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    Capitulo 2 Child

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    CHAPTER 2 MM eXetey eters) 3 a 3 £ 2 % g é 3 3 2 a 3 8 2 9 + What Theories Do Theory and Practice Facts and Possibilitic + Grand Theories Behaviorism: Conditioning and Learning Cognitive Theory: Piaget and Information Processing INSIDE THE BRA Measuring Mental Activity A VIEW FROM scIENCE: Walk a Mile + Newer Theories Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky and Beyond A_VIEW FROM sciENcr: Children’s Drawings Evolutionary Theory OPPOSING PERSPECTIV : Toilet Training — How and When? + What Theories Contribute VISUALIZING DEVELOPMENT: Highlights of the Science of Human Development What Will You Know? 1. What is practical about a theory? 2. Do childhood experiences affect adults? 3. Would you be a different person if you grew up in another place or century? 4, Why do we need so many theories? Thave become the head of a family of nine, the other eight of whom are my descendants. Technically one of them is not a descendant, my son-in-law Oscar, but I include him in the count, not only because he is the father of two of my grandchildren, but also because he is an integral part of the family. For instance, his humor lightens our family gatherings. One family gathering is the springboard of this chapter, because it illustrates why theories are needed. It began when we were all together on a hot summer day. Our thoughts turned to winter. “Maybe we should all go to Iowa for Christmas,” someone said. Iowa for the holidays may be surprising for a professor who teaches in the Bronx, but Rachel recently moved to Iowa, and neither her mother (me) nor her three sisters have seen her new home. That “maybe we should” started dozens of conversations and emails, beginning with questioning the premise (why should we?) and with Oscar laughing at “another Berger trip.” He knows by now that we propose a dozen versions of every gathering, with different ideas of who, when, how, and where. Even “why” is debated: Why should all nine of us gather for Christmas? Travel is more expensive then. One previous year, we opened presents together on Skype. Months of discussion ensued. What about holiday traffic, snow, ice, money, time off work? Does the Iowa daughter want us there in December, an intense work month for her? Flying uses lots of fossil fuel, but the train takes a day and a night and goes only to Chicago; driving is more direct but less safe; planes will fly with or without us; we should reduce our carbon emissions; we should not do that if it harms our family; the money could go to better causes; family bonding is a good cause.... It went on for months, Oscar smiling and everyone else considering options but no one deciding. How did we choose? Theories helped; so did facts. Finally we agreed that we should go to Iowa; then “when” became an issue. Who has days off from work, when is best to avoid crowds, how many days together is long enough but not too long? As in this example, every human decides what to do with each minute, each day, each month of their lives, selecting among many possibilities, and thus, everyone must set priorities and clarify perspectives. With nine of us, this quickly gets complex. Without theories we would be confused and scattered, unable to agree and each stuck in their own place. The eight of us are used to the complexity of alternate views; Oscar is not. (Is that because he is an only child? That question prompts another set of theories. But not now.) This chapter explains five comprehensive theories that guide human behavior. Each theory helped us with our Iowa dilemma, as we assessed (in order of the theories, not in order of our months-long, far-ranging discussions) family memories, past experiences, personal beliefs, cultural pressures, innate emotions. At the end of this chapter, you will learn what we did. What Theories Do Theories organize scattered facts and confusing observations into patterns, weaving the details into a meaningful whole. A developmental theory is a comprehensive statement of general principles that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older. This is much more than a hunch or speculation: Developmental theories emerge from data, survive analysis, lead to experiments, and raise new questions. developmental theory A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate thousan y provides a framework for explaining observations about humai ‘owth. A developmei the patterns and problems o Theory and Practice Sometimes people think of theories as impractical. Not at all. Asa leading social scientist once quipped, “Nothing is as practical as a good theory” (Lewin, 1945). He used humor to counter the idea that theory and practice are opposites. Like many other scientists, he knew not only that theories organize thoughts and experiences to help scientists grasp generalities and reach solid conclusions, but also that they aid everyone in daily life. For example, if a child yells “I hate you,” a mother might be shocked, stunned, sad, and angry. Each of the five theories in this chapter might suggest different responses, but all agree that a thoughtless, reactive “I hate you, too” is not ideal. Without theories, we would be lost with a jumble of observations and reactions, confused as to how they fit together to make a life. Of course, theories differ; some are more comprehensive than others, and some reflect one culture more than another. In some cultures, children would never say “I hate you” to a parent: In every culture a developmental scientist would ask how old the child was, because “I hate you” means something different at age 2 than at 20. Overall, children’s needs change with age: Theories help adults respond. What should adults do when infants cry, or 3-year-olds refuse to eat their dinner, or 6-year-olds crawl into bed with their parents, or 10-year-olds multiply 7 x 8 correctly ... or incorrectly? Answers reflect theories, ideally theories that have stood the tests of time and science. It may be easier to understand the role of theory with a metaphor. Imagine trying to build a house without a design. You might have willing workers and all the raw materials: the bricks, the wood, the nails, But without tools and a plan you could not proceed. Science provides the tools; theories provide the plan; scientists are the workers who follow the plan. Sometimes, over the years, the house needs more work — another bedroom, a new roof, an additional door. Likewise, theories are revised over time. Theories are meant to be tested and refined. Sometimes a theory leads to a hypothesis that turns out to be false, an outcome that is considered a benefit, not a liability, of theory. ben mene 6 ev ae re ee Oo nw ns we rl* ew NS Aaron Bacall/Cartoon Collections/Cartoon Stock “Pm going to refer to an educational theory which was first published in February and is still applicable today.” The Test of Time Grand theories have endured for decades and still guide contemporary scientists, Theories can be very useful. To be more specific: * Theories produce hypotheses. + Theories generate discoveries. * Theories offer practical guidance. Remember from Chapter 1 that testing a hypothesis is the third step of science, the middle of the five steps. To get to that pivot, scientists need a question and a hypothesis. That is one reason that theories are needed, to stimulate questions. Once the question is framed as a hypothesis, the actual research begins, which then leads to analysis and conclusions to be shared with other scientists, to confirm, extend, revise, or refute the theory. For scientists, that is a practical result. Facts and Possibilities Sometimes people say dismissively, “that’s just a theory,” as if theories were disconnected from facts. In truth, facts are essential: A good theory begins with facts and discovers more of them. As one scientist explained, imagine a world without facts, “a world of ignorance where many possibilities seem equally likely ... [with] unreliable conclusions [and] shoddy evidence” (Berg, 2018, p. 379). Theories and facts work together. Facts lead to theories, and then theories lead to discovery of previously unrecognized possibilities, which need testing to discover new facts. Itis a fact, not a theory, that everywhere and for all time, part of being a person is to be “perpetually driven to look for deeper explanations of our experience, and broader and more reliable predictions about it” (Gopnik, 2001, p. 66). The perpetual need to understand is evident in history. All five of the theories in this chapter echo ideas written by ancient sages in Greece, China, India, and elsewhere. Dozens of other theories have been formulated to explain some aspect of development. The five theories here are comprehensive, relevant at every age. None is the final word. As explained in Chapter 1, human growth is dynamic, always affected by cohort and culture. Science begins with questions, which often spring from theory. Among the thousands of important questions are the following, each central to one of the five theories in this chapter: 1. Do early experiences — of breast-feeding or attachment or abuse — shape adult personality? 2. Does learning depend on encouragement, punishment, and/or role models? 3. Do children learn best if they figure out ideas for themselves? 4. Does culture determine parents’ behavior, such as how to respond to an infant's cry? 5, Is survival an inborn instinct, underlying all personal and social decisions? The answer to each of these questions is “yes” when examined in order by the following theories: psychoanalytic, behaviorism, cognitive, sociocultural, and evolutionary. Each question is answered “no” or “not necessarily” by several others. For every answer, more questions arise: Why or why not? When and how? SO WHAT? This last question is crucial; implications and applications affect everyone's daily life. WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED? 1. How are facts and theories connected? 2. What three things do theories do? 3. Why do people need theories to move forward with their lives? 4, Who develops theories — everyone or just scientists? Grand Theories In the first half of the twentieth century, two opposing theories — psychoanalytic and behaviorism — dominated psychology, each with extensive applications to child development. In about 1960, a third theory — cognitive — arose, and it, too, was widely applied. ‘These three are called “grand theories.” They are explained here because they are comprehensive, enduring, and far-reaching. In developmental research, they continue to be useful. But be forewarned: None is now considered as grand as once believed. Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud and Erikson Inner drives, deep motives, and unconscious needs rooted in childhood — especially the first six years — are the focus of psychoanalytic theory. These unconscious forces are thought to influence every aspect of thinking and behavior, from the smallest details of daily life to the crucial choices of a lifetime. psychoanalytic theory Freud's theory of the stages of development, cach of which emphasizes the sexual nature ofthe child. Asits first grand ‘theorist, Freud believed that irrational, unconscious drives and motives often originating in childhood erotic impulses, underlie human behavior. g Freud at Work In addition to being the world’s first psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud was a prolific writer. His many papers and case histories, primarily descriptions of his patients’ symptoms and sexual urges, helped make the psychoanalytic perspective a dominant force for much of the twentieth century. Freud’s Ideas Psychoanalytic theory originated with Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian physician who treated patients suffering from mental illness. He listened to their remembered dreams and uncensored thoughts. From that, he constructed an elaborate, multifaceted theory. According to Freud, development in the first six years of life occurs in three psychosexual stages, each characterized by sexual interest and pleasure arising from a particular part of the body. In infancy, the erotic body part is the mouth (the oral stage); in early childhood, the anus (the anal stage); in the preschool years, the penis (the phallic stage), a source of pride and fear among boys and a reason for sorrow and envy among girls. Then, after a quiet period (latency), the genital stage arrives at puberty, lasting throughout adulthood. (Table 2.1 on page 36 describes stages in Freud's theory.) TABLE 2.1 Compat ‘Approximate Age Birth to year 1-3years 3-6years 6-1l years, Adolescence ‘Adulthood Freud (psychosexual) ral Stoge The lips, tongue, and gums are the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, ‘and sucking and feeding are the most stimulating activities. Anal Stage ‘The anusis the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, and toilet training isthe most important activity. Phalle Stage The phallus, or penis, isthe most important body part, and pleasure is derived from genital stimulation. Boys are proud of their penises; girls wonder why they don’t have them Lotency Not really a stage, latency i an interlude. Sexual needs are quiet; psychic energy flows into sports, schoolwork, and friendship. Genitol stage The genitals are the focus of pleasurable sensations, and the young person seeks. sexual stimulation and satisfaction in heterosexual relationships. Freud believed that the genital stage lasts throughout adulthood. He also said that the goal of a healthy life is "to love and to work” ‘on of Freud’s Psychosexual and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Erikson (psychosocial) Trusts. Mistrust Babies either trust that others wil satisfy their basic needs, including nourishment, ‘warmth, cleanliness, and physical contact, ‘or develop mistrust about the care of others. ‘Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Children either become self-sufficient in many activities, including toileting, feeding, walking, exploring, and talking, or feel shame, or doubt their own abilities. Initiative vs. Guilt Children either try toundertake many adultlike activities er internalize the limits ‘and prohibitions set by parents. They feet either adventurous ar guilty. Industry vs. inferiority Children busily practice and then master, new skills or feel inferior, unable to do anything well Identity vs. Role Confusion ‘Adolescents ask themselves "Who am?" They establish sexual, political, religious, ‘and vocational identities or are confused about their roles. Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults seek companionship and love ‘or become isolated from others, fearing rejection, Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle-aged adults contribute to future ‘generations through work, creative activities, and parenthood or they stagnate. Integrity vs Despair Older adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life asa meaningful whole or despairing at goals never reached. Freud maintained that sensual satisfaction (from stimulation of the mouth, anus, or penis) is linked to major developmental stages, needs, and challenges. During the oral stage, for example, sucking provides not only nourishment for the infant but also erotic joy and attachment to the mother. Kissing between lovers is a vestige of the oral stage. Next, during the anal stage, pleasures arise from self-control, initially with toileting but later with wanting everything to be clean, neat, and regular (an “anal personality”). One of Freud’s most influential ideas was that each stage includes its own struggles. Conflict occurs, for instance, when parents wean their babies (oral stage), toilet- train their toddlers (anal stage), deflect the sexual curiosity and fantasies of their 5- year-olds (phallic stage), and limit the sexual interests of adolescents (genital stage). Freud thought that the experiences surrounding these conflicts determine later personality. Freud did not believe that any new stage occurred after puberty; rather, he believed that adult personalities and habits reflected childhood. As Freud explained it unconscious conflicts rooted in early life were evident in adult behavior — for instance, cigarette smoking (oral) or meticulous housekeeping (anal) or driving big cars (phallic). Erikson’s Ideas Many of Freud’s followers became famous theorists themselves — Carl Jung, Alfred ‘Adler, and Karen Horney among them. They agreed with Freud that early-childhood experiences affect everyone, often unconsciously, but they also expanded and modified his ideas. Many prefer to call their approach psychodynamic, to emphasize that they do not adhere strictly to Freud's approach. For scholars in human development, one psychodynamic theorist, Erik Erikson (1902-1994), is particularly insightful. He was born in Denmark, spent his childhood in Germany, and traveled in Italy as a young man. His interest in psychoanalytic theory was fostered by his work as a teacher in Austria in a school for children of patients who were analyzed by Freud. When Hitler’s rise forced all the Freudians to flee, Erikson and his American wife, Joan, came to the United States. Those multicultural experiences led him to develop his psychosocial theory of the entire life span. psychosocial theory Erikson’s theory ofthe stages of development, emphasizing the interaction between the psychic needs ofthe individ: and the surrounding social network of family and community Erikson described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis. Although Erikson named two polarities at each crisis, he recognized a wide range of outcomes between those opposites. Typically, development at each stage leads to neither extreme but to something in between. ‘Legendary Couple In his frst 30 years, Erikson never fitinto a particular local ‘community, since he frequently changed nations, schools, and professions, Then he met Joan. In their first five decades of marriage, they raised a family and wrote several books. I Erikson had published his theory at age 73 (when this photograph was taken) instead of in his 40s, would he stil have described life asa series of crises? In the stage of initiative versus guilt, for example, 3- to 6-year-olds undertake activities that exceed the limits set by their parents and their culture. They leap into swimming pools, pull their pants on backward, make cakes according to their own recipes, and wander off alone. Erikson thought that those preschool initiatives produce feelings of pride or failure, depending on adult reactions. Should adults pretend to like the cake that a preschooler made or, instead, punish that child for wasting food and messing up the kitchen? According to Erikson’s theory, a child will feel guilty lifelong if adults are too critical or if social norms are too strict regarding the young child’s initiatives. (©) especially for Teachers Your kindergartners are talkative and alvays moving, They almost never sit quietly and isten to you. What would Erk Erikson recommend? (see response, page Si) As you can see from Table 2.1, Erikson's first five stages are closely related to Freud's stages. Like Freud, Erikson believed that unresolved childhood conflicts echo throughout life, causing problems in adulthood. Erikson considered the first stage, trust versus mistrust, particularly crucial. For example, an adult who has difficulty establishing a secure, mutual relationship with a life partner may never have resolved that first crisis of life. If you know people who are “too trusting” or “too suspicious,” Erikson might suggest that you ask about their early care. In his emphasis on childhood, Erikson agreed with Freud. However, in two crucial aspects, Erikson was unlike his mentor. 1, Erikson’s stages emphasized family and culture, not sexual urges. 2. Erikson recognized the entire life span, with three stages after adolescence. Behaviorism: Conditioning and Learning The comprehensive theory that dominated psychology in the United States for most of the twentieth century was behaviorism. This theory began in Russia, with Pavlov, who first described conditioning. beh A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called lea ory because it describes the laws and processes by which behaviors learned. Classical Conditioning Early in the twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) did hundreds of experiments to examine the link between something that affected a living creature (such as a sight, a sound, a touch) and how that creature reacted. Technically, he was interested in how a stimulus effects a response. ‘AContemporary of Freud Ivan Pavlov was 2 physiologist who received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on digestive processes. It was this line of study that led tohis discovery of classical conditioning, when his research on dog saliva led to insight about learning. @©@ observation Quiz Howis Pavlov similar to Freud in appearance, and how do both look different from the other theorists pictured? (see answer, page 61) While studying salivation in his laboratory, Pavlov began by studying dogs. He noticed that his research dogs drooled (response) not only at the smell of food (stimulus) but also, eventually, at signals that food was coming, even before any sight or smell of the food. This observation led to a series of famous experiments: Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate (response) when hearing a particular noise (stimulus). Pavlov began by sounding a tone just before presenting food. After a number of repetitions of the tone-then-food sequence, dogs began salivating at the sound even when there was no food. This simple experiment demonstrated classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning). classical conditioning nected with a ha meaningful stimu Js (such as the sound of atone] In classical conditioning, a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the meaningful one. In Pavlov’s original experiment, the dog associated the tone (the neutral stimulus) with food (the meaningful stimulus) and eventually responded to the tone as if it were the food itself. The conditioned response to the tone, no longer neutral but now a conditioned stimulus, was evidence that learning had occurred. Behaviorists see dozens of examples of classical conditioning. Infants learn to smile at their parents because they associate them with food and play; toddlers learn to fear busy streets if the noise of traffic repeatedly frightens them; students learn to enjoy — or hate — school, depending on their kindergarten experience. This theory alerts us to many reactions linked to stimuli that once were neutral. Think of how some people react to a wasp, or a final exam, or a police car in the rearview mirror. In my early years teaching seventh-graders, I once strode up to the desk of one boy to tell him directly to get out his notebook and start writing, because he was not responding to my general request to the entire class. He put up his arm in self- defense. That startled me, I would never hit any student, but he had been conditioned to expect a blow. All our reactions are learned; the mere announcement about a future exam triggers sweat or chills in some students — as would not happen to a child with no exam experience. Many students find that the stress hormones triggered by seeing the exam paper makes them forget what they know — an unwelcome conditioned response. Behaviorism in the United States Pavlov’s ideas seemed to bypass most Western European developmentalists but were welcomed in the United States, because many North Americans disputed the psychoanalytic emphasis on the unconscious. The first of three famous Americans who championed behaviorism was John B. Watson (1878-1958). He argued that if psychology was to be a true science, psychologists should examine only what they could measure, not invisible, unconscious impulses. In his words: Way don't we make what we can observe the real field of psychology? Let us limit ourselves to things that can be observed, and formulate laws concerning only those things... We ean observe behavior — what the organism dos or says (Watson, 1924/1998, p. 6] According to Watson, if the focus is on behavior, it is apparent that everything is learned. He wrote: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'l guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select — doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, enchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. Watson, 1924/1998, p, 62) Other American psychologists agreed. They chose to study observable behavior, objectively and scientifically. For every creature at every age, behaviorists believe there are natural laws of behavior, and they seek to discover those laws to understand how simple, repeated actions become complex competencies, because stimuli in the environment affect each response. Learning in behaviorism is far more comprehensive than the narrow definition of learning, which focuses on academics, such as learning to read or multiply. Instead, for behaviorists, everything that people think, do, and feel is learned, step by step, via conditioning. For example, newborns learn to suck on a nipple; infants learn to smile at a caregiver; preschoolers learn to hold hands when crossing the street. Such learning is conditioned and can endure when no longer useful. That explains why children suck lollipops, adults smile at strangers, and I still grab my children’s hands in traffic. Operant Conditioning The most influential North American proponent of behaviorism was B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner agreed with Watson that psychology should focus on observable behavior. He did not dispute Pavlov’s classical conditioning, but, as a good scientist, he built on Pavlov’s conclusions. His most famous contribution was to recognize another type of conditioning — operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) — in which animals (including people) act and then something follows that action. operant conditioning. 1 learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (wihich makes the person or animal ‘more likely to repeat the action} or by som fanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditio In other words, Skinner went beyond learning by association, in which one stimulus is paired with another stimulus (in Pavlov's experiment, the tone with the food). He focused instead on what happens after the response. If the consequence that follows is enjoyable, the creature (any living thing — a bird, a mouse, a child) tends to repeat the behavior; if the consequence is unpleasant, the creature does not do it again. Consequences that increase the frequency or strength of a particular action are called reinforcers; the process is called reinforcement (Skinner, 1953). Pleasant consequences are sometimes called rewards, but behaviorists do not call them that because they want to avoid confusion. What some people consider a “reward” may actually be a punishment, an unpleasant consequence. For instance, a teacher might reward good behavior by giving the class extra recess time, but if a child hates recess, that is punishment not reinforcement. reinforcement When a behavior is followed by something desired, such 2s food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile fora lonely person, Rats, Pigeons, and People B.F. Skinner is best known for his experiments with rats ‘and pigeons, but he also applied his knowledge to human behavior. For his daughter, he designed 2 glass-enclosed crib in which temperature, humidity, and perceptual stimulation could be controlled to make her time inthe crib enjoyable and educational. He encouraged her first attempts to talk by smiling and responding with words, affection, or other positive reinforcement. The opposite is true as well: Something thought to be a punishment may be reinforcing. For example, parents “punish” their children by withholding dessert. But a particular child might dislike the dessert, so being deprived of it is no punishment. Culture matters, too. Japanese parents threaten to punish their children by refusing to let them come home; American parents threaten to make the children stay home. ‘Whether these opposite strategies are really punishments depends on the child as well as the culture (Bornstein,.2017). The crucial question is, “What works as a reinforcement or punishment for that individual?” The answer varies by personal history as well as by age. For instance, adolescents find risk and excitement particularly reinforcing, and they consider punishments much less painful than adults do. That was one conclusion of a study of teenagers who were violent: For them, the thrill of breaking the law was reinforcing, outweighing the pain of getting caught (Shulman ct al., 2017). Consider a common practice in schools: Teachers send misbehaving children out of the classroom. Then, principals suspend the worst violators from school. However, if a child hates the teacher, leaving class is rewarding; and if a child hates school, suspension is a reinforcement. Indeed, research on school discipline finds that some measures, including school suspension, increase later disobedience (Osher et al,,.2010). Educators have learned that, to stop misbehavior, it is often more effective to encourage good behavior, to “catch them being good” (Polirstok, 2015, p. 932 In the United States, the chance of an African American child being suspended from school is three times higher than for a European American child. The rate is also high for children designated as needing special education (Tajalli & Garba, 2014; Shah, 2011). Those statistics raise a question: Is suspension a child’s punishment or a teacher's reinforcer? The data show that children who are suspended from school are more likely than other children to be incarcerated years later. That is a correlation. It does not prove that suspension causes later imprisonment; it may be that children who do not obey teachers become adults who do not obey laws. But, behaviorist theory suggests that suspension does not improve child behavior, and it might make it worse (Mallett, 2016). [Developmental Link: Correlation and causation are discussed in Chapter 1.] Remember, behaviorists focus on the effect that a consequence has on future behavior, not whether it is intended to be a reward or not. They contend that children who repeatedly misbehave have been reinforced, not punished, for misbehavior — perhaps by their parents or teachers, perhaps by their friends or themselves. Social Learning At first, behaviorists thought that all behavior arose from a chain of learned responses, the result of (1) the association between one stimulus and another (classical conditioning) or (2) past reinforcement (operant conditioning). Thousands of experiments inspired by learning theory have demonstrated both classical conditioning and operant conditioning in everyday life. However, behaviorists realized people do more than respond to their personal associations, reinforcements, and punishments. They “act on the environment. They create it, preserve it, transform it, and even destroy it.... [in] a socially embedded interplay” (Bandura, 2006, p. 167). Eel zurchPad VIDEO ACTIVITY: Modeling: Learning by Observation features the original footage of Albert Bandura's famous experiment. That social interplay is the foundation of social learning theory (see Table 2.2), which holds that humans sometimes learn from what they see, even if they themselves have not been conditioned. As Albert Bandura, the primary proponent of this theory, explained, this learning often occurs through modeling, when people copy what they see others do (also called observational learning) (Bandura, 1986, 1997). {An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior, Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. (Also called observational learning.) modeling ‘The central process of social learning, by which @ person observes the actions of others and then copies them. TABLE 2.2 Three Types of Learning Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it emphasizes the learning process, as shown here. Type of Learning Process Result Learning Classical Learning occurs through Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus leading to conditioning association. conditioned response. Operant Learning occurs through ‘Weak or rare responses become strong and frequent — or, conditioning reinforcement and with punishment, unwanted responses become extinct punishment, Social Learning occurs through Observed behaviors become copied behaviors. learning modeling what others do. Modeling is not simple imitation: Some people are more likely to follow, or to be, role models than others. Indeed, humans copy only some actions, of some individuals, in some contexts. If people do the opposite of what they have seen, that could be social learning as well: Humans learn from other humans’ mistakes. Modeling is especially likely when the observer is uncertain or inexperienced and the model is admired, powerful, nurturing, or similar to the observer. That's why role models are crucial in childhood. THINK CRITICALLY: Is your speech, hairstyle, or choice of shoes similar to thase of your peers, or ofan entertainer, or a sports hero? Why? Social learning occurs not only for behavior and preferences (haircuts, clothing styles, slang) but also for morals. Deciding what is right is less a personal decision than one profoundly affected by other people (Bandura, 2016). Cognitive Theory: Piaget and Information Processing According to cognitive theory, each person’s thoughts and expectations profoundly affect their attitudes, values, emotions, and actions. The core idea is that how and what people think is a crucial influence on human behavior. cognitive theory ‘Agrand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, ourthougnts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Cognitive theory diverged from psychodynamic theory (which emphasized hidden impulses) and behaviorism (which emphasized observed actions) to stress that thoughts are the crucial link between those impulses and actions. Piaget’s Stages of Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) transformed our understanding of cognition. He may have been “the greatest developmental psychologist of all time” (Haidt, 2013, p. 6). His academic training was in biology, with a focus on shellfish, which taught him to look closely at small details. Would You Talk to This Man? Children loved talking to Jean Piaget, and he learned by listening carefully — especially to their incorrect explanations, which no one had paid much attention to before Allis life, Piaget was absorbed with studying the way children think. He called himself a "genetic epistemolog’st” — one who studies how children gain knowledge about the world as they grow, Before Piaget, most scientists believed that babies could not yet think. But Piaget used scientific observation with his own three infants. He took meticulous notes, finding infants curious and thoughtful; babies develop new concepts month by month. Later Piaget studied hundreds of schoolchildren. From this work emerged the central thesis of cognitive theory: How children think changes with time and experience. According to cognitive theory, to understand the behavior of humans of any age, we need to understand their thinking. Piaget maintained that cognitive development occurs in four age-related periods, or stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (see ‘Table 2,3). Each period is characterized by particular mental processes: Infants think via their senses; preschoolers have language but not logic; school-age children have simple logic; adolescents and adults can use formal, abstract logic (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958/2013b; Piaget, 1952/2011). TABLE 2.3 Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development Name of Period Birhto2 —_Sensorimotor years 2-6years __Preoperational Gell years Concrete ‘operational 12years Formal through operational adulthood Characteristics of Period Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection. Chiléren think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their ‘own perspective. Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience, Adolescents and adults Use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use analysis, not only emotion Infants learn that objects still exist when out ‘of sight (object permanence) and begin to think through mental actions. (The sensorimotor period is discussed further in Chapter) ‘The Imagination flourishes, and language bbecomes.a significant means of sel ‘expression and social influence. (The preoperational period is discussed further in Chapter.) By applying logic, children grasp concepts of conservation, number, clasifcation, and ‘many other scientific ideas. The concrete operational periods discussed furtherin chanter 2) Ethics, polities, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults use abstract, theoretical reasoning. (The formal-operational period is discussed further in Chapter 15.) At every age, Piaget found that intellectual advancement occurs because humans seek cognitive equilibrium — a state of mental balance. The easiest way to achieve this balance is to interpret new experiences through the lens of preexisting ideas. cognitive equilibrium Incognitive theory, ast se of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing ‘thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas, Cognition is easier when the mind simplifies ideas. For instance, once children grasp the concept of “dog,” they can see unfamiliar animals on the street, from Great Danes to Chihuahuas, and say “doggie.” They also expect dogs to sniff, bark, wag tails, and so on. Some children want to pet every dog they see; some fear them all — but in either case, generalities of “dogness” are evident. Achieving cognitive equilibrium is not always easy, however. Sometimes a new experience or question is jarring or incomprehensible — such as learning that some dogs (Basenjis) do not bark. Then the individual experiences cognitive disequilibrium, an imbalance that creates confusion. As Figure lustrates, disequilibrium advances cognition if it leads to adaptive thinking. Piaget describes two types of adaptation: + Assimilation: New experiences are reinterpreted to fit, or assimilate, into old ideas. [A Basenji could bark if it wanted to, or Basenjis are not really dogs.] + Accommodation: Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences. [Some dogs do not bark.) assimilation ‘The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas, accommodation The restructuring of ld ideas to include new experiences, ay New Idea or Experience | i i | I I | t FIGURE 2.1 Challenge Me Most of us, most of the time, prefer the comfort of our conventional conclusions. According to Piaget, however, when new ideas disturb our thinking, we have an ‘opportunity to expand our cognition with a broader and deeper understanding. Ideally, when two people disagree, adaptation is mutual. Think of a lovers’ quarrel. If both parties listen sympathetically to the other, they both accommodate. Then the quarrel strengthens their relationship, and they reach a new, better equilibrium. [As you see, accommodation requires more effort than assimilation, but it advances thought. Children —and everyone else — actively develop new concepts when the old ones fail. In Piagetian terms, they construct ideas based on their experiences. He thought that knowledge is constructed (built) in the mind, an inner construction as ideas link together, not unlike the external process of construction by linking wood, metal, or whatever. For example, infants first assimilate everything using their senses — they taste and touch everything. But experience requires accommodation: They learn what should not be put in their mouths. Information Processing A newer version of cognitive theory is called information-processing theory, inspired by the input, programming, memory, and output of the computer. When. conceptualized in that way, thinking is affected by the neurons, synapses, and neurotransmitters of the brain. information-processing theory {A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory Input, connections, stored memories, and output. Information processing is “a framework characterizing a large number of research programs” (Miller, 2011, p. 266). Instead of interpreting responses by infants and children, as Piaget did, this cognitive theory focuses on the processes of thought — that is, when, why, and how neurons fire to activate a thought. Information-processing theorists contend that cognition begins when input is picked up by one of the senses. It proceeds to brain reactions, connections, and stored memories, and it concludes with some form of output. For infants, output consists of moving a hand, making a sound, or staring a split second longer at one stimulus than at another. As children mature, output studied by information- processing scientists include words, hesitations, neuronal activity, and bodily reactions (heartbeat, blood pressure, hormones, and the like) (see Inside the Brain). INSIDE THE BRAIN DEER aCure le cehs ‘Ahundred years ago, people thought that emotions came from the heart. That's why we stil send hearts on Valentine's Day and why we speak of “broken hearts” or people who are "soft-hearted” or who have “hardened their hearts” But now we know that everything begins inside the brain, itis foolish to dismiss a sensation with “t's all in your head.” Of course itis in your head; everythingis Until quite recently, the only way scientists assessed brains was to measure heads. Of course, measuring produced some obvious discoveries — babies with shrunken brains (microcephaly) suffered severe intellectual disability, and brains grew bigger as children matured, Measuring also led to some obvious errors. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many scientists believed the theory that bumps on the surface ofthe head reflected intelligence and character, a theory known as phrenology. Psychiatrists would run their hands over a person's skull to measure 27 traits, including spirituality, loyalty, and aggression. Another discredited example was suggesting that women could never be professors because their brains were too small (Swab & Hofman, 1984), Within the past half-century, neuroscientists developed ways to use electrodes, magnets, light, and computers to ‘measure brain activity, not just brain size (see Table 2.4). Raised areas on the head and head size (within limits) were proven irrelevant to intellectual processes. Researchers now study cognitive processes between input and output. Some results are cited later In this feature we descrise methods. TABLE 2.4 Some Techniques Used by Neuroscientists to Understand Brain Function EEG (electroencephalogram) ERP (event-related potential) ‘The EEG measures electrical activity in the cortex. ‘This can differentiate active brains (beta brain waves — very rapid, 12 to 30 per second) from sleeping brains (delta waves — 1 t0 3 per second) ‘and brain states that ae half-awake, or dreaming. Complete lack of brain waves, called flatline, indicates brain death. ‘The amplitude and frequency of brain electrical activity changes when a particular stimulus (called an event) occurs. First, the ERP establishes the usual patterns, and then researchers present a stimulus (such asa sound, an image, a word) that ‘causes a blip in electrical activity. ERP indicates how quickly and extensively people react — although this method requires many repetitions to distinguish the response from the usual brain activity, ‘MRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) FrsilasieneeSoace Inadvanced MRI, function is measured as more ‘oxygen is added to the blood flow when specific ‘The water molecules in various parts ofthe brain ‘each have a magnetic current, and measuring that current allows measurement of myelin, neurons, ‘and fluid in the bral PET (positron emission tomography) When a specific part ofthe brain is active, the blood flows more rapidly in that part. Ifradioactive dyes injected into the bloodstream and a person {ies very still within a scanner while seeing pictures cor other stimuli, changes in blood flow indicate thought. PET can reveal the volume of neurotransmitter; the rise or fall of brain oxygen, glucose, amino acids; and more, PETis almost impossible to use with children (who cannot stay stil). DTI (diffusion tensor imaging) neurons are activated. The presumption is that Increased blood flow means that the person is sing that part ofthe brain. fMRI has revealed that several parts ofthe brain are active at once — seeing something activates parts ofthe visual cortex, and may also activate parts ofthe brain far from the visual areas. {NIRS (functional near-infrared spectroscopy) ‘This method also measures changes in blood flow. Butit depends on light rather than magnetic ‘charge and can be done with children, who merely ‘wear a special cap connected to sensors and do not need tole stillin a noisy machine (as they do for PET or fMR). By measuring how each area of the brain absorbs light, neuroscientists infer activity ofthe brain Ferrari & Quaresima, 2012). DTI is another technique that builds on the MRI It measures the flow (diffusion) of water molecules within the brain, which shows connections between one area and another. This s particularly interesting to

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