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Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium (Moesia
Superior, Kostolac, Serbia)

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Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City
of Viminacium (Moesia Superior, Kostolac, Serbia)
Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ
Introduction
Ever since the dog was domesticated (c. 14 000 years
ago), a special bond between dogs and people exist-
ed. Dog burials, that are as old as dog domestication
is, have been practiced and archaeologically detected
in many regions, cultures and societies (Crockford
2000; Morey 2006; 2010). Within Roman settle-
ments and cemeteries throughout the Empire, nu-
merous dog burials were excavated. The literature
on the subject is extensive (e. g. De Grossi Mazzorin
/ Minniti 2001; 2006; MacKinnon / Belanger 2006;
Morey 2006; 2010).
Romans believed that dogs had special powers
and that those animals were capable of transport-
ing human spirits to the other world after death.
Besides being companions in the Underworld, dogs
sacrifice was used in different rituals, such as ritu-
als of purification and rituals that were dedicated to
chthonic gods (Toynbee 1973).
In the course of extensive excavations of the
Viminacium cemeteries, dog burials were found in
different contexts: as individual intentional burials,
as burials with grave goods, in wells, and they were
also included in human sepultures. Unfortunately,
during the earlier excavations of Viminacium, ani-
mal burials were not properly recorded and carefully
analyzed. In this paper, we will review dog burials
from earlier excavations of the Viminacium cemeter-
ies according to available data, while we will study
in detail four dog burials from renewed excava-
tions. In order to investigate dog burials from the
Viminacium cemeteries, we will study the context of
burials, archaeozoological data (bone morphometry,
position and preservation of skeletons, taphonomy),
historical sources and other data that deal with ritual
roles of dogs. We will try to further understand the
symbolic meanings of those burials.
Proceedings of the 22nd International
Congress of Roman Frontier Studies,
Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012
Viminacium: History and Archaeology
Viminacium is situated (fig. 1) on the right bank of
the river Mlava near its confluence with the Danube,
near present day Kostolac in Serbia. It was founded
as a military camp where the Legion VII Claudia
was stationed from the middle of the 1st century
to the Late antiquity. Next to the camp, a city de-
veloped. After Domitian had divided the province
of Moesia to Upper and Lower Moesia in AD 86,
Viminacium became the capital of the province of
Upper Moesia (Moesia Superior) (Spasić-Đurić
2009, 21). Viminacium received the status of muni-
cipium during the reign of Hadrian in AD 117. The
city received the status of colony in AD 239, during
the time of Emperor Gordian III (Mirković 1986,
21-59). In the period after the reforms of Diocletian
in the 4th and the 5th century AD, the city was the
capital of the province of Moesia I (Moesia Prima).
According to excavations, outlines of the camp
and the city of Viminacium were defined, while the
cemeteries were detected to the South and East of the
city (fig. 1). Archaeological excavations, conducted
by the Institute of Archaeology in Belgrade (Serbia)
since 1977 have mainly been focused on the area of
necropolis and, to the present day, more than 14 000
human graves have been excavated (Bogdanović
2010, 147-174; Korać / Golubović 2009; Korać et
al. 2009, 90-95; Redžić / Danković 2012; Зотовић /
Јордовић 1990).
Dog Burials from Viminacium Cemeteries
In the course of previous excavations of Viminacium
cemeteries (before 1997) several dog burials have
been discovered.
At the area of the southern necropolis (site Više
grobalja), within the sacrificial area (called Kulina1)
a dog skeleton was found. Three dog burials were
688 Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ

Fig. 1. Location of Viminacium and location of dog burials within Viminacium area

found in the layer above the sacrificial area, while
four more dog burials were found in the layer be-
low (Зотовић / Јордовић 1990, 16-23).
Throughout the area of the southern necropolis
several dog burials were recorded above children’s
graves and not a single example above adults’ graves,
so it has been assumed that these dogs have been
placed there to be guardians of the deceased chil-
dren (Зотовић / Јордовић 1990). The remains of
dogs were also found in two well graves at the area of
the southern necropolis of Viminacium (sites Pećine
and Brest) (Golubović 2008, 116-117). These graves
are related to Gallic population of Viminacium, and
at this point it is interesting to note that the skel-
etons of horses were also found in well graves. The
bones were found in layers that represent a ritual
feast, and it is believed that they were dedicated to
the chthonic gods. One dog burial that was found
at the area of necropolis on the site of Pećine is par-
ticularly interesting. The dog was placed on the left
side with fragments of pottery from two different
vessels (Golubović 2004, 91). The researcher sug-
gested that this funeral is associated with the cult of
Hermes but she did not ignore the possibility that it
was a funeral of a pet which is not uncommon for a
large city type necropolis from this period.
As minor attention was paid to animal bones
throughout earlier investigations of Viminacium,
proper archaeozoological and archaeological data
on this subject are very few. Unfortunately, these
bones were discarded, so we could not study them.
In this paper we are studying dog burials from re-
cent excavations of Viminacium necropolis. They
include four dog burials from different locations
and in different contexts. One skeleton was found
in the area of the southern necropolis, at the site
called Više grobalja, while the remaining three dog
burials were found within the eastern necropolis
of Viminacium. Two of them were found at the site
called Pirivoj, while the last skeleton was found at
the site called Nad Klepečkom (tabl. 1-3).
Burial of a Juvenile Small-Sized Dog with
Two Terracotta Lamps
In the course of 2008, during a rescue excavation at
the area of the southern necropolis of Viminacium
(site Više grobalja) a skeleton of a dog was found
buried with two terracotta lamps (fig. 2/1, fig. 3/1).

1
Kulina is a sacrificial area of necropolis that had been formed during ritual feast that took place at the time of human burials and
in the period after. In the cultural layer animal bones including remains of the horse skeleton were found.
Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium
The dog skeleton was located circa 10 cm beneath a
lower layer of human cremation grave that, accord-
ing to pottery and coin finds, dates back to the first
half of the 2nd century AD.
The first terracotta lamp, that was placed by the
dog, belongs to the type of lamps with volutes and
angular nozzle (Loeschcke I B; Iványi I 2), while
the other belongs to the type of lamps with volutes
and rounded nozzle (Loeschcke IV, Iványi II). Both
lamps found in the territory of Viminacium date
back to the second half of the 1st and to the 2nd cen-
tury AD (Korać 1995, 81-82).
When found, the dog skeleton was poorly pre-
served due to machine activity above the ground. The
dog was oriented east-west with its head to the east.
As for age, all the permanent teeth, which erupt
until the 7th month in dogs (Silver 1969), were ful-
ly erupted. However, proximal radius and distal
metapodials, that fuse between the 5th and 8th month
(Habermehl 1975), were not fused. According to
that data, it can be assumed that the dog was a juve-
nile one, not younger than 7 months and not older
than 8 months.
Since the majority of bones were broken and most
of the epiphyses were not fused, long bones were im-
measurable. However, the bones are slender and of
small size so it is obvious that the dog is of small size
and that it would not reach a considerably bigger
size. Although it was broken, we reconstructed the
length of the mandible, which is circa 100 mm, and
it places the dog in the small sized group (Shigehara
1994, after Hasebe 1952). As it was a juvenile animal,
its mandible would certainly grow, but it would not
reach a considerably longer length.
Studies of morphology of dogs from Roman pe-
riod sites revealed that in the Roman period, at least
two types of small dogs coexisted: dwarf hounds
with short, thick and sometimes twisted limbs and
midget type dogs with straight slender limb bones
and with paedomorphic crania (juvenile appear-
ance ) / shortening of the palatine (Baxter 2010).
The limbs of the Viminacium dog are straight and
slender, and it’s wither height falls within the small
dog range. Unfortunately, the cranium is very frag-
mented, so we could not study its morphology.
According to the length and shape of the limbs
we can suppose that this was a midget, toy dog,
probably similar to the modern Maltese breed. It
probably corresponds to the Melitaei dogs, which
were first mentioned by the ancient Greek author
Callimachus (264 BC), who wrote about the healing
powers that these dogs had in easing stomach pain
(Salisbury 2012, 118). Other ancient authors, such
689
as Pliny the Younger, talked about the special quali-
ties of Maltese dogs, such as beauty, intelligence and
high status (MacKinnon / Belanger 2006, 43).
In the Roman period, lamps were usually put in
the graves of the deceased in order to light up their
journey to the Underworld. However, burying ani-
mals with lamps was not a common custom and we
did not find any analogue cases of putting lamps into
animal graves. An association between dog burials
and pottery was reported in some Roman sites, such
as the Passewaaijse Hogeweg (Eastern Dutch River
area) dog burial that was placed above vessel shreds
(Groot 2009, 127) and the dog burial with the feed-
ing bowl from Mayen in Germany (Grünewald
2009). Grave goods in the Viminacium dog burial
suggest the special treatment this dog had and the
special relationship and appreciation from the per-
son that buried it.
It is uncertain whether the dog burial accom-
panied the human that was found above it. If it was
connected to the human, it probably represented a
companion in the journey to the Underworld, or
just the loving pet of a buried master. Connected
or not with the human burial, this dog surely had a
special funerary treatment by its masters.
Dog Burial within a Human Cremation
Grave
The second burial was discovered in 2010 during the
rescue excavations at the locality Nad Klepečkom,
in the area of the eastern necropolis of the city. It
was found within the central grave of a family grave
(fig. 2/2-3, fig. 3/2) parcel that, according to oth-
er finds, dates back to the first half of the 3rd cen-
tury. Enclosed grave parcels were common in the
Roman world (type area maceria cincta) (Toynbee
1982, 73-94).
The central grave was a stepped cremation burial,
with a walled lower floor. This type of grave construc-
tion is one of the most common forms of cremation
burials (Golubović / Korać 2008, 110-111) known as
“Mala Kopašnica-Sase”. A dog was found in the lower
floor lying on broken bricks: the grave was robed not
long after the funeral and in the course of looting the
dog was moved: its head was dislocated, while post-
cranial skeleton is in anatomical position.
The dog skeleton was oriented north-south,
with its head to the north. The skeleton belongs to
an adult dog: all the teeth had erupted and are light
worn and the epiphyses were fused. It was surely
older than 2 years, when vertebral epiphyses close
(Habermehl 1975). The average wither height of
this dog is 50.4 cm (after Harcourt 1974) and it falls
690 Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ

Table 3. Postcranial measurements (mm), after Driesch (1976)

Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium 691

Table 3. Continued
692 Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ

Table 3. Continued
Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium 693

Table 3. Continued
694 Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ

Table 3. Continued
Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium
Table 3. Continued
in medium sized dogs category (Shigehara 1994, af-
ter Hasebe 1952).
Burying dogs inside human graves is reported
in many cultures, from prehistory, and also, in the
course of the Roman period. Those burials prob-
ably represented either animals sacrificed in order
to be guardians of the tomb, or faithful companions
of the deceased that follow the fate of their masters
(De Grossi Mazzorin 2001). The dog buried on the
lower level of the cremation grave in Viminacium
was probably put there to be a companion to the
afterlife of his master. As it was buried within the
central grave of a family parcel, this dog can be also
interpreted as a status animal.
Burial of a Skinned Dog in the Proximity
of Human Burials
At the site called Pirivoj, at the area of the eastern
necropolis of Viminacium, in the proximity of the
human cremation and inhumation graves, a dog
skeleton was found in 2006 (fig. 2/4-5, fig. 3/3). In
this part of the necropolis, burying was continuous-
ly practiced from the beginning of the 2nd until the
end of the 3rd century AD. The layer in which the
dog was found dates back, according to other finds,
to the 2nd century AD.
The skeleton was dislocated in three parts: its
skull, cervical vertebrae and scapula were found
separately from the remaining vertebrae and hind
limbs, while the upper limbs were also dislocated.
As all the parts were still in their anatomical posi-
tion, we suggest that the skeleton has been moved
from its original position during disintegration of
the body, while there was still flesh on the bones.
In the very vicinity of this dog, one human ju-
venile skeleton was found, while circa 1.6 m to the
south, a horse and an adult human skeleton have
been discovered. Both horse and human remains
were dislocated: limbs of the horse were found
separately from the skull, vertebrae and ribs, while
the skull of the human was missing. The dislocated
horse and human burials in the proximity of dog re-
mains raise the question whether both the dog and
the horse were buried together with the human. If
695
they did not belong to the same unit, they are surely
contemporary, and were probably disturbed during
the cleaning and preparation for the next burial.
There is also a possibility that the dog was connect-
ed to the human juvenile skeleton.
As all the teeth are erupted and epiphyses are
fused, we can conclude that this was an adult dog,
surely older than 2 years when vertebral epiphyses
close (Habermehl 1975). The average wither height
of this animal is 59.8 cm (after Harcourt 1974) and
it places the dog among large sized dogs (Shigehara
1994, after Hasebe 1952). On long bones’ ends and
in the inner parts of vertebrae, traces of insect’s bor-
ings have been detected.
On the plantar side of both anterior and posteri-
or first phalanges, transversal butchering marks were
detected. Cut marks on the first phalanges of this
animal indicate that the animal had been skinned
before the burial. Butchering of dogs was not a com-
mon custom in the Roman period, as dogs were not
usually eaten. When found, cut marks on dog bones
and the association of dog remains within sacred
places usually indicate that these dogs were sacrifi-
cial (Wilkens 2006). Butchering marks are also very
rare on dog bones from Viminacium. At the small
Roman settlement Asthall (Britain), in association
with a human juvenile skeleton, bones from fore
and hind dog feet with cut marks were detected.
The authors suggested that the human skeleton was
covered by the dog skin (Booth et al. 1996).
Skinning of the dog from Viminacium was ei-
ther part of some ritual connected to the burial of
the people buried in this place or some kind of of-
fering (see next part).
A Deposit of a Dog Skeleton and a Horse
Skull
The fourth dog burial was found during the rescue
excavation of the area located at the necropolis to the
east of Viminacium (site Pirivoj) in 2007. (fig. 2/6,
fig. 3/4) Although some effort was made to interpret
this part of the necropolis as a sacrificial area of the
necropolis or simply a dump, the function of this
place remains unclear. According to ceramics and
other artifacts, cultural layers date back to the 2nd and
3rd century AD. Animal bones were among the most
frequent finds (Vuković 2010). A dog skeleton was
found in a pit together with a horse’s skull. The skel-
eton was oriented north-west – south-east, with its
head to the north-west. The horse’s skull was placed
above the dog’s hind limbs, to the east of the dog.
It was probably a very old animal: permanent
teeth are worn out, and the loss of both lower forth
696 Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ

1 2

3 4

5 6

Fig. 2. Dog burials from Viminacium cemeteries: 1. Burial of a juvenile small-sized dog with two terracotta lamps (Više grobalja);
2-3. Dog burial within a human cremation grave (Nad Klepečkom); 4-5. Burial of a skinned dog in the proximity of human
burials (Pirivoj, trench 22); 6. A deposit of a dog skeleton and a horse skull (Pirivoj, trench 29)

premolars is observable. This dog was very robust.
The average wither height of this dog is 64.5 cm (af-
ter Harcourt 1974) and it places this animal among
large-sized Roman dogs (Shigehara 1994, after
Hasebe 1952). As a baculum (os penis) of this ani-
mal has been found we can conclude it was a male
specimen.
A big male dog and a horse’s skull were deliber-
ately buried in a pit at the area that was interpreted
as the dump or sacrificial area of the necropolis and
they probably represent ritual deposit. There are also
analogies in other parts of the Empire of combined
deposits of a horse and a dog, such as Passewaaijse
Hogeweg (Eastern Dutch River area), where an old-
er male dog was buried in a ditch together with a
horse’s skull (Groot 2009, 133). This deposit is prob-
ably the remaining of an offering ritual to some de-
ity (see next part).
Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium
Fig. 3. Drawings of Viminacium dog burials: 1. Burial of a juvenile small-sized dog with two terracotta lamps (Više grobalja);
2 Dog burial within a human cremation grave (Nad Klepečkom); 3 Burial of a skinned dog in the proximity of human burials
(Pirivoj, trench 22); 4 A deposit of a dog skeleton and a horse skull (Pirivoj, trench 29)
To Whom Were Viminacium Dogs Offered?
Ritual Aspects of Dog Burials from the
Viminacium Cemeteries
Within the Viminacium cemeteries, dog burials were
found in different contexts: as individual burials
with or without grave goods, as burials connected
to human burials and as special deposits combined
with other animals. Different forms of Viminacium
dog burials indicate they had a different symbolic
meaning. Although every single burial represents a
special activity and has a particular meaning, they
can be roughly classified, as Mazzorin and Minniti
(De Grossi Mazzorin / Minniti 2006, 64) suggested,
into two types: the first one that is connected to the
daily life of the dogs’ master and the role of the dog
as a pet and companion to the Underworld, and the
second one that refers to the ritual sacrifice of dogs
to the chthonic gods.
In the first type of burials dogs were usually
buried in order to be companions and guardians in
the afterlife of their masters. Their burials can also
be explained by the fact that owners were distressed
by the loss, so they buried their pet. The careful bur-
ial of pet remains certainly reflects the important
social role that dogs played in human society and
some people consider dogs equal to people (Morey
2010, 150). Among burials from the Viminacium
cemeteries, a dog that was buried with two lamps
697
and a dog that was buried within human cremation
grave can be considered as this type of burial. The
same goes for the burials of dogs that were found
above children’s graves in the southern necropolis
of Viminacium. Pliny the Younger (Plin. Epist. 4, 2)
wrote that sometimes Roman children were buried
with beloved pets.
However, the burial of a skinned dog and the
dog that was buried with a horse’s skull from the
southern necropolis may be characterized as a sec-
ond type of dog burials connected with ritual ac-
tivities. When dealing with animal remains and
especially associated bone groups (ABG) (Morris
2011), it is very difficult to distinguish between rit-
ual (offerings, feasting and sacrifice) and functional
deposits (butchering waste, natural death, remains
of a meal, etc.). There are works that deal with as-
sociated bone groups/special animal deposits and
try to recognize criteria for distinguishing ritual ac-
tivities from simple rubbish (e.g. Groot 2009; 2012;
Morris 2011; Pluskowski 2012). We argue that the
two deposits from Viminacium: a skinned dog and
a pit with a dog’s skeleton and horse’s skull are not
simple functional deposits. Firstly, skinning of dogs
was not a common custom neither in Viminacium
nor in other parts of the Empire. Dogs were usu-
ally not eaten by Romans, so we would not expect
butchering marks on their bones. The fact that the
698
Fig. 4. Skeletal parts of Viminacium dogs: 1-2 a mandible and
a radius of a small sized dog (Više grobalja); 3-4 a mandible
and a baculum (os penis) of a big male dog (Pirivoj, trench
29); 5 a femur with traces of insect’s borings of a skinned dog
(Pirivoj, trench 22)
skinned dog was found in the vicinity of human
skeletons also suggests that it was probably con-
nected to some of the burial customs and activities.
Weathering and gnawing marks were not found on
it, so we can presume that it was buried soon af-
ter depositing and that it was not simply thrown
as rubbish. Otherwise, we would expect that other
dogs would have disseminated its body parts, or
atmospheric conditions (such as rain, sun, frost,
etc.) could have an effect on bones. A big male dog
skeleton and a horse’s skull, which were found at the
area of the eastern necropolis, were likely deliber-
ately put there. There are no traces on bones which
would indicate the cause of death, so it is not sure
whether those animals were killed for a purpose or
whether they suffered natural death. As this com-
bined deposit is a repeated pattern (it was found in
a few other sites throughout the Empire) we should
ascribe it to ritual activity that is repetitive and fol-
lows the rules (Groot 2012). If both the skinned dog
and the deposit that consists of a dog skeleton and a
horse’s skull are remains of a ritual activity, we raise
a question to which kind of ritual did they belong
to? To which gods were they offered?
In ancient mythology, dog is associated with
the gods of the underworld Hades, Serapis and
Hecate, and acts as the guardian of the entrance to
the Underworld as the three-headed dog Cerberus
(Toynbee 1973, 123). In addition to these, the dog ap-
pears in mythology and iconography of other ancient
Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ
deities and is related to their chthonic aspect, such
as Ennodia, Artemis, Zeus, Apollo Pythios, Hercules
and Hermes (Trantalidou 2006, 111-114). Besides
the chthonic aspect, dogs had iatric character. In an-
cient times it was thought that dogs were able to cure,
and were therefore sacred in the cult of Asclepius and
presented as an attribute to other gods of the under-
world or healing – Mother Goddess, Nehalennia,
Epona, Siron and Nodens (Toynbee 1973, 123).
As noted, the ritual sacrifice of dogs was well
known during the Roman period. Throughout
the Empire, numerous examples that are asso-
ciated with dog sacrifices have been found (De
Grossi Mazzorin / Minniti 2006, 64). In the terri-
tory of Italy, dogs were sacrificed to the goddesses
Hecate, Mater Matuta and Geneta Mana, which are
described in historical sources by Pliny the Elder
(Plin. Nat. Hist. 29, 58) and Plutarch (Quaest. Rom.,
52, 277). Pliny mentions that during the sacrifice
to Genita Mana, dog meat was still served at ban-
quets in the honor of these gods. Tabulae Iguvinae
from the period of the 2nd and the 1st century BC
described a ritual in which the dog was cooked,
then the meat was distributed to the followers who
were praying and then ritually ate meat and com-
mitted libation (Wilkens 2006, 133). They describe
an old tradition whose purpose was not known to
contemporaries (Chilardi 2006, 37).
It is also possible that dog burials from
Viminacium are remains of a purification ritual. It is
known that dogs participated in purification rituals
that allowed passage. Dogs were considered unclean,
their sacrifice became a catharsis and they served
as agents of purification. Purification was achieved
by rubbing one‘s body against that of a dog, after
which he or she became ritually pure and had the
right of passage to the underworld or a social class
(De Grossi Mazzorin / Minniti 2006, 63-64).
According to that data, it is reasonable to sug-
gest that the skinned dog and the dog and the horse
from the Viminacium cemeteries were sacrificed
to chthonic deities, and the solution is likely to be
found within Hecate, Artemis and Ennodia.
Hecate is the goddess of the Underworld, and
the iconography shows her with a dog, but the
very Hecate can be displayed as a female dog or a
woman with a dog’s head (Trantalidou 2006, 114-
115). Hecate is the protector of crossroads, she is
the goddess of earth, sea and sky and she is called
Trimorphos. This goddess is often depicted with
three heads. She united the functions of both good
and evil, caused and eliminated harm, and because
of that she had a protective role. Hecate is also a
Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium
Fig. 5. First phalanges with skinning marks on their plantar side of a dog buried at the eastern necropolis (Pirivoj, trench 22)
chthonic deity known as Philoskylakos, a dog lover
(Nonn. Dionysiaca, 44, 195). The animal that is pri-
marily devoted to her and that was sacrificed for
her is a dog. Ancient writers mention that young
dogs were offered to Hecate during the purification
ceremony (Plutarch in Quaest. Rom.; Pausan. 3,
14.9-10). So, dogs from necropolis of Viminacium
could have been sacrificed to Hecate. However, the
presence of Hecate’s cult in the territory of Upper
Moesia was probably of minor importance. Only a
few monuments from this territory are dedicated to
Hecate and it is thought that they have been put up
as a result of the religious practices of immigrants.
The cult is present under the influence of Thrace,
where it is known to have been practiced since the
Hellenistic period (Племић 2011, 119-127). So far,
the cult of Hecate in the territory of Viminacium
has not yet been confirmed archaeologically.
One of the three forms of Hecate is Artemis,
and sometimes she was identified with Hecate and
called Artemis-Hecate (Chilardi 2006, 36). Olympic
Artemis and chthonic Hecate were both associated
with the moon, the night, the world of darkness,
magic and childbirth. The sacrifice of dogs and oth-
er animals to Artemis-Hecate was done at night and
can be associated with the chthonic ritual, which is
celebrating Artemis’ dark side. Both Artemis and
Hecate are known as Skylakitis, dog-lover, protector
of dogs, and Skylakotrophos, nurse of puppies (Orph.
hymn. I, 5; XXXVI, 12). The cult of Diana/Artemis
in the territory of Upper Moesia is well confirmed.
According to some opinions, Diana represented the
native religious horizon in the central Balkan area,
or interpretatio Romana of the indigenous deities
of nature (Jovanović 2007, 31). In the territory of
Viminacium, one votive altar dedicated to Diana
699
was found and one marble statue of the goddess
which probably stood in a sanctuary or home shrine
(Zotović 1996, 132).
The skinned dog from the eastern necropo-
lis was probably sacrificed to the chthonic Diana,
or Artemis-Hecate, while the joint burial of a dog
and a horse’s skull is a more delicate question as it
is more difficult to explain. Both dogs and horses
were sacred animals of the goddess Ennodia, and
this goddess was shown in the company of these
two animals (Trantalidou 2006, 112). Ennodia is,
like Hecate, goddess of roads and crossroads, god-
dess of death, necropoleis and funerary customs
(Sophocl. Antig. 1199). Ennodia was associated with
Hecate and Artemis as Artemis Pheraia. So, through
this syncretism of Artemis-Hecate-Ennodia, a horse
could be a sacrificial animal, and a joint burial of a
complete dog and a horse’s skull could be allocated
to these goddesses. The practice of sacrificing dogs
and horses is also related to the Celtic gods, as hors-
es and dogs are linked to the Celtic goddess Epona.
Horse and dog bones were found in the sacrificial
layer inside the well graves from Viminacium, and
this form of burial is related to Gaul’s population
(Golubović 2008, 116-117). Presence of Celtic deities
in Viminacium is attested by a single find of a relief
that depicts Epona sitting on a throne (Gavrilovic
2013). Epona is known as a patronence of horses, a
goddess of fertility, possibly as an iatric deity and a
guardian of the dead. To conclude, this joint burial
of a horse skull and a dog could represent an offer-
ing to Diana, Hecate or Epona.
Conclusion
In the course of the excavations of the Viminacium
cemeteries several dog burials were found. Dogs
700 Sonja Vuković-Bogdanović / Mladen JOVIČIĆ

Vise grobalja Pirivoj, Trench 29

Total length: Akronion - Prosthion (1) 22.9
Basicranial axis: Basion - Synsphenion (4) 53
Basifacial axis: Synsphenion - Prosthion (5) 152
“Snout” length oral border of the prbits - Prostion (12) 99.5
Median palatal length: Staphylion - Prosthion (13) 118
Length of the horizontal part of the palatine: Staphylion - Palatinoorale (14) 40.8
Length of the carnassial (P4) 16.7 19.7
Greatest breadth of the carnassial (P4) 7.9 10.7
Greatest diameter of the auditory bulla (22) 26.9
Greatest mastoid breadth: Otion - Otion (23) 75.8
Breadth dorsal to external auditory meatus (24) 75.1
Greatest breadth of the occipital condyles (25) 43.6
Greatest breadth of the basis of the paraoccipital processes (26) 57.8
Height of the foramen magnum: Basion - Opisthion (28) 19.6
Greatest neurocranium breadth: Euryon - Euryon (29) 53.8
Greatest palatal breadth (34) 74.6
Least palatal breadth (35) 43.7
Breadth at the canine alveoli (36) 46.6
Greatest inner height of the orbit (37) 34.9
Skull height (38) 73.4
Skull height without sagital crest (39) 62.3
Height of the occipital triangle: Akrokranion - Basion (40) 56.7
Table 1. Cranial measurements (mm), after Driesch (1976)

that were found in association with human graves,
such as a dog found within a human cremation
grave at the area of Eastern necropolis and dog skel-
etons that were placed above children’s graves from
the Southern necropolis, most likely represented
beloved pets and companions to the Underworld
of their masters. Same goes for intentionally buried
dogs, such as a dog that was buried with two terra-
cotta lamps, which stands out as a rare example of
burying animals with grave goods.
There are a few particular burials which are
likely remains of offerings to chthonic deities. A
skinned dog found at the area of the Eastern ne-
cropolis and a joint burial of a dog and a horse’s
skull, from the same part of the necropolis, were
presumably offered to Hecate, Diana or Epona.
There is also a possibility that a skinned dog was
used as sacrificial offering in the purification ritual
of some deceased humans.
Particular social relationships between dogs and
people existed in the Roman city of Viminacium.
This bond is reflected by different burials that were
discussed in this paper. Studying dog and other an-
imal burials from Viminacium widens the knowl-
edge not only on animal-man relationships, but
also on the beliefs, customs and religion of people
that inhabited the Roman city of Viminacium.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Prof. Dr. Vesna Dimitrijević
(Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade) and Mr. Ivan
Bogdanović (Institute for archaeology, Belgrade) for
their useful comments in reviewing the paper. This
paper is the result of the following projects founded
by the Ministry of Education and Science of the
Republic of Serbia:
IRS – Viminacium, Roman city and military le-
gion camp – research of material and non-material
of inhabitants by using the modern technologies or
remote detection, geophysics, GIS, digitalization
and 3D visualization (III 47018);
Bioarchaeology of Ancient Europe – Humans,
Animals and Plants in the Prehistory of Serbia (III
47001).

2
Celtic graves, that date to the period of the Celtic occupation of Viminacium, prior to the Roman occupation (4th and 3rd c.
BC), were found at the area of the Southern necropolis (sites Pećine, Rudine and Repnjak) (Jovanović 1984; Tapavički-Ilić 2007;
Јовановић 1985).
Dog Burials from the Cemeteries of the Roman City of Viminacium 701

Vise Pirivoj, Pirivoj,

grobalja Trench 22 Trench 29
side sin. dex. sin. dex. sin. dex.
Length: the condyle process - aboral border of the canine alveolus (4) 125.4
Length from the indentation between the condyle process and the angular process -
121.5
aboral border of canine alveolus (5)
Length: the aboral border of the alveolus of M3 - aboral border of canine alveolus (7) 106.1
Length of the cheektooth raw (9) 78.8 85.9 85.4
Length of the molar raw (10) 37.5 38.5 41.9 41.6
Length of the premolar raw (11) 31 41.6 39.9 34.4 34.9
Length of M1 (13) 18.9 18.9 22.9 23.1 27.2 26.2
Breadth of M1 (13) 7.8 7.5 9.9 9.6 10.8 10.3
Greatest thickness of the body of the jaw (below M1) (17) 8.6 9.2 12.6 12.1 14.4 14.2
Height of the vertical ramus (18) 57.7 68.2 69.3
Height of the mandible behind M1 (19) 25.3 26
Height of the mandible in front of M1 23.5 23.5 28.5 32.4
Height of the mandible between P2 and P3 (20) 20.8
Table 2. Mandible measurements (mm), after Driesch (1976)

Ancient Authors Plin. Ep. = The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Harvard, 1890.
Nonn. = Nonnus. Dionysiaca III, Books 36-48 (Translated by Plin. Nat. hist. = C. Plinius Secundus. Naturalis Historia (ed.
W. H. D. Rouse). Harvard, 1940. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff). Lipsiae, 1906.
Orph. hymn. = Taylor, T. The Hymns of Orpheus. Los Plutarch. Quaest. Rom. = Plutarch. Moralia, vol. IV. Roman
Angeles, 1981. Questions. Harvard, 1936.
Pausan. = Habicht, C. Pausanias’ Guide to Ancient Greece. Sophocl. Antig. = Sophocles. Antigone (translated by Diane J.
Berkeley / Los Angeles, 1998. Raylor). Cambridge, 2011.

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Sonja Vuković MA
Faculty of Philosophy,
Laboratory for Bioarchaeology
Čika Ljubina 18-20
SRB-11000 Belgrade
sonja.vukovic@gmail.com
Mladen Jovičić MA
Institute of Archaeology
Knez Mihailova 35
SRB-11000 Belgrade
mladen_jovicic@yahoo.com
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