BEHAVIORIST THEORY

• Behaviorist theory, also known as behaviorism, is a psychological theory that focuses on observable behaviors
rather than internal mental processes.

•According to behaviorists, all behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment.

• Behaviorists believe that human behavior is shaped through conditioning, which involves associations between
stimuli and responses.

• Behaviourist psychology should concern itself with the observable behaviour of people and animals, not with
unobservable events that take place in their minds.

• According to this view, children learn words by associating objects, actions, and events.

• The theory can be summed up as LISTEN, IMITATE, RECEIVE A REWARD, REPEAT FOR RECALL.

• The main influences of behaviourist psychology were Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-
1949), John B. Watson (1878-1958), and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990).

• The idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that are not naturally occurring is called “classical
conditioning.” (Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936)

• Behaviourist researchers used experimental methods (puzzle box, operant conditioning or Skinner box, Little
Albert experiment) to investigate learning processes.

• Operant conditioning refers to how an organism operates on the environment or how it responds to what is
presented to it in the environment.

(Figure 2.12).
  Figure 2.12 Operant Conditioning.
 Reinforcement means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to any stimulus that strengthens
or increases the probability of a specific response.
 There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and extinction.
1. Positive reinforcement involves adding something in order to increase a response.
2. Negative reinforcement involves taking something negative away in order to increase a
response.
3. Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behaviour.
4. Extinction involves removing something in order to decrease a behaviour. By having something
taken away, a response is decreased.

Thorndike’s (1898) work with cats and puzzle boxes illustrates the concept of conditioning.
From his research with puzzle boxes, Thorndike was able to create his own theory of learning (1932):

1. Learning is incremental.
2. Learning occurs automatically.

3. All animals learn the same way.

4. Law of effect

5. Law of use

6. Law of disuse

7. Law of recency

8. Multiple response

9. Set or attitude

10. Prepotency of elements

11. Response by analogy

12. Identical elements theory of transfer

13. Associative shifting

14. Law of readiness

15. Identifiability

16. Availability

While a researcher at Harvard, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, popularly referred to
as the Skinner box (Figure 2.14), used to measure responses of organisms (most often rats and
pigeons) and their orderly interactions with the environment.
  Today, behaviourism is still prominent in applications such as gamification.

Gamification is the process of taking an ordinary activity (like jogging or car sharing) and adding game
mechanisms to it, including prompts, rewards, leader-boards, and competition between different players.

NATIVIST THEORY

Introduction

Nativist theory proposes that children are born with an innate capacity for language acquisition. (Noam Chomsky)

Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is the study of the processes by which a person learns a language.

LAD (Language Acquisition Device)

In the framework of nativism, language acquisition involves a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) or Universal
Grammar module. This hypothetical cognitive structure allows us to unconsciously grasp the grammar of any
language we're exposed to during our early years.

How do LAD functions?

Let's break down how the LAD supposedly works:

1.The child hears adult speech, which triggers the LAD.

2.The child automatically applies universal grammar to speech.

3.The child learns new vocabulary and applies the appropriate grammar rules.

4.The child is able to use the new language.

Universal Grammar Principles and Parameters

Universal Grammar principles include the idea that languages have a common underlying structure, such as
subject-verb-object order.

According to Universal Grammar theory, the basic grammatical structures of language are already encoded in
the human brain at birth.

Parameters, on the other hand, are settings within the universal grammar that get adjusted based on the specific
language being learned.

INTERACTIONIST THEORY

Argues that language developmemt is both BIOLOGICAL and SOCIAL. They also argue that language learning
is influenced by the desire of children to communicate with others.

INTERACTIONIST THEORY (COGNITIVE)

• The cognitive approach to language acquisition or the developmental cognitive theory of Jean Piaget.

• He beleived that children construct an understanding of the world around them, and experience discrepancies
between what they already know and what they discover in their environment, and adjust accordingly.

• Interactionist theory, within the cognitive perspective, emphasizes the role of both innate factors and
environmental influences in development.

• This theory combines elements of both nativist and behaviorist theories.

In his theory of Cognitive Development, Jean Piaget proposed that humans progress through 4 developmental
stages.

Developmental Stage Theory

1. Sensorimotor Stage

- extends from birth to the acquisition of language.

2. Pre-operational Stage

- starts when the child begins to learn to speak at age 2 and lasts up until the age of 7.

3. Concrete Stage

- occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years and is characteized by the appropriate use of logic.

4. Formal Operational Stage

- adolescence and into adulthood, roughly ages from 11 to approximately 15-20.

Contributions/Learning Application

Curriculums have the four stages of Piaget’s theory considered when the children reach a higher stage of
cognitive development.

• The sensorimotor stage allows children to play with new objects and implements routine into the structure in
which they are taught.

• Preoperational stage considers that children at this stage learn best by doing.

• A number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work.

• These strategies include:

~ providing a supportive environment,

~ utilizing social interactions and peer teaching,

~ and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking.

Criticism's/Problems

• A major source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children.
• The other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of high
socioeconomic status

• Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.

INTERACTIONIST THEORY (CONTEXTUAL)

INTERACTIONIST THEORY (CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE): A BROAD APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT

• This theory suggests that development is influenced by the ongoing interactions between a person's biological
characteristics, cognitive abilities, and the social and cultural context in which they live.

Vygotsky Sociolocultural Theory: Changes in thought with guidance.

• Interactionist theory, within the sociocultural perspective, emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in
development.

• This theory suggests that individuals acquire knowledge and skills through interactions with more
knowledgeable others within their social and cultural context.

Scaffolding the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the range of tasks that a learner can't accomplish alone but can
with guidance.

• Scaffolding occurs within the ZPD to help learners progress and eventually perform tasks independently.

BRONFENBENNER'S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

• Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory is a psychological and sociological framework that explains how
individuals develop within their environments.

BRONFENBENNER'S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model describes the ecological systems that influence human development.
It consists of several nested levels or systems, each with its own influence on an individual's development. These
levels, from the innermost to the outermost, are:

1. Microsystem

2. Mesosystem

3. Exosystem

4. Macrosystem

5. Chronosystem

LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Literacy Development refers to the process through which individuals acquire skills and abilities necessary for
reading, writing, and understanding language.

• Literacy is being able to read, write, listen, speak and create texts in a ways that allow us to communicate well
with others.

• Literacy is fundamental to all areas of learning, as it unlocks access to the wider curriculum.

• Progresses through various stages, including emergent, early, and fluent variety.

Five Stages Of Literacy Development

1. Emergent Literacy- This is the initial stage of literacy development. This phase is preliterate and usually lasts
until the child starts school.

2. Alphabetic Fluency- As the child grows older and more comfortable with learning their words and letters, they
enter the alphabetic fluency stage of literacy development.

3. Learning Words and Patterns- Sometimes referred to as the “transitional” stage of literacy development, the
words and patterns stage is when children begin to develop stronger reading skills.

4. Intermediate Reading- During the intermediate stage of literacy development, children begin to rely less on
educational crutches that help a child learn new words.

5. Advance Reading - As the last stage of literacy development, advanced reading is when children become fully
fluent and capable of relying on independent reading to learn new information.
What Can Affect Literacy Development?

1. Socioeconomic Factors

2. Home Environment

3. Language Exposure

4. Learning Disabilities

Supporting Developing Literacy Skills as a Parent/Caregiver:

1. Read Aloud

2. Create a Print-Rich Environment

3. Encourage Writing