10) Ayaos ues VaAUrY BULL ee Com wa ee ee RELEVANT DISCONTINUITIES MAGNETIC PARTICLE ano LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING See ROC CMaCaN cae utc i acctPublished by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 Arlingate Lane PO Box 28518 ‘Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Copyright © 2010 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and wenwasnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level i! Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evoluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing, ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-201-3, Printed in the United States of America, Cover photograph courtesy of Amy E. Krauser at Edwards & Associates. Fist printing 02/10 “The following technical reviewers and contributors provided valuable assistance with this series: ‘Shelby Abercrombie — Aerojet Ordnance Tennessee Bruce Crouse — Inspection Services Richard Duin — Alion Science and Technology Nat Faransso — KBR Morteza K. Jafar International Quality Services Amy €. Krauser ~ Edwards & Associates Martin Lugg — TSC Inspection Systems David G. Moore ~ Sandia National Laboratories Sem Robinson ~ Sherwin Incorporated Dave Russell — Russell NDE Systems nc. Roderic K. Stanley ~ NDE Information Consultants Bill White - Forged Products Inc. Cat J. Wilkey ~ IveyCooper Services, LLC Wiliam J, Wiltsey — TEAM Industrial Services Inc “The Publications Review Committee includes: Gary Heath - All Tech Inspection, Inc. Glenn M, Light - Southwest Research Institute Bob Conikin Educational Materials EditorThis module is intended as a reference guide for students, technicians and professionals in NDT. ‘An overview of each discontinuity provides the following information: * Description * Location in part * Characteristics/appearance * Metallurgical analysis Depending on the availability of information, one or more of the followin presented in terms of using MT and/or PT per discontinuity: * Appearance ~ describing the outcome of a typical test result Rationale - explaining why the method is preferred Advantage(s) — highlighting the strong points of the method Limitation(s) ~ detailing any drawbacks associated with the application of the method g items are subsequently Recommendiation(s) — providing procedural tips for a successful outcome Precaution(s) — advising what safeguards to take when conducting a test | Please note that this module is intended as a supplement only. . It should not take the place of specific codes, procedures or standards applicable to a specific test. TOd0d Heat-Treat Cracks. 62 Machining Tears 64 Discontinuity Orientation with Magnetic Particle Testing ...66 Service Discontinuities ______.67 Fatique Cres 68 Fillet Cracks (Bolts) — 72 Hydrogen Embrittlement 74 Magnetic Particle Sizes 75 Interaranuiar Corrasion Cracking .76 Stress Corrasion Cracking _....78 Thread Cracks eee References, 82 Figure Sources. 83 SI Derived Units. 84 Conversions 0 SI Units serene BS Undercut. Typical Liquid Penetrant Indications... Grinding Cracks... 60 CGS System Converted to SI Units... 86Hed * Recommended for ferromagnetic material. * Very portable and adaptable to many conditions. * Fairly quick and reliable test. * Can be used on mass-produced parts. * Able to detect surface and near-surface discontinuities. * Able to be used on a variety of shapes and components. © Very sensitive for finding cracks; provides a visual picture of the crack. * Useful for detecting both production discontinuities, such as seams, laps and grinding cracks, as well as inservice damage, such as fatigue and stress cracks. * A relatively simple test method that can be applied to finished items as well as to processing operations, such as heat treatment, machining and grinding. * Limited to ferromagnetic materials. ‘* Surface discontinuities that are parallel to the magnetic field will not produce indications because they do not interrupt or distort the magnetic field. * Discontinuities may go undetected when improper contact exists between the magnetic particles and the part surface. ‘+ Foreign material not removed prior to testing may cause an invalid test. * Parts may need to be disassembled. * The ability to locate discontinuities below the surface is determined by the depth, size, type and shape of the discontinuity, as well as the strength of the applied field and type of current. + Objects with large cross sections require a very high current to generate an adequate magnetic field.© Questionable magnetic particle indications for surface anomalies can be verified by liquid penetrant testing. ‘© Where the general direction of a discontinuity is questionable, it may be necessary to magnetize in two or more directions. * Visible or fluorescent particles must produce a contrast color when evaluated against the surface of the part. © Demagnetization of parts is usually required. * While performing MT prior to and during welding operations, if not using AC, demagnetization may be necessary so as not to interfere with subsequent welding operations. This is a very important precaution during welding. Failure to demagnetize can impair future operations. * Confined to evaluation of indications open to the surface. * Serious structural or dimensional damage to the part can result from the improper use of acids or alkalies. They should never be used unless approval is obtained. * Foreign material may interfere with the ability of the penetrant to enter into and be retained in the discontinuity. * Surface preparations such as vapor blasting, honing, grinding or sanding may obliterate possible indications by masking surface discontinuities, thereby restricting the reliability of PT. * Assemblies that are joined by bolting, riveting, intermittent welding or press fittings will retain the penetrant, which seeps out after developing and masks the adjoining surfaces. OO * A quick and reliable test that provides a thorough examination for indications open to the surface. * Effectively used on ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic materials. * Easy to use and can be easily mapped. * Equipment is easily portable and can be used during in-process control for both ferrous and nonferrous weldments. * Can be used on most nonporous materials. * Sensitive to small cracks; provides a visual picture of the crack. * Normally used during inservice overhaul or troubleshooting to detect fatigue damage or production problems. + Can locate very small indications with proper choice of PT equipment. * Inexpensive surface testing of parts to minimize test object failure. * Using PT after the application of certain types of chemical film coatings may invalidate a test due to the covering or filling of the discontinuities. + Trapped penetrant solution may present a cleaning or removal problem. + Chemical cleaning operations immediately before the application of liquid penetrant may contaminate the part and seriously affect test results. * Structural damage may result from exposure of high-strength steels to paint strippers, alkaline-coating removers and deoxidizer solutions, among others. * Certain castings may have surfaces that are blind and from which removal of excess penetrant may be difficult * The geometric configuration (recesses, orifices and flanges) of a casting may permit buildup of wet developer, thereby masking any detection of a discontinuity.* Thorough, proper cleaning of the part surface is essential before penetrant inspection takes place. * When a part is to be inspected with visible dye penetrant, fluorescent penetrant should not be used for any further inspections since it is impossible to remove all the visible dye from the part. This condition will affect the fluorescence of the fluorescent penetrant. * When parts are dried in a hot-air dryer or by similar means, excessive drying temperatures should be avoided to prevent evaporation of penetrant. * Penetrant materials should not be used on parts that have smeared, blurred or blended due to manufacturing processes. * Items that have been degreased may still have solvent entrapped in the discontinuity and should be allowed sufficient time for evaporation prior to penetrant application. Materials or parts that will eventually be used in LOX systems must be tested with LOX-compatible penetrants. Parts must be post-cleaned to prevent corrosion caused by moisture of developer. Bleedout should be closely monitored once developer is applied. In the preparation, application and final cleaning of parts, extreme care must be exercised to prevent overspraying and contamination of the surrounding parts. Solvents used to clean a part must be given enough time to evaporate before the application of liquid penetrant. Areas such as grease fittings, bearing races or other similar items that might be damaged or clogged by the bath or by the particles should be masked before testing. ee A discontinuity is any intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical structure or configuration of a part. Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process by which discontinuities are located. As part of the NDT process, evaluation criteria are applied to determine if the discontinuities that are discovered may or may not affect the usefulness of the part. Indications (responses to a nondestructive test) are classified as false, nonrelevant or relevant. * A false indication is an indication produced by something other than a discontinuity; many times a false indication arises from improper handling procedures. * Anonrelevant indication is an indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that is not rejectable. A nonrelevant indication may also result from a misapplied test or may be an indication that is too small to be considered relevant. Nonrelevant indications usually result from intentional interruptions in a part such as a change in section geometry, thickness or hardness, or by a physical condition that is not a discontinuity. * Areleyant indication is the result of an actual discontinuity and must be evaluated by a qualified inspector to determine the severity of the discontinuity. Finding and evaluating relevant indications at an early stage is a critical step in preventing discontinuities from becoming more serious, causing system or catastrophic failure, while the intended part or component is in service.This module summarizes the characteristics of various types of relevant indications which result from discontinuities that may be detected by magnetic particle testing (MT) and/or liquid penetrant testing (PT). Capabilities and limitations of MT and/or PT when applied for the detection of a specific discontinuity are shown. The discontinuities in this module are divided into four categories: inherent, primary processing, secondary processing and service. * Inherent discontinuities originate from the solidification of cast or molten metal. Inherent discontinuities may also have their origin in other bulk consolidation methods, such as press and sinter, as well as composites. * Primary processing discontinuities arise from the hot or cold working of an ingot into forgings, rod and bar, pipe and tube, and from welding. As with inherent discontinuities, primary processing discontinuities may be found in composite materials, as well. » Secondary processing discontinuities stem from secondary processes and finishing operations such as machining, grinding, heat treatment and plating. © Service-induced discontinuities are caused during the use of the part. The discontinuities discussed in the following sections are only some of the many hundreds that are associated with various industrial products. DODDODNDDDDD000 This group of discontinuities occurs during the initial melting and refining processes (ingots) and during solidification from the molten state (castings). Such discontinuities are present before rolling or forging is performed to produce intermediate shapes. MT and/or PT is recommended for the following inherent discontinuities: * Blowholes and porosity Cold shuts Hot tears Nonmetallic inclusions (MT only) Shrinkage (microshrinkage) Shrinkage cracksBlowholes and Porosity Description: Found mostly in steel and other metals poured into ingot molds. Location in Part: Surface and internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Gas porosity takes the form of more or less spherical voids or bubbles that form within the cast metal. Blowholes are small holes similar to porosity. Neat-surface blowholes appear as seams after rolling, forging or extrusion. Oxidized blowholes in the interior of slabs appear as laminations in plate products. Metallurgical Analysis: As molten steel is poured into an ingot and solidification commences, there is an accumulation of gases. These gases rise through the liquid in the form of bubbles and many escape or migrate to the cropped portion of the ingot. However, some gases can be trapped in the ingot, forming Using ME Appearance: Blowholes are rounded cavities fattened, elongated or spherical) and may appear as seams in the rolled ingot. Deep blowholes that are not rolled shut may appear as laminations. Porosity is not clearly defined using MT since indications are neither strong nor pronounced Limitation: Only surface porosity will be evident. Recommendations: 1. Direct current and half-wave direct current magnetization are effective in detection of inherent discontinuities, including blowholes. 2.AC magnetization is very effective for surface anomalies. Precaution: Fluorescent particles should be used but may produce an unacceptable background. blowholes. Most blowholes are clean and welded or fused shut during primary and secondary rolling. Surface blowholes can be caused when molten metal comes into contact with sand molds and the water in the sand is released as steam. Using PT Appearance: * Porosity: Surface-connected porosity produces rounded cavities (flattened, elongated or spherical) that are normally less than three times as long as wide. Liquid penetrant indications of gas holes are round blobs of rich color or fluorescence. * Blowholes: In the inherent stage, blowholes are rounded indications, similar to porosity, with significant penetrant bleedout. With further processing, blowholes may become elongated and appear as seams in the rolled ingot. Deep blowholes that are not rolled shut may appear as laminations after becoming elongated in the rolling operation. (Continued on next page.)Rational Porosity in light alloy castings is often open to the surface and readily revealed by PT. Advantages: 1. Blowholes and other cavities open to the surface make good reservoirs for penetrant during dwell time and therefore frequently provide strong indications. 2.Can detect blowholes and porosity open to the surface with better detection than MT of rounded indications. Limitations: 1. Any cavity rolled shut may not be detectable by PT. 2.Arough cast surface may cause excessive background that will mask indications. 3. Blowholes and porosity may not be an issue with further processing as the discontinuity may be welded or fused shut, making evaluation difficult. DO000000000 Recommendations: 1. Radiography may be employed to determine if there is a detrimental amount of porosity present 2. Fluorescent post-emulsified penetrants will produce the best results for blowholes open to the surface. Precautions: 1. Over-emulsification may produce weak indications or no evidence of blowholes. 2.Processing with fluorescent penetrants may produce an unacceptable background. ‘erformed during in-process control. Liquid penetrant indications of porosity, shrinkage and a fusion line misalign/crack in a magnesium casting. (Krauser) cent indications of aluminum casting using uNDescription: Found in ferrous and nonferrous cast material. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally appear as smooth indentations on the cast surface and may resemble a forging lap. Metallurgical Analysis: Produced during the casting of molten metal. Cold shuts may result from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring or the meeting of two streams of metal coming from different directions. Cold shuts are also caused by the solidification of one surface before other metal flows over it; the presence of interposing surface films on cold, sluggish metal; or any factor that prevents fusion where two surfaces meet. Cold shuts are more prevalent in castings formed in a mold having several sprues or gates. They are also more prevalent in magnesium castings than aluminum because of the speed with which magnesium sets. Surface cold shut. Intemal cold shut. MOQDODORDODDO00N0 Appearance: Magnetic particle indications of cold shuts are similar to those of cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges. Advantage: Can be used to evaluate surface and near-surface cold shuts in ferrous materials. Precaution: False (or nonrelevant) indications due to the metallurgical structure of 431 corrosion-resistant steel can be mistaken for cold shuts or cracks. These indications arise from a duplex structure within the material, wherein one portion exhibits strong magnetic retentivity and the other does not. Appearance: Cold shuts appear as smooth, regular, continuous or intermittent lines. Advantage: Can be used to evaluate surface cold shuts in both ferrous and nonferrous materials. Limitation: Cold shuts may be difficult to evaluate due to the surface being intermittently fused and not open to the surface. P-ecaution: Depending on the vendor, liquid penetrants used to test nickel-based alloys, stainless steels and titanium should not contain more than 1% sulfur or chlorine.‘Typical hot tears Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous castings. Location in Part: Internal or near surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Appear as a ragged line of variable width and numerous branches. May occur individually or in groups Metallurgical Analysis: Hot tears or cracks are caused by nonuniform cooling resulting in stresses that rupture the surface of the metal while its temperature is still in the brittle range. Tears may originate where stresses are set up by the more rapid cooling of thin sections that adjoin heavier masses of metal, which are slower to cool. Appearance: Sharp, jagged linear indication with branching possible. May also be intermittent Advantage: Hot tears that are exposed to the surface can be screened with MT. Precautions: 1. Configuration and metallurgical composition of part may make demagnetization difficult. 2.Although MT can detect near-surface hot tears, RT should be used for final analysis. 3. Foreign material embedded in the tear may cause an invalid test but should still produce an indication in most circumstances (due to different permeability). ina casting Close-up view of hot tears in above part. 4 Using PT Appearance: Sharp, linear indication, either continuous or intermittent. Advantage: PT is recommended for nonferromagnetic cast material. Precaution: The use of fluorescent penetrant on rough surface castings may produce a high degree of| background. Hot tears in the fillet of a casting 15Nonmetallic Inclusions Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous ingots and in rolled material. Commonly known as “stringers” when the billet is rolled into bar stock. Also found in welds and mold material in castings. Location in Part: Typically subsurface. May become exposed to surface during machining. Characteristics/Appearance: During refining, additives to the molten metal may collect to form large clumps as the ingot solidifies. After working, nonmetallic inclusions appear as short, straight, thin indications that may be numerous, intermittent, well dispersed or found in heavily concentrated bands. Inclusions can become stress risers in forged parts because of their discontinuous nature. Metallurgical Analysis: Caused by oxides, sulfides or other refractory materials and Using MT arance: Typically, inclusions are aay worked, causing them to deform into elongated shapes and to appear in jongitudinal sections as stringers or streaks. In transverse cross sections, the shape of the inclusion is more globular or flat. Stringers are typically subsurface, semicontinuous straight lines parallel to the length of the bar stock. Advantage: Can be used to evaluate surface and near-surface nonmetallic inclusions in ferromagnetic materials. Limitation: Will have some ability to detect near-surface inclusions and stringers in ferromagnetic materials only. impurities that are entrapped in the molten metal as it solidifies in the ingot mold. They are normally lighter than the metal and the majority of inclusions and slag rise to the top while the metal is still in the liquid state. Most of this material is removed during cropping operations. Nonmetallic inclusions, when further processed, can produce laminations, seams and cracks in finished material. Inclusions in wrought product elongated through rolling and discovered at weld upset at juncture of two rails. Magnetic particle indications are in web next to weld. (HB-MT)3 a appears at the gate of the casting, although it kage (Microshrinkage) oleae enee iene Ua FoaN Description: Found in cast materials; a thin section into a thicker section of a casting. magnesium is especially prone to What is of concern is the amount of time it microshrinkage due to density. Also found in _takes to cool large ingots of metal. ferrous castings and other nonferrous castings. Location in Part: Internal, unless machined surfaces open internal cavities. a) Characteristics/Appearance: Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appear as concentrated porosity in cross section. Metallurgical Analysis: Shrinkage occurs while the metal is in a semi-molten state. If sufficient molten metal cannot flow into different areas, as it cools the shrinkage will leave a void. The Void is identified by its appearance and by the time spent between the liquid to solid phases. Microshrinkage is caused by the withdrawal of the low melting point constituent from the grain boundaries. Microshrinkage usually Shrinkage in casting using PT. (Krauser) 18 Using PT Rationale: Microshrinkage is prevalent in many Appearance: Depends on the plane through cast materials. MT may be used to test which the microshrinkage has been cut. The shrinkage and microshrinkage in ferrous appearance varies from a continuous hairline to castings, a massive porous indication. Limitation: Not an applicable testing method Advantage: Normally used on finished for nonferrous cast material. machined surfaces. Limitation: Microshrinkage is not normally open to the surface. If machining brings the microshrinkage to the surface, it can be detected by PT. Precaution: Orientation of the microshrinkage could give a false impression of size. ‘ Micrograph of 2. shrinkage crack area.‘Shrinkage Cracks Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous castings. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Shrinkage cracks are sharp, clean-cut indications that usually appear in groups. In some cases, a very fine branchlike pattern can be observed Metallurgical Analysis: Shrinkage cracks develop during the cooling of solidified metal as a result of the great contraction that occurs during the cooling process. This contraction causes tensile stress, which may result in the rupture of the metal. Shrinkage cracks are concentrated where there is a change in cross sections because thinner areas solidify and cool faster than thicker cross sections. = Appearance: Sharp, branchlike pattern or very pronounced indications in a grouplike appearance. Limitations: 1. Shrinkage cracks should be open to the surface to be detected. 2. Near-surface shrinkage cracks may not be detected. 20 Intermittent casting discontinuity in magnesium cast case using PT before rework. (Krauser) Using PT Appearance: Generally well-defined sharp, linear indication, either continuous or intermittent Limitation: Shrinkage cracks must be open to the surface or be near surface. Recommendation: Visible or fluorescent penetrants may be used to evaluate shrinkage cracks. Accumulation of magnetic particles indicating a shrink crack. (GD-MT)Casting discontinuity as seen visually. (Krauser) This group of dis treating. MT and/or PT is r Bursts Cupping Flash line cracks/tears Forging laps Hydrogen flake (MT only) Inclusions (stringers) Laminations Seams Seams (rolled threads) Unfused porosity (PT only) Processing Discontinuities ontinuities is found or produced by forming or fabrication operations — both primary and secondary — including rolling, forging, welding, machining, grinding and heat mmended for the following processing discontinuities Arc strikes Heat affected zone cracking Inclusions (welding) (MT only) Lack of penetration Porosity (gas) (PT only) Surface shrinkage cracks Undercut (PT only) Grinding cracks Heat-treat cracks Machining tears 23Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous forgings and other processed material. Location in Part: Surface or internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Straight or irregular cavities varying in size from wide ‘open to very tight. Usually parallel with the grain. Found in wrought material that has been forged, rolled or extruded. Metallurgical Analysis: Forging bursts are ruptures caused by processing at too low a temperature, excessive working or excessive metal movement during forging, rolling or extruding operations. A burst does not have a spongy appearance and, therefore, is distinguishable from pipe — a cavity near the top of a mold — even when it occurs at the center, Bursts are often large and are very seldom healed during subsequent working. Visible dye Indications of surface bursts in steel forging. (GD-PT) PT indication of forging burst. (GD-PT) 24 Appearance: A straight indication or irregularly shaped, rounded indication. Advantage: Usually used on wrought ferromagnetic material in which the burst is open to the surface or has been exposed to the surface. Limitation: Results are limited to surface and near-surface evaluation. Internal burst in bolt. Appearance: Bursts will be linear and branch or will be chevron shaped. Limitation: Not normally used. Burst must be open to the surface. Bursts can be open at the surface if the surface temperature is incorrect or internal if the internal temperature is incorrect Internal burst in forged bar. (CT-MT)Description: Found in extrusions. Also known as “chevron cracking.” Location in Part: Internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Cupping appears as a series of internal ruptures. An internal, frequently large discontinuity. Chevron cracking in a machined or cross-sectioned part should be visually evident. Metallurgical Analysis: During drawing or extruding operations, cupping occurs when the interior of the metal does not flow as rapidly as the surface. Illustration of cross section of bar showing severe cupping formed during drawing or extruding. (HB-MT-2) Cupping appears as a series of uniform indications known as “chevron marks.” Limitations: 1. Cupping can be detected by the magnetic particle method when it is severe and approaches the surface. 2. Limited to near-surface and surface discontinuities. MT is unable to detect subsurface cupping. Recommendation: For the identification of a typically internal discontinuity, such as cupping, a volumetric method such as UT or RT is recommended. 7 Subsurface Discontinuities Magnetic particle tests can be used to locate specific types of subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials depending, among other factors, on the * type of it + kind of ing current * depth and orientation of the discontinuity ‘+ dimensions and shape of the test , object. Dry particles reveal only major linear discontinuities, such as shrinkage cracks and incomplete penetration, to a depth of 6 mm (0.25 in. With the wet technique, the maximum depth below the surface is 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) based on empirical data and varying with the type and size of discontinuity.Description: Found Location in Part: Surface. ferrous forged material. Characteristics /Appearance: Linear type indications. Metallurgical Analysis: As the dies close in the final stage of the forging process, excess metal is extruded into the space at the junction between the top and bottom dies. This extruded metal is called flash and must be _ = removed by trimming. Cracking and tearing me occur during the improper removal of flash, Fluorescent penetrant indications of lsh ines an laps in When cracking occurs, it is always along and ‘9/795 of actuator arms. (HB-PT) within the trimming marks. DOOD0O00000 SD oor cic and nonteromagncte ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic materials Appearance: Linear or crack-like indications. Rationale: Reliably detected by MT. Magnetic particle tests are often used for ferromagnetic forgings to detect surface indications. Recommendation: A combination of alternating current and half-wave current or indirect magnetization will prove useful in the detection of processing discontinuities, including flash line tears in forgings. Appearance: Cracks usually are linear and makes fluorescent liquid penetrant a good choice for detecting surface-breaking cracks. Recommendation: Fluorescent penetrants should be used to produce bright linear indications. Precautions: 1.Some linear indications may appear as intermittent linear indications. 2.When a test object is worked by grinding, pening, forging or machining, portions of the discontinuity on the surface may be closed or removed. irregular rather than straight. Scratches and die marks appear in a variety of linear patterns but are recognizable when all penetrant traces are removed since the bottom of the discontinuity is usually visible. 29‘Forging Laps Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous forgings. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Wavy lines, usually not very pronounced or tightly adherent because they typically enter the surface at a small angle. Laps may have surface openings that have been smeared closed. Forging laps are found in forgings, plate, tubing, bar and rod. Metallurgical Analysis: Similar to seams, forging laps may result from improper rolling, forging or sizing operations. During the processing of the material, corners may be folded over or an overfill may exist during sizing that results in material being flattened but not fused into the surface. Laps may occur on any part of the item. Appearance: May appear as straight, spiral or slightly curved indications. May be either individual or clustered and either continuous or intermittent. Advantage: Surface and near-surface laps may be detected by MT. Precautions: 1. Nonrelevant magnetic indications may result from threads. 2. Magnetic buildup of laps may be very small; therefore, a magnetizing current greater than that used for the detection of cracks may be necessary. 3. Correct magnetizing technique should be used because the discontinuity may or may not be parallel to the surface. 30 Forging Magnetic particles attracted to the flux leakage of a forging lap, probably caused by poor die design. (Go-M1) Using PT Appearance: Indications are circumferential, slightly curved and either intermittent or continuous. Laps may occur individually or in clusters. Limitations: 1. Laps may be very tight and difficult to detect. 2. Surface of threads may be smeared due to rolling operation, thereby sealing off laps. Recommendation: PT of laps is improved slightly by heating the part before applying penetrant. Visible dye indication of forging lap in part. (GD-PT) 31Description: Found in ferrous material. Location in Part: Internal fissures. Characteristics/Appearance: Hydrogen flakes appear as internal fissures in a fractured surface; flakes appear as bright silvery areas. eames On an etched surface, they appear as short discontinuities. Sometimes known as “chrome checks” and “hairline cracks” when revealed by machining. Flakes are extremely thin and are generally aligned parallel with the grain. They etal ay found in heavy steel forgings, billets Han fing reece for presence of hope ts, ms Metallurgical Analysis: Flakes are internal fissures attributed to stresses produced by localized transformation and decreased solubility of hydrogen during cooling after hot working. Usually found only in heavy alloy steel forgings. O0G0oood Appearance: Flakes appear as short discontinuities sometimes referred to as “chrome checks” or “hairline cracks.” Limitation: Because of their positioning, hydrogen flakes are not detectable by magnetic particle testing unless machining brings them near the surface. Recommendation: Fluorescent magnetic particles are normally used on finished machined parts. Precaution: Machined surfaces with deep tool marks may obliterate the detection of the flake. 32 33Inclusions (Stringers) Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous forged, extruded and rolled material. Commonly known as “stringers” when a billet is rolled into bar stock and inclusions become elongated. Also found in slag in welds and mold material in castings. Location in Part: Subsurface (original bar) or surface (after machining). Characteristics/Appearance: There are two types: 1) nonmetallic with long, straight lines parallel to flow lines and quite tightly adherent, often short and likely to occur in groups; 2) nonplastic, appearing as a comparatively large mass not parallel to flow lines. Metallurgical Analysis: Nonmetallic inclusions (stringers) are caused by the existence of slag or oxides in the billet or ingot. Nonplastic inclusions are caused by particles remaining in the solid state as billets are worked from ingots. Certain types of steels are more prone to inclusions than others. Steel forging showing ‘numerous inclusions Micrograph of typical SLs inclusion. Using MT Appearance: Indications appear jagged, irregularly shaped, individually or clustered, and not too pronounced. Limitation: May be difficult to detect small, rounded inclusions with MT due to the flux taking the path of least resistance around the rounded discontinuity. Recommendation: Fluorescent magnetic particles are used to find surface and SEEEEES near-surface discontinuities. Longitudinal cross section showing orientation of inclusions, Using PT Limitation: PT is not normally used for detecting inclusions in wrought material. Inclusions are generally not open to the material surface. PT may be used if machining exposes this type of discontinuity. ‘Typical inciusion pattern on machined surfaOTC O00, ee Laminations Description: Laminations are flattened impurities that are extremely thin. Found in plate and sheet metal, as well as forgings. Location in Part: Surface and internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally aligned parallel to the work surface of the ianrainn neta material. May contain a thin film of oxide (0.25 in) plate. between surfaces. Found in forged, extruded and rolled material. Metallurgical Analysis: Laminations are separations or weaknesses that may be the result of elongated pipe, blisters, seams, inclusions or segregations that are made directional by rolling. This results in weak metal bonds that are usually aligned parallel to the major work direction in the metal. Lamination in plate showing surface orientation, Using PT Appearance: Straight, intermittent indications. Appearance: Continuous line indication. Rationale: Ferromagnetic materials are Precautions: normally tested for laminations by MT methods. _ Machining, honing, lapping or blasting may Limitations: smear the surface of the material and thereby lose or mask surface laminations. 2. The use of acids or alkalies to etch the surface, removing smeared metal, will require thorough leaning to remove any residual etchant from the anomaly or surface of the part. 1.MT is not capable of determining the overall size or depth of the lamination. 2.MT will reveal laminations only if they are present on a side surface of the material Visible dye indication of a lamination. (GD-PT) 37Seams Description: Found mostly in bar stock. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics /Appearance: Well defined, straight and parallel to the direction of the metal flow. Lengthy, often quite deep, and sometimes very tight. Usually occur in parallel fissures with the grain and, at times, spiral when associated with rolled rod and tubing. Metallurgical Analysis: Seams originate from blowholes, cracks, splits and tears that are introduced during earlier processing and elongated in the direction of rolling, forging or extruding. The distance between adjacent interfaces of the discontinuity is very small. Serious stress risers may be rejectable depending on depth, area in which they are present and the intended use of the product. Using MT cally oxidized surface, a rm a very tight, usually Appearan m may nd near-surface seams this method. Advantage: Seam indication caused by lengthening of surface crack found in parent material. (CT-M1) Processing discontinuity in extruded rod used in the manufacture of aircraft components. A seam (thin green line) vas created when the rod was extruded. The seam is the total length of the rod — approximately 0.9 m (3 ft). (Moore) Using PT Appearance: Indication lines are usually quite straight, easy to recognize and in the longitudinal direction. Effects of Temperature he standard temperature range for pet testing is 10 to 38 °C (50 to 100 “F). Colder temperatures will increase the viscosity of th penetrant and slow the capillary action. So specifications allow temperatures of 4.4 to 65.5 °C (40 to 150 “F) but require doubling the dwell time for temperatures below 10 “C (50 °F). Temperatures higher than approved may cause the penetrant to dry and reduce sensitivity. Some specifications allow special, high-temperature materials that are available for temperatures up to 177 °C (350 F) High-temperature materials require special procedures, training and certification. 39Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous, rolled threads and rolled bars. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics /Appearance: In rolled threads, appear as wavy lines, often quite deep, and sometimes very tight, as hairline cracks. Found in the minor pitch and major diameter of the thread and in the direction of rolling. Metallurgical Analysis: During rolling operations, faulty or oversized dies, or an overfill of material, may cause material to be folded over and flattened into the surface of the thread but not fused. DOO 000000 00HHHHHE Appearance: indications may be straight, spiral or slightly curved. They may be either individual or clustered and either continuous or intermittent. Advantage: Surface and near-surface seams may be detected by this method. Recommendation: Magnetic buildup at seams is very small; therefore, a magnetizing current greater than that used for cracks is necessary. Precaution: Nonrelevant magnetic indications may result from threads. Appearance: Indications are not usually Grcumnferential but are in the direction of rolling or working. Typically longitudinally oriented, slightly curved and either intermittent or continuous. Seams may occur individually or in clusters. Limitation: Seams may be very tight and difficult to detect. Recommendation: Test can be improved slightly by heating the item before applying penetrant. Precaution: Surface of threads may be smeared saeseeacesaiaaiaeecetusssccisscsuuuunmmnnnni roling indication of a. me 41 operation, thereby sealing off seams.Description: Found in aluminum. Location in Part: Internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Wafer-thin fissures aligned parallel with the grain flow. Found in wrought aluminum that has been rolled, forged or extruded. Metallurgical Analysis: Unfused porosity is attributed to porosity in the cast ingot. During rolling, forging or extruding operations, it is $B mm (0.128 In) a aah flattened into wafer-thin shape. If the internal surfaces of these discontinuities are oxidized or are composed of foreign material, they will not fuse during the subsequent processing, which results in an extremely thin interface or void. 42 Ce Appearance: A straight line of varying lengths running parallel to the grain. Rationale: Normally used on nonferromagnetic, machined parts. tured part showing in porosity. Unfused porosity. a3Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Situated on the surface of the base metal where a welder has momentarily touched an arc-welding electrode to start the arc, resulting in a localized weld. Arc strikes can be prevented by using a scrap piece of metal as a starting tab or by using a high-frequency arc starter. Metallurgical Analysis: Arc strikes can cause failure of the affected material. These failures initiate at abnormal structural conditions or soundness produced in the arc strike. Arc strikes often harbor minute cracks, porosity, hard zones and chemical heterogeneity. Surface arc strike. (EPRI) 44 Appearance: May appear as a fuzzy or porous discontinuity. Precautions: 1.If no void or permeability change is apparent, the discontinuity may not be detected. 2.May be overlooked; should be detectable by visual examination. Appearance: May appear as a wide or rounded discontinuity. Should be detectable by visual examination. Limitation: Penetrant materials will only show arc strikes on the surface of the part. 48Description: Found during welding of ferrous and nonferrous material Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics /Appearance: This type of cracking is often quite deep and very tight. It usually runs parallel with the weld in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the weldment. Metallurgical Analysis: Hot cracking of the HAZ of weldments increases in severity with increasing carbon content. Steels that contain more than 0.3% carbon are prone to this type of failure and require preheating prior to welding. Cracks in the HAZ are caused by high restraint of the joints and improper electrode control. HAZ cracking on thin material on the back side of filet. (Krauser) DODDDOQDGR0DON0oE Appearance: Usually parallel to the weld bead. Rationale: Heat affected zone cracking on the surface of the part is easily detected by MT. Precautions: 1. Demagnetization of highly heat-treated parts can be very difficult due to metallurgical structure 2.Prod burns are very detrimental, especially on highly heat-treated parts. Burns may contribute to the structural failure of the test part. Appearance: Continuous line indication. Precaution: Before using penetrant materials on the heat affected zone, the surface should be thoroughly cleaned pa eee Micrograph of a crack in the heat affected zone of a arInclusions (Welding) Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Inclusions may be any shape; however, tungsten inclusions are generally round. Inclusions may be metallic or nonmetallic and may appear individually or be linearly distributed or scattered throughout the weldment. The most common are slag and tungsten inclusions. Metallurgical Analysis: Metallic inclusions are generally particles of metals of different density as compared to the density of the weld or base metal. Nonmetallic inclusions are oxides, sulfides, slag or other nonmetallic foreign material entrapped in the weld or between the weld metal and the base metal, Slag inclusions are generally created by molten fluxes Using MT Appearance: Slag inclusions may be straight intermittent or continuous indications typically running along the toe of the weld. Limitations: Tungsten inclusions are typically rounded indications and may be hard to detect with MT. 2.Confined to weldments where the discontinuities are surface or near surface 3. Normally not used for detecting inclusions in weldments. Recommendation: The magnetizing technique should be such that a surface or near-surface inclusion can be satisfactorily detected when its axis is in any direction. employed in arc welding operations. In multilayer welding operations, failure to remove slag between passes can result in slag inclusions in these zones. Tungsten inclusions generally ‘occur when particles of tungsten electrodes are transferred into the weld deposit. Photomacrograph of a slag inclusion. (EPRI) 48 49