Parts of the Brain: Anatomy,

Structure & Functions

simplypsychology.org/anatomy-of-the-brain.html

November 9, 2023

Psychology » Biopsychology

By

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Updated on

Reviewed by
Saul Mcleod, PhD

The brain controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside
world, and defines who we are as individuals and how we experience the world.

The brain receives information through our senses: sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing.
This information is processed in the brain, allowing us to give meaning to the input it
receives.

The brain is part of the central nervous system (CNS) along with the spinal cord. There is
also a peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprised of 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch
from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain.

Brain Parts

The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1. The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest and most recognizable part of the brain. It consists of grey
matter (the cerebral cortex ) and white matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided into
two hemispheres, the left and right, and contains the lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal,
parietal, and occipital lobes).

The cerebrum produces higher functioning roles such as thinking, learning, memory,
language, emotion, movement, and perception.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum and is responsible for monitoring and
regulating motor behaviors, especially automatic movements.

This structure is also important for regulating posture and balance and has recently been
suggested for being involved in learning and attention.

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Although the cerebellum only accounts for roughly 10% of the brain’s total weight, this area
is thought to contain more neurons (nerve cells) than the rest of the brain combined.

Brainstem

The brainstem is located at the base of the brain. This area connects the cerebrum and the
cerebellum to the spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these areas.

The brainstem regulates automatic functions such as sleep cycles, breathing, body
temperature, digestion, coughing, and sneezing.

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Right Brain Vs. Left Brain
The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2). The left
hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half.

The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus
callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons.

The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate and allows information
being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other.

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Figure 2. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. The two sides are connected by the
nerve fibers corpus callosum.

Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different
functions. Each of these functions is localized to either the right or left side.

The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar and
vocabulary and containing different language centers (Broca’s and Wernicke’s area).

The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as visualization,
depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are the case in most
people, especially those who are right-handed.

Lobes of the Brain

Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different
functions.

The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes
(Figure 3).

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Figure 3. The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

Frontal lobes

The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead (Figure 4).

Their main functions are associated with higher cognitive functions, including problem-
solving, decision-making, attention, intelligence, and voluntary behaviors.

The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex responsible for planning and coordinating
movements.

It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for initiating higher-lever cognitive
functioning, and Broca’s Area, which is essential for language production.

Figure 4. Frontal lobe structure.

Temporal lobes

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The temporal lobes are located on both sides of the brain, near the temples of the head,
hence the name temporal lobes (Figure 5).

The main functions of these lobes include understanding, language, memory acquisition,
face recognition, object recognition, perception, and auditory information processing.

There is a temporal lobe in both the left and right hemispheres. The left temporal lobe, which
is usually the most dominant in people, is associated with language, learning, memorizing,
forming words, and remembering verbal information.

The left lobe also contains a vital language center known as Wernicke’s area, which is
essential for language development. The right temporal lobe is usually associated with
learning and memorizing non-verbal information and determining facial expressions.

Figure 5. Temporal lobe structure.

Parietal lobes

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The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain, between the frontal and occipital lobes,
and above the temporal lobes (Figure 6).

The parietal lobe is essential for integrating information from the body’s senses to allow us to
build a coherent picture of the world around us.

These lobes allow us to perceive our bodies through somatosensory information (e.g.,
through touch, pressure, and temperature). It can also help with visuospatial processing,
reading, and number representations (mathematics).

The parietal lobes also contain the somatosensory cortex, which receives and processes
sensory information, integrating this into a representational map of the body.

This means it can pinpoint the exact area of the body where sensation is felt, as well as be
able to perceive the weight of objects, shape, and texture.

Figure 6. Parietal lobe structure.

Occipital lobes

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The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain behind the temporal and parietal
lobes and below the occipital bone of the skull (Figure 7).

The occipital lobes receive sensory information from the eyes’ retinas, which is then encoded
into different visual data. Some of the functions of the occipital lobes include being able to
assess the size, depth, and distance, determine color information, object and facial
recognition, and mapping the visual world.

The occipital lobes also contain the primary visual cortex, which receives sensory information
from the retinas, transmitting this information relating to location, spatial data, motion, and
the colors of objects in the field of vision.

Figure 7. Occipital lobe structure.

Cerebral Cortex
The surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex and has a wrinkled appearance,
consisting of bulges, also known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as sulci (Figure 8).

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A gyrus (plural: gyri) is the name given to the bumps and ridges on the cerebral cortex (the
outermost layer of the brain). A sulcus (plural: sulci) is another name for a groove in the
cerebral cortex.

Figure 8. The cortex contains neurons (grey matter) interconnected to other brain areas by axons (white
matter). The cortex has a folded appearance. A fold is called a gyrus, and the valley between is a sulcus.

The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey matter (neural tissue made up of
neurons), with between 14 and 16 billion neurons found here.

The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral cortex allow a wider surface area for an
increased number of neurons to live there, permitting large amounts of information to be
processed.

Deep Structures

Amygdala

The amygdala is a structure deep in the brain which is involved in the processing of emotions
and fear learning. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, a neural network that
mediates emotion and memory (Figure 9).

This structure also ties emotional meaning to memories, processes rewards, and helps us
make decisions. This structure has also been linked with the fight-or-flight response.

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Figure 9. The amygdala in the limbic system plays a key role in how animals assess and respond to
environmental threats and challenges by evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information and
prompting an appropriate response.

Thalamus and Hypothalamus

The thalamus relays information between the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and other cortical
structures (Figure 10).

Because of its interactive role in relaying sensory and motor information, the thalamus
contributes to many processes, including attention, perception, timing, and movement. The
hypothalamus modulates a range of behavioral and physiological functions.

It controls autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual activity.
To do this, the hypothalamus integrates information from different brain parts and responds
to various stimuli such as light, odor, and stress.

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Figure 10. The thalamus is often described as the brain’s relay station as a great deal of information that
reaches the cerebral cortex first stops in the thalamus before being sent to its destination.

Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a curved-shaped structure in the limbic system associated with learning
and memory (Figure 11).

This structure is most strongly associated with the formation of memories, is an early storage
system for new long-term memories, and plays a role in the transition of these long-term
memories to more permanent memories.

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Figure 11. Hippocampus location in the brain

Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of structures that regulate the coordination of fine motor
movements, balance, and posture alongside the cerebellum.

These structures are connected to other motor areas and link the thalamus with the motor
cortex. The basal ganglia are also involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors, as well as
playing a role in reward and addiction.

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Figure 12. The Basal Ganglia Illustration

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Within the brain, there are fluid-filled interconnected cavities which are extensions of the
spinal cord, called ventricles. These are filled with a substance called cerebrospinal fluid,
which is a clear and colorless liquid.

The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid and transport as well as remove this fluid. The
ventricles do not have a unique function, but it provides cushioning to the brain and is useful
for determining the locations of other brain structures.

Cerebrospinal fluid circulates the brain and spinal cord and functions to cushion the brain
within the skull. If damage occurs to the skull, the cerebrospinal fluid will act as a shock
absorber to help protect the brain from injury.

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As well as providing cushioning, the cerebrospinal fluid circulates nutrients and chemicals
filtered from the blood and removes waste products from the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid is
constantly absorbed and replenished by the ventricles.

If there were a disruption or blockage, this can cause a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid and
can cause enlarged ventricles.

Neurons
Neurons are the nerve cells of the central nervous system that transmit information through
electrochemical signals throughout the body. Neurons contain a soma, a cell body from
which the axon extends.

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Axons are nerve fibers that are the longest part of the neuron, which conduct electrical
impulses away from the soma.

There are dendrites at the end of the neuron, which are branch-like structures that send and
receive information from other neurons.

A myelin sheath, a fatty insulating layer, forms around the axon, allowing nerve impulses to
travel down the axon quickly.

There are different types of neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information, motor
neurons transmit motor information, and relay neurons allow sensory and motor neurons to
communicate.

The communication between neurons is called synapses. Neurons communicate with each
other via synaptic clefts, which are gaps between the endings of neurons.

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During synaptic transmission, chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, are released from the
endings of the previous neuron (also known as the presynaptic neuron).

These chemicals enter the synaptic cleft to then be transported to receptors on the next
neuron (also known as the postsynaptic neuron).

Once transported to the next neuron, the chemical messengers continue traveling down
neurons to influence many functions, such as behavior and movement.

Glial Cells

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 Glial cells are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system which work to provide
the neurons with nourishment, support, and protection.

Astrocytes

These are star-shaped cells that function to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling
by controlling the levels of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses.

They also work to clean up what is left behind after synaptic transmission, either recycling
any leftover neurotransmitters or cleaning up when a neuron dies.

Oligodendrocytes

These types of glial have the appearance of balls with spikes all around them. They function
by wrapping around the axons of neurons to form a protective layer called the myelin sheath.

This is a substance that is rich in fat and provides insulation to the neurons to aid neuronal
signaling.

Microglial

Microglial cells have oval bodies and many branches projecting out of them. The primary
function of these cells is to respond to injuries or diseases in the central nervous system.

They respond by clearing away any dead cells or removing any harmful toxins or pathogens
that may be present, so they are, therefore, important to the brain’s health.

Ependymal cells

These cells are column-shaped and usually line up together to form a membrane called the
ependyma. The ependyma is a thin membrane lining the spinal cord and ventricles of the
brain.

In the ventricles, these cells have small hairlike structures called cilia, which help encourage
the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

Cranial Nerves

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 There are 12 types of cranial nerves which are linked directly to the brain without
having to pass through the spinal cord. These allow sensory information to pass from
the organs of the face to the brain:

Mnemonic for Order of Cranial Nerves:

S ome S ay M arry M oney B ut M y B rother S ays B ig B rains M atter M ore

1. Cranial I: Sensory
2. Cranial II: Sensory
3. Cranial III: Motor
4. Cranial IV: Motor
5. Cranial V: Both (sensory & motor)

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 6. Cranial VI: Motor
7. Cranial VII: Both (sensory & motor)
8. Cranial VIII: Sensory
9. Cranial IX: Both (sensory & motor)
10. Cranial X: Both (sensory & motor)
11. Cranial XI: Motor
12. Cranial XII: Motor

References
Purves, D., Augustine, G., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L., LaMantia, A., McNamara, J., & Williams,
S. (2001). Neuroscience 2nd edition. sunderland (ma) sinauer associates. Types of Eye
Movements and Their Functions.

Mayfield Brain and Spine (n.d.). Anatomy of the Brain. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from:
https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm

Robertson, S. (2018, August 23). What is Grey Matter? News Medical Life Sciences.
https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Grey-Matter.aspx

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 13). Temporal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply
Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/temporal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 15). Parietal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply
Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/parietal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 19). Occipital lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply
Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/occipital-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, May 08). Frontal lobe function, location in brain, damage, more.
Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/frontal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, June 09). Gyri and sulci of the brain. Simply Psychology.
www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/gyri-and-sulci-of-the-brain.html

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Educator, Researcher

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of
working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals,
including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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