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    9 views8 pages

    NSC9&10

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    Abraham Gadissa

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    9.10 PRACTICE SET Review Questions 1._ Distinguish between a prime and a composite integer. 1, A positive integer is a prime if and only if itis exactly divisible by two integers, 1 and itself. A composite is a positive integer with more than two divisors. 3. Define the following functions and their application: a. a(n) function 'b, Euler's totient function 3 ‘a, The function x(n) finds the number of primes smaller than or equal to. b. Euler’s phi-function, 6(n), which is sometimes called the Euler's totient fune- tion, finds the number of integers that are both smaller than 1 and relatively prime to n. 5. Define Fermat's litle theorem and explain its application. '5. We discussed two versions of Fermat’s little theorem. The first version says that if Pisa prime and a is an integer such that p does not divide a, then we have a?" ‘(mod p). The second Version removes the condition on a. It says that if p is a prime and a isan integer, then a” = a (mod p). Two immediate applications of this, ‘theorem is to find solutions to exponentiation and multiplicative inverses when t ‘modulus is a prime. 7. What are Mersenne primes? What are Fermat primes? A. Mersenne defined the formula M, = 27 — 1 that was supposed to enumerate all primes. However, not all Mersenne numbers ae primes. b. Fermat defined the formula F,~22""+ 1 that was supposed to enumerate all primes. However, nt all Fetmat’s numbers are primes. 9. List some algorithms for factorization of primes. ision, Fermat, Polard p ~ 1, Polard rho, quadratic sieve, ‘9, We mentioned the trial-i ‘and number field sieve. 11, Define quadratic congruence and the importance of QRs and QNRs in solving quadratic equations, 11, A quadratic congruence is an equations ofthe form ayx2 + a,x + ay =0 (mod mn this text, we have limited our discussion to equations ofthe form 32 = a (mod m). In this equation ais called a quadratic residue (QR) if the equation has two solu- tions; a is called quadratic nonresidue (QNR) if the equation has no solutions. 13, Using approximation, find a the number of primes between 100,000 and 200,000. '. the number of composite integers between 100,000 and 200,000. ‘the ratio of the primes to composites in the above range and compare it to the ‘same between 1 t0 10. B. a. The number of primes between 100,000 and 200,000 can be found as (200,000) — (100,000). Using the upper and lower limits devised by Gauss and Lagrange, we have 16385 < n(200,000) < 1798S > (200,000) = 17200 8688 < (100,000) < 9887 > =(100,000) = 9138 (200,000) x(100,000) ~ 17200-9138 ~ 8062 b. The number of composites between 100,000 and 200,000 is 100,000 ~ 8062 ~ 91938 « The ratio of primes to composites in the above range is 806291938 or approxi mately 8.77 perent. Ths ratio for numbers betwen Ito 10 (without considering 1 and 10) 4/4 oF 100 percent 15, Show that every prime is either in the form 4k + | or 4k +3, where k is positive integer. 15, When an integer is divided by 4 the remainder is ether 0, 1,2, or 3. This means that an integer can be written as (4k +0), (4 +1), (4K +2), oF (4k +3), in which & is the quotient. An integer in the form (4k + 0) or 4k is not a prime because it i, divisible by 4. An integer in the form (4k + 2) can be a prime only if k= 0 (the inte- er is 2 and it isthe first prime). The other two forms, (4k + 1) and (4k + 3), can represent a prime or a composite. This means that any prime can be either inthe form of (44+ 1) or (4k +3). However, this does not mean that any integer in one of these forms isa prime. 17, Find the value of 929), 0(32), (80), 6(100), (101), =28 (29isa prime) —24=16 (isa primey at 23)x(5!—59)=8x4 =32 (and S are primes) a. 6(29) = 29 - b. 6(32)= 625) = e. $(80) = (24S! 4. 4100) = 922 5%) = 2? 24) (SP Sh)=24 20 = 40 and ¢. {101)=101=1=100 (01 isa primes) wre primes) 19, ‘There is a conjecture that every integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of ‘two primes. Check this conjecture for 10, 24, 28, and 100, 19, We have (10=3 +7), (24= 1 + 13), (28=11 + 17), and (100= 11 +89). 21, Find the results of the Following, using Fermat's little theorem: a. 5! mod 13, b. 15!® mod 17 456"? mod 17 . 145! mod 101 a. (5!S mod 13) = [(5* mod 13) x (5'? mod 13)] mod 13. = [(-l.mod 13) ($ mod 13)] mod 13 = -S mod 13 =8 mod 13, b. (15"* mod 17) = [(15 mod 17) « (15'7 mod 17)] mod 17. (vod 17) x (-2 mod 17) mod (456"7 mod 17) = (486 mod 17) a (145! mod 101) = (148! mod 101) x (145 mod 101)] mod 101 = [145 145] mod 101 = [44 44] mod 101 = 17 mod 101, 23. Find the results of the following, using Euler's theorem: a 12° mod 77 b. 16"! mod 323 c, 207' mod 403 4. 44°! mod 667 ‘Note that 77 = 7 x 11,323 = 17x 19, 403=31 x 13, and 667 = 23 x 29, 0-1 mod 23, We know that ifm is an integer, x"! mod n 2007-1 mod 77 = 125° mod 7 127 mod 77. 16+ mod 323 = 164829)! mod 323 = 167 mod 323 = 101 mod 323 20-1 mod 403 = 2084) mod 403 = 20° mod 403 = 262 mod 403 44°" mod 667 = 4486 mod 667 = 44°! mod 667 = 379 mod 667 25. Write some examples to show that if2"— 1 isa prime, then isa prime. Can this fact be used for primality testing? Explain 25, It can be checked that if 2" ~ 1 is a prime, then m is a prime, However, there are some values of m for which 2" ~ 1 is a composite, but m is a prime (n = 1, for example), In other words, ifn isa prime, 2" ~ 1 may or may not be a prime; if" 1 isa prime, then m is a prime, This is to say that not all Mersenne numbers are primes, Since Mersenne’s idea cannot be used for primality test, the fact stated in this problem cannot be used for primality test. budsdsdeye 27. Determine how many of the following integers pass the Miller Rabin primality test: 100, 109, 201, 271, 341, 349, Use base 2 27, The flow in the Miller-Rabin algorithm may be better understood using the chart in Figure $9.27. We follow the chart in each case, Figure $9.27 Solution to Exercise 27 6 9 Camm > ra [Alla tested) Preloop = > T=2" mod 100-88 Loop is by-passed because k =0.-> Compos = 108 mod 109 =(-1) mod 109 1 ~> Pseudoprime (109 is actually a prime) 35 and k= 1 35 x2! m= > T=2 mod 271 = 1 mod 271 in the initialization step + Pseudoprime (271 is actually a prime) f mod 349 = 348 mod 349 = (-1) mod 349, Loop is broken because T= -1 > Pseudoprime (349 is actually a prime) g. n=2047 > 2047 1023 «2! > m= 1023 and k= 1 Preloop = > P= 2! mmo 2047 = 1 mod 2047 ‘T= +L inthe initialization step -> Pseudopime (but 2047 = 23 « 89) In this case, the test declares the integer 2047 as a pseudoprime, which is actu- ally a composite 10.9 PRACTICE SET Review Questions 1. Distinguish between symmetric-key and asymmetic-key cryptosystems. 1. Symmetric-key cryptography is based on sharing secrecy: asymmetric-key eryp- ‘ography is based on personal secrecy. 3. Define trapdoor one-way function and explain its use in asymmettic-key cryptography, 43. In cryptography, a trapdoor is a secret with which Bob can use a feasible algorithm to decrypt the ciphertext, If Eve does not know the trapdoor, she needs to use an algorithm which is normally infeasible. 5. Briefly explain the idea behind the RSA cryptosystem. a, What is the one-way function in this system? 'b. What is the trapdoor in this system? «. Define the public and private keys in this system. 4. Describe the security of this system. 5. RSA uses two exponents, ¢ and d, where ¢ is public and dis private. Alice caleu- lates C = P® mod nto create ciphertext C from plaintext P; Bob uses P = C4 mod n to rerieve the plaintext sent by Alice. a. The one-way function isthe C = P€ mod n. Given P and e, its easy to caeulate C; given C and ¢, it difficult to caleulate P ifm is very large 'b. The trapdoor in this system is the value of d, which enables Bob to use P = C4 ‘mod n «. The public key is the tuple (e, n). The private key is d 4. The security of RSA mainly depend on the factorization of n. I'm is very large, and the value of e and d are chosen properly, the system is secure. 1. Briefly explain the idea behind the ElGamal eryptosystem, ‘a, What is the one-way function in this system? 'b. What is the trapdoor inthis system? . Define the public and private keys in this system, 4. Describe the security of this system. 7. ElGamal is based on discrete logarithm problem. The plaintext is masked with e 1 ereate the ciphertext, Part of the mask is ereated by Bob and become publie; the ‘other partis created by Alice. ‘a, The one-way function is C = mask (P), Given P and the mask, it is easy to cal- ‘culate the C; given C is difficult to unmask P, b. The trapdoor is the value ofd that enables Bob to unmask C. c. The public key is (ey, ey and n). The private key isd. 4. The security of EIGamal depends on two points; p should be very large and Alice needs to select a new r for each encryption, 1. Given the superincreasing tuple b= [7, 11, 23, 43, 87, 173, 357], r=41, and modulus = 1001, encrypt and decrypt the letter “a” using the knapsack eryptosystem. Use [765123 4]as the permutation table. 11, We use the 7-bit representation of character "a" as the plaintext. Key Generation: 1 = [287, 451, 943, 762, $64, 86,623] > a = (623, 86, $64,287, 451, 943, 762] Encryption: Plaintext: x=[1,1,0,0,0,0,1] > Cipherext s= 1471 Decryption: $= (41-7, 1471) mod 1001 = 293 « 1471 mod 1001 = 573 0,0,1,0,1, 1] > Plaintext x={1, 1, 0,0,0,0, 1] 13, To understand the security of the RSA algorithm, find d if you know that e = 17 and n= 187. 13, n = 187 = 17 x 19 O(n) = 17 x 11 = 160 > d =e! mod o(n) = 113. This proves thatthe value of 1 in RSA must be very large. We could find d because we ‘could factorn, The modulus must be large enough to make the factorization infea- sible 15. In RSA, given e= 13 and n= 100 a, encrypt the message “HOW ARE YOU" using 00 to 25 for letters A to Zand 26 for the space. Use different blocks to make P

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