages, suggesting the high-energy sandy fill of
the channel thalwegs. It was found that in the high sinuosity sections,
the “meander cut-off and straightening” of deep-water channels con-
firmed the higher energy of the fluid at the end of the channel devel-
opment (Fig. 4a).
The geomorphological characteristics of the simple incisions such as
high sinuosity, meander cut-off and straightening suggest high-energy
turbidity current conditions (Fig. 4a, Table 1). The erosionally-based
channel fills record at least two changes in flow properties, the first to
initiate the erosion, and the second to initiate the fill (e.g., Kneller,
2003). However, the specific deep-water dynamic mechanism requires
further study.
2) Single-stage aggradational channels
Aggradation of channels requires deposition both in the channel
axis and the overbank areas, in order to maintain channel confinement
(e.g., Kneller, 2003). Aggradational channels typically appear as single
well defined threads (e.g., Kneller, 2003). Scroll bars are not evident,
and cut-offs are typically infrequent (Peakall et al., 2000).
In this study, the single-stage aggradational channels occur in the
lower unit of sequence SQ5 (Fig. 4b). The weak amplitudes and con-
tinuous filling characteristics within the thalwegs interpreted as silty
mudstone and layered sandstone facies (lithofacies 3). The levees with
medium to strong amplitudes representing argillaceous fine sandstone
and gravel siltstone (lithofacies 5, 8, 9).
The geomorphological characteristics of this type of channel (low
sinuosity, aggradation of channels and levees) suggests low hydro-
dynamic conditions dominated by aggradation. The results show that
the development of the levees restricted the morphology of the chan-
nels, with relatively straight characteristic.
3) Vertical superposition type channel complexes
The multi-stage vertical filling and cutting of the channels formed a
complex internal structure. In this present study, it is observed that
within the lower unit of SQ7 (Fig. 6a), the channel complex shows
multi-directional swing of single channel in the confined environment.
The base part of this channel complex is interpreted as basal lag deposits
and channel wall-derived MTD (St1) (Fig. 6a). It is overlain by a series of
13
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
lateral and vertical migration single-stage erosional high sinuosity channels,
and they are dominated by massive or graded sand (lithofacies 7) (St2). The
corresponding channel-fills had been removed by incision of the overlying
younger channel. The upper part of channel complex is dominated by a
series of decrease in sinuosity, single-stage aggradational channel (St3).
During stage 3, the thalweg zones become wider and deeper, and the gull
wing-shaped levees become thicker. The sediment carried by the turbidity
currents became more finely grained (lithofacies 4, 5), and the sandy se-
diment waned during this stage. The top of channel complex (St4) is
manifested as part of the composite high-amplitude continuous reflection
packages, which interpreted as channel lobe deposits. The thin-bedded
nature, subtle normal grading, and tractional structures of the thin-bedded
tabular sandstone and siltstone (lithofacies 8) indicated a deposition from
low-density and diluted turbidity currents within a relatively unconfined
setting (Wu et al., 2018).
4) Lateral migration type channel complexes
The lateral migration channels in this study excluded the point bar
lateral accretion of the highly sinuosity channels. Point-bar lateral ac-
cretion is usually characterized by imbricate reflections at medium-to-
high angles on seismic profiles. Abandoned channels filled with weak
amplitude are the result of gradual migration of a single channel. Point-
bar lateral accretion is often developed in environments with gentle
terrain slopes and stable water mass energy, belonging to a sedimentary
type dominated by auto-cyclicity (Abreu et al., 2003).
Fig. 6b shows that in the lower unit of SQ7, the channel filling was
characterized by superposition of horizontal and high amplitude
“stepped” reflectors on seismic profiles (or weak aggradation). The
channels are characterized by multi-stage single-directional migration,
and lateral migration led to the successive erosions of the channels by
the youngest channel, resulting in the formation of multi-stage com-
plexes of superimposed channels. This type of channel complex is si-
milar to the indented channel complex suggested by Zhang et al.
(2017).
6. Discussion
6.1. Deep-water sequence stratigraphy
Classical sequence stratigraphy refers to stratigraphic combination
relationships with genetic connections defined by the chronological
framework of key interfaces, such as an unconformity surface or its
corresponding conformity surface, or a transgression surface and
maximum flood flooding surface (Posamentier and Allen, 1993). The
third-order sequence boundary was generally the result of denudation,
abrupt changes in sediment supply, and the obvious migration of se-
dimentary facies caused by a relative fall in sea level.
The third-order sequence interface corresponds to a downcutting
unconformity surface interpreted as a regional erosional interface. This
interface had been formed by repeated erosion at the bottom of a multi-
stage gravity flow or turbidity flow during regional uplift, or with
sufficient terrigenous clast supply. The seismic facies above and below
the interface terminated abruptly. The upper part of the interface is
characterized by a high amplitude and weak continuous channel-levee
reflection and numerous incisions related to channelized systems. The
lower part is characterized by a low amplitude and continuous reflec-
tion. Based on these characters, Wang et al. (2016) divided the Miocene
formation into 7 third-order sequences, and suggest a binary sediment
structure in every 3rd-order sequence.
In this study, in order to reveal the evolution and filling processes of
deep-water turbidite channel or channel complexes in higher-order
scale, it is necessary to further divide every third-order sequence into
Lower and Upper two sub-order units, which are separated by first
flooding (SF) surface. Lower and upper are the two alternating turbi-
dite/hemipelagic units of the 3rd-order sequence. Each 3rd-order
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

sequence possibly encompasses sequences of higher frequency turbi- In Fig. 10, the No. 1 to No. 5 slices show the initial formation stage
dite/hemipelagic cycles as shown by the presence of channels at dif- of Channel Complex B. Fig. 11a-1 is a representative map of local
ferent stratigraphic levels. However, limited by seismic vertical re- amplification, which shows more details. Erosional channels occurred
solution combine the influence of multi-stage gravity flow erosion and over an early faulted zone, subsequently evolving to a single-stage
deposit, it is difficult to trace higher frequency event, marking the end meandering channel (Fig. 11a-1). The No. 6 to No. 10 slices reveal the
of the turbidite activity of hemipelagic units in the region. development of Channel Complex B. Fig. 11a-2 is a representative map
of local amplification during this stage. The channel dimensions gra-
dually increased, and similar to the lateral swing amplitude of the
6.2. Temporal evolution of channels and control factors
single-stage channel, and multi-stage overlap had resulted in a channel
complex zone. However, the lateral migration of Channel Complex B
6.2.1. Evolution of deep-water channels characteristics
was limited due to confined area relief. However, over time, the early
The lower units (including U1L, U2L, U3L, U4L, U5L, U6L, and U7L)
landforms became filled, and Channel Complex B gradually increased in
at the bottom of each 3rd-order sequence were found to be the most
width. Later, the later channel eroded the earlier channel to form re-
developed parts of the channel complexes. This was also the main se-
sidual crescent-shaped point bar sand bodies. These sand bodies are
dimentation period of the sand bodies and the key period for devel-
concentrated in the middle and lower reaches of the channel (Fig. 11a-
opment of deep-water reservoirs. In the current study, the U7L alone is
2). The No. 11 to No. 15 slices represent the recession period of Channel
discussed for the spatio-temporal evolution processes of channel com-
Complex B (Fig. 10). Fig. 11a-3 is a representative map of local am-
plexes, as well as the variable relationship of its lithofacies assemblage.
plification during this stage. The channel incision gradually reduced,
The bottom surface of the U7L is also the bottom surface of third-
suggesting that the velocity and density of the turbidity current de-
order sequence, which corresponds to the regional large-scale sub-
creased. It is worth noting that only a single one-stage filling channel
marine erosion event (Kolla et al., 2007). The top surface of the U7L is
developed in the channel complex zone, and some of the channels in
the flooding surface (FS) which could be regionally traced.
Fig. 11a-2 are filled with marine mudstone (Fig. 11a-3). The aban-
This study adopted isochronous seismic attribute slicing method of
donment of Channel Complex B can be seen in the No. 16 to No. 23
using PaleoScan software. 50 stratigraphic slices (Fig. 10) were ob-
slices (Fig. 10). Fig. 11a-4 is a representative map of local amplification
tained, which reveal the occurrence, development, recession, and ex-
during this stage. This indicates that the late deep-water turbidity
tinction of southern (A) and northern (B) channel complexes, as well as
current may have burst its channel upstream and changed route, re-
their development relationships. The distance of the two channel
sulting in a sudden recession downstream in Channel Complex B
complexes is 1.5 km. The results indicate that within the same iso-
(Fig. 11a-4). Marsset et al. (2009) reveals that the channel was aban-
chronous framework of U7L, there are major differences in the devel-
doned and a younger one occurred upstream by avulsion.
opment degrees and migration patterns of the channel complexes lo-
Channel Complex A developed after avulsion and abandonment of
cated at different positions (Fig. 11).
Channel Complex B. Slices No. 18 to No. 23 correspond to the initial
As shown in Fig. 11, two channel complexes developed in the study
occurrence stage of Channel Complex A (Fig. 10). Fig. 11b-1 is a re-
area. The width of the southern channel complex (A) ranges between
presentative map of local amplification during this stage. The initial
1000 and 2800 m. The width of the northern channel complex (B)
channelized zone was significantly larger than that of Channel Complex
ranges between 300 and 800 m. Planes and sections reveal that the
B. Channel complex A corresponds to an avulsion zone. The strong
scale and duration of development for Channel Complex A were larger
erosion characteristics in these zones are characterized by coarse-
than those of Channel Complex B. In addition, Channel Complex A
grained material (avulsion lobe). Fig. 2c shows that channel complex A
developed later than Channel Complex B (Fig. 2c).

Fig. 10. Continuous isochronous stratigraphic slices in the lower unit of SQ7 based on automated PaleoScan stratal slicing; No. 1 to No. 50 represent slices from
bottom (Base of Channel complex B) to top (Top of Channel complex A) in Fig. 2c.

14
Q. Li, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260

Fig. 11. Representative slice image of partial magnification which show more details of Channel Complex A and Channel Complex B.

Fig. 12. Comparison of different channel types in relationship with the interaction of flow energy and accommodation. (a) Channel complex and filling processes in
confined environment. (b) Channel complex and Single-stage channel in unconfined environment.

is younger than channel complex B. It could be the son channel of B. It
is assumed that, due to the increases in the turbidity current velocity
and density, the turbidity current supply route avulsion and the large-
scale erosional lowland are created (Fig. 12). The high amplitudes on
the planes suggest that this stage was dominated by coarse grain lag
deposits at the bottoms of the channels (Fig. 11b-1).
The No. 24 to No. 30 slices represent the development period of
Channel Complex A (Fig. 3). Fig. 11b-2 is a representative map of local
amplification during this stage.
Due to the large-scale erosional event associated to the avulsion
upstream, the accommodation increased vertically to form a space by a
narrow, deep incision of high-energy turbidite flow. Then, the equili-
brium profile adjusts to generating accommodation that allows the
channel to aggrade (Kneller, 2003), however, the growth rate of ac-
commodation space is relatively slow. This could explain the vertical
accumulation of channelized deposits, although frequent lateral swings
in activity areas are evident within the bounding constraint of the outer
levees. After that, turbidite current gradually stabilized, and the multi-
stage channel sinuosity in Channel Complex A gradually increased with
both the cutting and filling actions and vertical aggradation. As a result,
high-amplitude sedimentary sand bodies with larger thicknesses formed
(Fig. 11b-2).
It was revealed in the No. 31 to No. 43 slices that a recession period
occurred for Channel Complex A, which was caused by another up-
stream avulsion (Fig. 10). The turbidite flow velocity or density de-
creases during that time. The single-stage aggradational channels re-
quire deposition both in the channel axis and the overbank areas, in
order to maintain channel confinement. Peakall et al. (2000) noted that
after an initial phase of rapid meander bend development, channel
meanders commonly remain more or less fixed in position as they ag-
grade. Kneller (2003) suggested that aggradational channels may be
associated with changes in flow, and that leveed channels commonly
occur at the tops of fourth-order sequences. This type of channel has
low sand-to-mud ratios compared with the underlying ‘ponded’ facies
assemblage. The morphology of the last stages of the highly bending
turbidite channels is completely preserved. The development of the
channels was limited by the levees at this stage, and a single-stage
aggradational channel was filled by the interpreted sand bodies in the
axis (Fig. 11b-3). Slides No. 44 to No. 50 represent the abandonment of
Channel Complex B (Fig. 10). The abandoned channel axis sediments

15
Q. Li, et al.
are covered by hemipelagic deposits which tend to smooth the under-
lying topography, as the loci of channels sedimentation moved else-
where (Fig. 11b-4).
6.2.2. Controlling factors
It has been found that the increases in accommodation space caused
by adjusting the equilibrium profile steepens and rotates about its
pinning point are beneficial to the vertical superposition of channels
that developed during different time periods (Kneller, 2003). However,
decrease in accommodation space caused by ‘flattening’ the equilibrium
profile promotes the lateral migration of multi-stage channels. There-
fore, it can be assumed that equilibrium profile change will lead to the
interactions and migration modes of the two end-member channels
(Zhang et al., 2017), thereby forming different styles of channel com-
plexes.
Deep-water turbidite systems are jointly controlled by auto-cyclicity
and allo-cyclicity, the latter including sea level changes, tectonic ac-
tivities, sediment characteristics, climate changes, sediment supply
rates, distance between source areas and sedimentary areas, parent rock
type, topographic slope changes, and so on (Kneller, 2003; Peakall
et al., 2007; Marsset et al., 2009; Lin et al., 2012, 2018a,b; Picot et al.,
2016, 2019). Meanwhile, sudden events, such as earthquakes and tsu-
namis, will also cause shelf sediment to be transported to deep-sea
environments (Shanmugam, 2008; Zhang et al., 2017). The super-
position of these factors in different degrees will cause difference in the
erosion capacities of deep-water channels, which will result in complex
and diverse sand body superposition relationships.
In deep-water environments, allo-cyclicity of channelized sedi-
mentation systems display more obvious controlling actions during
high sea level periods. Meanwhile, the auto-cyclicity factors are more
obvious during low sea level periods (Posamentier and Kolla, 2003). It
has been observed that (Wu et al., 2018) when sea level falls, the al-
lochthonous sand supply system may form various types of channel. In
contrast, during rising sea level periods, the sediment supply tends to
decrease and the scale of the turbidity current channel development
will decrease and become dominated by mudstone system deposition.
Under normal circumstances, the closer to the provenance area is, the
steeper the terrain slope will be. Also, the larger the drop in sea level,
the greater the sediment supply. It has also been found that the greater
the sediment load density, the larger the velocity of channelised flow
will be, and the stronger the sediment carrying capacity (and therefore
potentially, the erosion power) of the flow will be (Prather, 2003).
Steep slopes will accelerate the flow to form a strong erosion capacity,
thereby leading to restricted channel systems with deeper accom-
modation space. However, gentle slopes tend to cause weaker changes
in the initial flow velocity, resulting in weak erosion capability, and
flow systems prone to form unrestricted channel systems with shallow
accommodation space.
It was found in the present study that during the development of the
Miocene sedimentary strata in the study area, sea level fluctuations,
tectonic activities, and sediment supply had controlled channel mor-
phology and sand body enrichment in a macro-scale (Fig. 13). However,
the main event to explain the evolution of Channel Complex A & B in a
high-order isochronous sequence above is upstream avulsion process,
which is controlled by high frequency climate changes (Marsset et al.,
2009; Picot et al., 2019). Additionally, the density and volume of the
flow, sediment grain sizes, and slope gradients may have also influ-
enced the filling architecture and channel types.
It is known that from the Oligocene to the Early Miocene period, the
Africa Plate and Iberia Plate collided and uplifted to form a large de-
nudation area, in which the continental shelf was exposed and eroded
(Séranne and Anka, 2005). A large amount of terrigenous sediments
was transported to deep-sea basins, forming a widely developed Mio-
cene deep-water gravity channel system. Meanwhile, the climatic
conditions during the icehouse age, along with sediment supplies by the
Congo River, also played an important role in controlling the
16
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
development of multi-cycle deep-water channel systems.
Oxygen isotopes (Zachos et al., 2001) indicates ocean temperature
and the onset of icehouse conditions from early Oligocene to Miocene.
However, the δ18O curve fluctuation indicates high frequency climate
change during Miocene. Formation of polar icecaps induced long-term
sea-level drop (Haq et al., 1988), favoring progradation of clastic
wedges. The periodic eustacy of sea level in short-term is related to the
deep-water sedimentary system. As shown in Fig. 13, according to the
analysis results of the sea level change curves in West Africa established
in previous studies (Séranne, 1999), there was a significant decrease
during the SQ3 sequence, which may have been the main reason for the
large-scale distribution of deep-water channels in the (U3L) lower SQ3.
During the SQ6, the sea level dropped to its lowest point, which was
consistent with the accepted global 10.5 Ma sea level drop. Then, in the
SQ7 sequence, the sea level slowly rose. However, the tectonic uplift
caused by plate collision during the SQ6 period also reached its max-
imum during SQ7 period. It can be speculated that the sediment dis-
charge reached its peak during the SQ7 in a large-scale. However,
within the lower unit of every third-order sequence, the type and
evolution processes of deep-water channel and channel complexes are
complicated. There exists multiple-stage regression and transgression
cycles caused by migration of avulsion points.
The filling processes of Channel Complex A and B show that the
controlling factors for the development of different channel complexes
in the high-order sequence framework (U1L, U2L, U3L, U4L, U5L, U6L,
and U7L) were very complex.
This study suggests that deposition of different types of channel/
channel complex was related to flow energy (flow size or density, ve-
locity, or grain-size) and variation rate of accommodation space
(Fig. 12). The confined and unconfined environment discussion in this
paper only involved sedimentary erosional topographic lows, not in-
cluding structural topographic lows. Marsset et al. (2009) suggest that
the architecture of Congo fan deep-water channel-levee-lobe system in
Quaternary is controlled by avulsion process.
It is considered that the difference of flow energy in deep-water
channel avulsion process can form large-scale erosional lowland or
small-scale erosional lowland. The small-scale erosive lowland does not
have the capacity to confine the flow after avulsion (Fig. 12b). When
there is no accommodation space (negative) in the downstream of
avulsion point, different depths of erosion lowlands are formed ac-
cording to the different flow energy. If the flow energy is relatively low,
the equilibrium profile is balanced, and the accommodation space is
zero, then it is easy to form graded channel (e.g., Kneller, 2003) and
LAPs channel (e.g., Abreu et al., 2003). If the flow energy keeps con-
stant, when the accommodation space is relatively small, it is easy to
form a single-stage erosional channel. When the accommodation space
increases gradually and the flow energy decreases gradually, the
channel type changes from single-stage erosional channel to single-
stage aggradational type. It is worth noting that the lateral migration
channel complexes (indented type suggested by Zhang et al., 2017)
formed by same direction lateral migration (e.g., Gong et al., 2013)
maybe influenced by the bottom current at the same time.
Large-scale erosive lowlands are formed when flow energy is high
enough in the downstream of avulsion point, and then the flow energy
is relatively low, which is completely confined in the erosive lowlands,
forming a vertical type of superposition type channel complexes
(Fig. 12a). Once the confined lowland is formed, before the next large-
scale avulsion point, the composite channel will be filled continuously.
In response to the change of accommodation space (caused by the ad-
justment of the equilibrium profile), the channel complex is filled by
basal lags, single-stage erosional channel, single-stage aggradational
channel and channel-lobe from the bottom to the top, respectively.
The study area is located in the scope of salt extensional domain.
Before Miocene sedimentation, the stratum is gentle, so the influence of
salt deposit tectonics on deep-water turbidite depositional system can
be excluded. Future research on controlling factors of channel
Q. Li, et al.
Fig. 13. Sea level change, tectonic uplift and oxygen isotope changes of West Africa (modified from Seranne M., 1999).
development in heterolithic sequences will be no doubt be improved by
increased availability of drilling data and the further development of
3D seismic processing and interpretation techniques.
7. Conclusions
The following conclusions were reached in this study:
1) The Miocene was divided into seven third-order sequences and
fourteen high-order seismic stratigraphy units. Each third-order se-
quence consisted of lower unit and upper unit. The lower unit is
characterized by a basal unconformity interpreted as an erosional
surface with numerous incisions related to the presence of channel/
levee/lobe systems. The upper unit is characterized by low ampli-
tude continuous parallel reflectors typical of hemipelagic sediments.
In addition, the lower unit of each third-order sequence represented
the enrichment sites of the favorable reservoir rock units.
2) Based on the characteristics of well-drilling data and seismic ana-
lysis, a variety of deep-water seismic units were successfully iden-
tified. These included composite erosion and single-stage erosion
interfaces, channel filling, levee (two type), lobe, MTD and back-
ground slope deposits. Among these, the filling of the erosional
channels and the terminal lobes were determined to be the units
most enriched with sand bodies.
3) A total of fifteen lithofacies types of deep-water deposits were
identified in the study area, which were determined to be composed
of clay, silt, fine-coarse sand, gravel, and conglomerate. The dif-
ferent lithofacies and corresponding deep-water depositional pro-
cesses indicate the heterolithic nature of the high-order sedimentary
unit.
17
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
4) In accordance with the type of filling and morphological char-
acteristics, we interpreted Miocene deep-water channels into four
different types as follows: Single-stage incisional channels; single-
stage aggradational channels; vertical superposition channel com-
plexes; and lateral migration channel complexes.
5) A seismic stratigraphic analysis method was used in this study to
determine the evolution processes of the occurrence, development,
recession, and disappearance of channel complexes as described in
the lower unit of SQ7. Meanwhile, it is indicated that tectonic uplift
was the driving force for the formation of deep-water sand-rich
channel systems. Changes in sea level in West Africa are determined
to have controlled the development of third-order sequences and
also restricted the overall development scale of deep-water channel
complexes. Furthermore, climatic high frequency variations in West
Africa during icehouse period controlled the high-order sequence
development of deep-water sand-rich gravity flow and argillaceous
deposits. It is also pointed out that differences in development de-
gree, filling processes, and migration modes of channel complexes in
different positions under the same sequence framework, are con-
trolled to some extent by the interaction of flow energy and ac-
commodation space downstream of the avulsion point.
Author statement
I have made substantial contributions to the conception or design of
the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the
work; AND.
I have drafted the work or revised it critically for important in-
tellectual content; AND.
I have approved the final version to the published; AND I agree to
Q. Li, et al.
the accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions
related to the accuracy integrity of any part of the work are appro-
priately investigated and resolved.
All persons who have made substantial contributions to the work
reported in the manuscript, including those who provided editing and
writing assistance but who are not authors, are named in the
Acknowledgments section of the manuscript and have given their
written permission to be named. If the manuscript does not include
Acknowledgements, it is because the authors have not received sub-
stantial contributions from nonauthors.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This project is supported by the Henan Postdoctoral Foundation
(No.1902038), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos.
41872112 and 91328201) and the Foundation of State Key Laboratory
of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University of
Petroleum, Beijing (No. PRP/open-1504). This work also forms part of
the National Science and Technology Major Project, Ministry of Science
and Technology of the People's Republic of China (Item
Nos.2017ZX05032-001 and 2017ZX05032-002).
We, the authors, would like to express our appreciation to the China
National Offshore Oil Corporation for permitting us to publish this
paper. In addition, we thank all anonymous reviewers for critically
reviewing the manuscript and making many constructive and helpful
comments.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104260.
References
Abreu, V., Sullivan, M., Pirmez, C., Mohrig, D., 2003. Lateral accretion packages (LAPs):
an important reservoir element in deep water sinuous channels. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 20
(6–8), 631–648.
Andrew, A.A., Senastian, K., 2006. Morphology, seismic characteristics and development
of Cap Timiris Canyon, offshore Mauritania: a newly discovered canyon preserved-off
a major arid climatic region. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 23 (1), 37–59.
Anka, Z., 2004. PhD thesis. Evolution de l'eventail sous-marin du Zaïre (Congo) depuis le
Cretace: Interaction avec la marge continentale du golfe de Guinee, vol. 2. University
is Montpellier, pp. 205.
Amos, K.J., Peakall, J., Bradbury, P.W., Roberts, M., Keevil, G., Gupta, S., 2010. The
influence of bend amplitude and planform morphology on flow and sedimentation in
submarine channels. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 27 (7), 1431–1447.
Alfaro, E., Holz, M., 2014. Seismic geomorphological analysis of deepwater gravity-driven
deposits on a slope system of the southern Colombian Caribbean margin. Mar. Petrol.
Geol. 57, 294–311.
Babonneau, N., Savoye, B., Cremer, M., Klein, B., 2002. Morphology and architecture of
the present canyon and channel system of the Zaire deep-sea fan. Mar. Petrol. Geol.
19 (4), 445–467.
Bouma, A.H., 2001. Fine-grained submarine fans as possible recorders of long- and short-
term climatic changes. Global Planet. Change 28 (1), 85–91.
Brice, S.E., Cochran, M.D., Pardo, G., Edwards, A.D., 1982. Tectonics and sedimentation
of the south Atlantic rift sequence: Cabinda. Angola. Stud. Cont. Margin Geol. AAPG
Mem. 34, 5–18.
Cai, L.L., Liu, C.C., Lyv, M., Wang, Y., Liao, J.H., Zhu, S.L., Zhao, Z., Xue, D., Xiao, X.,
2016. The development characteristics of deep water channel and sedimentary re-
servoir prediction in Lower Congo basin, West Africa (in English abstract). China
Offshore Oil Gas 28 (2), 60–70.
Cui, H.Y., Wu, P.K., Liu, Y.J., Nie, Z.M., Liu, Y.L., Ren, Y.Z., 2015. Gravity flow channel
character and reservoir prediction of the Miocene Congo fan basin, West Africa. J.
Afr. Earth Sci. 108, 15–21.
Clark, J.D., Kenyon, N.H., Pickering, K.T., 1992. Quantitative analysis of the geometry of
submarine channels: implications for the classification of submarine fans. Geology
20, 633–636.
18
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
Chen, Y.H., Yao, G.S., Lyv, F.L., Lu, Y.T., Chen, L., Tang, P.C., Cao, Q.B., 2017.
Sedimentary characteristics and controlling factors of Oligocene deep-water channel-
lobe in Rovuma Basin of the East Africa (in English abstract). Acta Pet. Sin. 38 (9),
1048–1058.
De Ruig, M.J., Hubbard, S.M., 2006. Seismic facies and reservoir characteristics of a deep-
marine channel belt in the Molasse foreland basin, Puchkirchen Formation, Austria.
AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 90 (5), 735–752.
Deptuck, M.E., Steffens, G.S., Barton, M., Pirmez, C., 2003. Architecture and evolution of
upper fan channel-belts on the Niger Delta slope and in the Arabian Sea. Mar. Petrol.
Geol. 20 (6–8), 649–676.
Deptuck, M.E., Sylvester, Z., Pirmez, C., O'Byrne, C., 2007. Migration-aggradation history
and 3-D seismic geomorphology of submarine channels in the Pleistocene Benin-
major Canyon, western Niger Delta slope. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 24 (6), 406–433.
Dong, Y.L., Zhu, X.M., Geng, X.J., Wang, H., Wang, M.W., Jiang, Q.H., Du, Y.Z., 2015.
Using the stratal slice to study the depositional of deep-water slumped turbidite fans
in continental lake basin. Earth Sci. Front. 22 (1), 386–396.
Dickson, W.G., Fryklund, R.E., Odegard, M.E., Green, C.M., 2003. Constraints for plate
reconstruction using gravity datadimplications for source and reservoir distribution
in Brazilian and West African margin basins. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 20, 309–322.
Droz, L., Rigaut, F., Cochonat, P., Tofani, R., 1996. Morphology and recent evolution of
the Zaire turbidite system (Gulf of Guinea). Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 108, 253–269.
Dykstra, M., Kneller, B., 2009. Lateral accretion in a deep-marine channel complex: im-
plications for channelized flow processes in turbidity currents. Sedimentology 56 (5),
1411–1432.
Fildani, A., Normark, W.R., Kostic, S., Parker, G., 2006. Channel formation by flow
stripping: large-scale scour features along the Monterey East Channel and their re-
lation to sediment waves. Sedimentology 53 (6), 1265–1287.
Fildani, A., Hubbard, S.M., Covault, J.A., Maier, K.L., Romans, B.W., Traer, M., Rowland,
J.C., 2013. Erosion at inception of deep-sea channels. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 41, 48–61.
Foreman, B.Z., Lai, S.Y.J., Komatsu, Y.H., Paola, C., 2015. Braiding of submarine channels
controlled by aspect ratio similar to rivers. Nat. Geosci. 8 (9), 700–703.
Gingele, F.X., Deckker, P.D., Hillenbrand, C.D., 2004. Late Quaternary terrigenous sedi-
ments from the Murray Canyons area, offshore South Australia and their implications
for sea level change, palaeoclimate and palaeodrainage of the Murray–Darling Basin.
Mar. Geol. 212 (1–4), 183–197.
Gong, C.L., Wang, Y.M., Zhu, W.L., Li, W.G., Xu, Q., Zhang, J.M., 2011. The central
submarine canyon in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northwestern south China sea: ar-
chitecture, sequence stratigraphy, and depositional processes. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 28,
1690–1702.
Gong, C.L., Wang, Y.M., Zhu, W.L., Li, W.G., 2013. Upper Miocene to Quaternary uni-
directionally migrating deep-water channels in the Pearl River mouth basin, northern
south China sea. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 97 (2), 285–308.
Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P.R., 1988. Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and
cycles of sea-level change. In: Wilgus, C.K., Posamentier, H., Ross, C.A., Kendall,
C.G.S.C. (Eds.), Sea-Level Changes—An Integrated Approach. Soc. Ec. Paleont. &
Mineral., pp. 71–108.
Hofstra, M., Peakall, J., Hodgson, D.M., Stevenson, C.J., Baas, J., 2018. Architecture and
morphodynamics of subcritical sediment waves in an ancient channel–lobe transition
zone. Sedimentology 65 (7), 2339–2367.
Hodgson, D.M., Di Celma, C.N., Brunt, R.L., Flint, S.S., 2011. Submarine slope degrada-
tion and aggradation and the stratigraphic evolution of channel–levee systems. J.
Geol. Soc. 168 (3), 625–628.
Kane, I.A., Mc Caffrey, W.D., Peakall, J., 2008. Controls on sinuosity evolution within
submarine channels. Geology 36 (4), 287–290.
Karner, G.D., Driscoll, N.W., 1999. Tectonic and stratigraphic development of the West
African and eastern Brazilian margins: insights from quantitative basin modelling.
Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 153, 11–40.
Keevil, G.M., Peakall, J., Best, J.L., Amos, K.J., 2006. Flow structure in sinuous submarine
channels: velocity and turbulence structure of an experimental submarine channel.
Mar. Geol. 229 (3–4), 241–257.
Keevil, G.M., Peakall, J., Best, J.L., 2007. The influence of scale, slope and channel
geometry on the flow dynamics of submarine channels. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 24 (6–9),
487–503.
Kneller, B., 2003. The influence of flow parameters on turbidite slope channel archi-
tecture. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 20 (6–8), 901–910.
Kolla, V., Posamentier, H.W., Wood, L.J., 2007. Deep-water and fluvial sinuous channels-
Characteristics, similarities and dissimilarities, and modes of formation. Mar. Petrol.
Geol. 24 (6–9), 388–405.
Lavier, L.L., Steckler, M.S., Brigaud, F., 2001. Climatic and tectonic control of the
Cenozoic evolution of the West African margin. Mar. Geol. 178, 63–80.
Leturmy, P., Lucazeau, F., Brigaud, F., 2003. Dynamic interactions between the Gulf of
Guinea passive margin and the Congo River drainage basin: 1. Morphology and mass
balance. J. Geophys. Res. 108 (8), 1–13.
Li, H., Wang, Y.M., Xu, Q., Han, Z.L., Xu, Y.X., 2013. Characteristics and processes of deep
water unidirectionally-migrating channel-levee system (in Chinese). Geoscience 27
(3), 653–661.
Li, Q., Wu, W., Yu, S., Kang, H.Q., Tong, L.Q., Cao, X.Y., Liu, X.L., 2017b. The application
of three-dimensional seismic spectral decomposition and semblance attribute to
characterizing the deepwater channel depositional elements in the Taranaki Basin of
New Zealand. Acta Oceanol. Sin. 36 (9), 79–86.
Li, Q., Yu, S., Wu, W., Tong, L.Q., Kang, H.Q., 2017a. Detection of a deep-water channel in
3D seismic data using the sweetness attribute and seismic geomorphology: a case
study from the Taranaki Basin, New Zealand. N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 60 (3), 199–208.
Lin, C.S., He, M., Steel, R.J., Zhang, Z.T., Li, H., Zhang, B., Wu, W., Shu, L.F., Tian, H.J.,
Zhang, X., Xing, Z.C., Wang, S.Q., Zhang, M.L., 2018a. Changes in inner- to outer-
shelf delta architecture, Oligocene to Quaternary Pearl River shelf-margin prism,
Q. Li, et al.
northern South China Sea. Mar. Geol. 2018 404, 187–204.
Lin, C.S., Jiang, J., Shi, H.S., Zhang, Z.T., Liu, J.Y., Qin, C.G., Li, H., Ran, H.J., Wei, A.,
Tian, H.J., Xing, Z.C., Yao, Q.Y., 2018b. Sequence architecture and depositional
evolution of the northern continental slope of the South China Sea: responses to
tectonic processes and changes in sea level. Basin Res. 30 (Suppl. 1), 568–595.
Lin, C.S., Liu, J.Y., Liu, L.J., Zhang, T., Li, X.C., 2002. High resolution sequence strati-
graphy analysis: construction of chronostratigraphic sequence framework on facies
and reservoir scale (in English abstract). Geoscience 16 (3), 276–281.
Lin, C.S., Yang, H.J., Liu, J.Y., Rui, Z.F., Cai, Z.Z., Li, S.T., Yu, B.S., 2012. Sequence
architecture and depositional evolution of the Ordovician carbonate platform mar-
gins in the Tarim Basin and its response to tectonism and sea-level change. Basin Res.
24, 559–582.
Liu, L., Tang, D.Z., Xu, H., Liu, L.H., 2016. Reservoir prediction of deep-water turbidite
sandstones with seismic lithofacies control -A case study in the C block of lower
Congo basin. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 71, 1–11.
Liu, J.P., Pan, X.H., Ma, J., Tian, Z.J., Chen, Y.J., Wan, L.K., 2008. Petroleum geology and
resources in West Africa: an overview. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 35, 378–384.
McHargue, T., Pyrcz, M.J., Sullivan, M.D., Clark, J.D., Fildani, A., Romans, B.W., Covault,
J.A., Levy, M., Posamentier, H.W., Drinkwater, N.J., 2011. Architecture of turbidite
channel systems on the continental slope: patterns and predictions. Mar. Petrol. Geol.
28 (3), 728–743.
Mayall, M., Jones, E., Casey, M., 2006. Turbidite channel reservoirs-Key elements in fa-
cies prediction and effective development. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 23, 821–841.
Marsset, T., Droz, L., Dennielou, B., Pichon, E., 2009. Cycles in the architecture of the
Quaternary Zaïre turbidite system: a possible link with climate. In: In: Kneller, B.,
Martinsen, O.J., McCaffrey, B. (Eds.), Extern. Controls Deep-Water Depositional
Systems, vol. 92. SEPM, Special Publication, pp. 89–106.
Ortiz-Karpf, A., Hodgson, D.M., McCaffrey, W.D., 2015. The role of mass-transport
complexes in controlling channel avulsion and the subsequent sediment dispersal
patterns on an active margin: the Magdalena Fan, offshore Colombia. Mar. Petrol.
Geol. 64, 58–75.
Pang, X., Chen, C.M., Zhu, M., He, M., Liu, B.J., Shen, J., Li, S.Y., 2007. Frontier of the
deep-water deposition study (in Chinese). Geol. Rev. 53 (1), 36–43．.
Parsons, D.R., Peakall, J., Aksu, A.E., Flood, R.D., Hiscott, R.N., 2010. Gravity-driven flow
in a submarine channel bend: direct field evidence of helical flow reversal. Geology
38 (12), 1063–1066.
Peter, T.H., Tanya, W., 2011. Global distribution of large submarine canyons: geomorphic
differences between active and passive continental margins. Mar. Geol. 285 (1–4),
69–86.
Peakall, J., Mc Caffrey, W.D., Kneller, B.C., Stelting, C.E., Mc Hargue, T.R., Schweller,
W.J., 2000. A process model for the evolution of submarine fan channels; implica-
tions for sedimentary architecture. In: In: Bouma, A., Stone, C. (Eds.), Fine Grained
Turbidite Systems, vol. 72. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir,
pp. 73–87.
Peakall, J., Amos, K.J., Keevil, G.M., William, B.P., Gupta, S., 2007. Flow processes and
sedimentation in submarine channel bends. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 24 (6–9), 470–486.
Peakall, J., 2015. Undersea river patterns: braided channels are rare on ocean floors, but
abundant on land. Experiments and theory suggest that deeper flows and rapid
overbank deposition restrict braiding in underwater rivers relative to their terrestrial
counterparts. Nat. Geosci. 8 (9), 663–664.
Picot, M., Droz, L., Marsset, T., Dennielou, B., Bez, M., 2016. Controls on turbidite se-
dimentation: insights from a quantitative approach of submarine channel and lobe
architecture (Late Quaternary Congo Fan). Mar. Petrol. Geol. 72, 423–446.
Picot, M., Marsset, T., Droz, L., Dennielou, B., Baudin, F., Hermoso, M., de Rafelis, M.,
Sionneau, T., Cremer, M., Laurent, D., Bez, M., 2019. Monsoon control on channel
avulsions in the late Quaternary Congo fan. Quat. Sci. Rev. 204, 149–171.
Piper, D.J.W., Normark, W.R., 1983. Turbidite depositional patterns and flow char-
acteristics, navy submarine fan, California borderland. Sedimentology 30, 681–694.
Pirmez, C., Imran, J., 2003. Reconstruction of turbidity currents in Amazon channel. Mar.
Petrol. Geol. 20 (6–8), 823–849.
Pirmez, C., Flood, D.R., 1995. Morphology and structure of Amazon channel. In: In:
Flood, R.D., Piper, D.J.W., Klaus, A., Peterson, L.C. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean
Drilling Program, vol. 155. pp. 23–45 (Initial Reports).
Posamentier, H.W., Allen, G., 1993. Variability of the sequence stratigraphic model: ef-
fects of local basin factors. Sediment. Geol. 86 (1–2), 91–109.
Posamentier, H.W., 2000. Seismic stratigraphy into the next millennium; a focus on 3D
seismic data. In: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Annual Conference,
New Orleans, LA, April 16-19, pp. A118.
Posamentier, H.W., Kolla, V., 2003. Seismic geomorphology and stratigraphy of deposi-
tional elements in deep-water settings. J. Sediment. Res. 73 (3), 367–388.
Posamentier, H.W., 2004. Seismic geomorphology: imaging elements of depositional
systems from shelf to deep basin using 3D seismic data: implications for exploration
and development. In: In: Davies, R.J., Cartwright, J.A., Stewart, S.A., Lappin, M.,
Underhill, J.R. (Eds.), 2004.3D Seismic Technology:Application to the Exploration of
Sedimentary Basins, vol. 29. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, pp. 11–24.
Posamentier, H.W., Davies, R.J., Cartwright, J.A., Wood, L.J., 2007. Seismic geomor-
phology- an overview. From. In: In: Davies, R.J., Posamentier, H.W., Wood, L.J.,
Cartwright, J.A. (Eds.), Seismic Geomorphology: Applications to Hydrocarbon
19
Marine and Petroleum Geology 115 (2020) 104260
Exploration and Production, vol. 277. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, pp. 1–14.
Prather, B.E., 2003. Controls on reservoir distribution, architecture and stratigraphic
trapping in slope settings. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 20 (6–8), 529–545.
Reijenstein, H.M., Posamentier, H.W., Bhattacharya, J.P., 2011. Seismic geomorphology
and high-resolution seismic stratigraphy of inner-shelf fluvial, estuarine, deltaic, and
marine sequences, Gulf of Thailand. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 95 (11),
1959–1990.
Reyre, D., 1984. Petroleum characteristics and geological evolution of a passive margin:
example of the lower Congo–Gabon basin: centre recherche exploration production
ELF Aquitaine. Bulletin 8 (2), 303–332.
Séranne, M., 1999. Early Oligocene stratigraphic turnover on west Africa continental
margin: a signature of the Tertiary greenhouse to icehouse transition. Terra. Nova 11
(4), 135–140.
Séranne, M., Anka, Z., 2005. South Atlantic continental margins of Africa: a comparison
of the tectonic vs climate interplay on the evolution of equatorial west Africa and SW
Africa margins. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 43, 283–300.
Shanmugam, G., 2008. The constructive functions of tropical cyclones and tsunamis on
deep-water sand deposition during sea level highstand: implications for petroleum
exploration. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 92 (4), 443–471.
Su, M., Jiang, T., Zhang, C.M., Zhang, C., He, Y.L., Wang, Z.F., 2014. Characteristics of
morphology and infillings and the geological significances of the central canyon
system in eastern Qiongdongnan Basin (in Chinese). J. Jilin Univ. Earth Sci. Ed. 44
(6), 1805–1815.
Sultan, N., Cochonat, P., Canals, M., Cattaneo, A., Dennielou, B., Haflidason, H., Laberg,
J.S., Long, D., Mienert, J., Trincardi, F., Urgeles, R., Vorren, T.O., Wilson, C., 2004.
Triggering mechanisms of slope instability processes and sediment failures on con-
tinental margins: a geotechnical approach. Mar. Geol. 213 (1–4), 291–321.
Sylvester, Z., Pirmez, C., Cantelli, A., 2011. A model of submarine channel-levee evolu-
tion based on channel trajectories: implications for stratigraphic architecture. Mar.
Petrol. Geol. 28 (3), 716–727.
Wang, L.L., Wang, Z.Q., Yu, S., Ngia, N.R., 2016. Seismic responses and controlling factors
of Miocene deepwater gravity-flow deposits in Block A, Lower Congo Basin. J. Afr.
Earth Sci. 120, 31–43.
Weering, V., T C E, Iperen, J., 1984. Fine-grained sediments of the Zaire deepsea fan,
southern Atlantic Ocean. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 15 (1), 95–113.
Wu, W., Li, Q., Yu, J., Lin, C.S., Li, D., Yang, T., 2018. The central canyon depositional
patterns and filling process in east of Lingshui depression, Qiongdongnan Basin
northern south China sea. Geol. J. 53 (6), 3064–3081.
Wynn, R.B., Cronin, B.T., Peakall, J., 2007. Sinuous deep-water channels: genesis, geo-
metry and architecture. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 24 (6–9), 341–387.
Xie, Q.H., Deng, H.W., Guo, J., 2013. Seismic response characteristics and evolution
models of deepwater meandering channels in Lower Congo Basin, West Africa
(English abstract). Geophys. Prospect. Pet. 52 (6), 655–661.
Xie, X.N., Ren, J.Y., Lei, C., 2012. Reviews and prospects of depositional basin dynamics
(English abstract). Geol. Sci. Technol. Inf. 31 (5), 76–84.
Xia, S.Q., Lin, C.S., Liu, J.Y., Liu, Z., Zhou, X.H., Li, H., Lu, C.J., 2018. The syn-deposi-
tional fault control of the evolution of axial meandering river delta-sublacustrine fan
deposits during the Ed2x deposition in the northern Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay Basin,
NE China. Geol. J. 53, 1227–1240.
Xia, S.Q., Li, X., Deng, J.M., Luo, D.H., Shu, L.F., Wang, S.Z., Wu, P., Peng, K., Zhang, X.Y.,
Ji, X.Y., Liu, H.M., 2019. Sequence architecture and depositional evolution of the late
Palaeogene in southwestern slope of Lufeng Depression, Pearl River Mouth Basin:
responses to tectonic processes and base-level changes. Geol. J. https://doi.org/10.
1002/gj.3504.
Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., Billups, K., 2001. Trends, rhythms, and
aberretions in global climate 65 Ma to Present. Science 292, 686–693.
Zeng, H.L., Backus, M.M., Barrow, K.T., Tyler, N., 1998a. Stratal slicing, part I: realistic 3-
D seismic model. Geophysics 63 (2), 502–513.
Zeng, H.L., Henry, S.C., Riola, J.P., 1998b. Stratal slicing, part II: real seismic data.
Geophysics 63 (2), 514–522.
Zeng, H.L., Ambrose, W.A., 2001. Seismic sedimentology and regional depositional sys-
tems in Miocene Norte, lake Maracibo, Venezuela. Lead. Edge 20 (11), 1260–1269.
Zhang, W.B., Duan, T.Z., Liu, Z.Q., Liu, Y.F., Zhao, L., Xu, R., 2017. Architecture mode,
sedimentary evolution and controlling factors of deepwater turbidity channels: a case
study of the M Oilfield in West Africa. Petrol. Sci. 14 (3), 493–506.
Zhao, X.M., Qi, K., Liu, L., Gong, C.L., Mc Caffrey, W.D., 2018a. Development of apar-
tially-avulsed submarine channel on the Niger Delta continental slope: architecture
and controlling factors. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 95, 30–49.
Zhao, X.M., Qi, K., Liu, L., Xie, T., Li, M.H., Hu, G.Y., 2018b. Quantitative characterization
and controlling factor analysis of the morphology of bukuma-minorchannel on
southern Niger Delta slope. Interpretation 6, 57–69.
Zhao, X.M., Li, M.H., Qi, K., Liu, L., Hu, G.Y., Wu, W., Zhang, W.B., Ge, J.W., 2019.
Development of a distinct submarine depositional system on a topographically
complex Niger Delta slope. Geol. J. 1–16.
Zheng, R.C., Li, Y., Dai, C.C., Gao, B.Y., Hu, X.Q., Wang, C.Y., 2012. Depositional features
of sandy debris flow of submarine fan in Zhujiang Formation, Baiyun Sag (in English
abstract). J. Jilin Univ. (Earth Sci. Ed.) 42 (6), 1581–1589.