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 Sylvia S. Mader | Michael Windelspecht

HUMAN BIOLOGY
Sixteenth Edition
For Students
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PREFACE

Goals of the Sixteenth Edition

Humans are a naturally inquisitive species. As children, we become fascinated with our bodies, and life in general, at a very early
age. We want to know how our bodies work, why there are differences, and similarities, between ourselves and the other children
around us. In other words, at a very early age, we are all biologists.
In many ways, today’s students in the science classroom face some of the same challenges their parents did decades ago.
The abundance of new terms often overwhelms even the best prepared student, and the study of biological processes and meth-
ods of scientific thinking may convince some students that “science isn’t their thing.” The study of human biology creates an
opportunity for teachers to instruct their students using the ultimate model organism—their own bodies. Whether this is their last
science class or the first in a long career in allied health, the study of human biology is pertinent to everyone.
There are also challenges that are unique to the modern classroom. Today’s students are being exposed, almost on a daily
basis, to exciting new discoveries and insights that, in many cases, were beyond our predictions even a few short years ago. It is
our task, as instructors, not only to make these findings available to our students, but to enlighten students as to why these dis-
coveries are important to their lives and society. At the same time, we must provide students with a firm foundation in those core
principles on which biology is founded, and in doing so, provide them with the background to keep up with the many discoveries
still to come.
The author identified the following goals for the sixteenth edition of Human Biology:
∙ Updating of chapter openers, featured readings, and Connections content to focus on issues and topics important to this
generation of students.
∙ Integrate more information on emerging diseases (such as Zika) and new technologies (for example, CRISPR).
∙ Update statistics, maps and tables to reflect changes in our scientific understanding of the various topics in the text.
∙ Assessment and redesign of art to better fit the digital learning environment.

Relevancy
The use of real-world examples to demonstrate the importance of biology in the lives of students is widely recognized as an
effective teaching strategy for the introductory biology classroom. Students want to learn about the topics they are interested in.
The development of relevancy-based resources is a major focus of the authors. Some examples of how we have increased the
relevancy content of this edition include:
∙ A series of new chapter openers to introduce relevancy to the chapter. The authors chose topics that would be of interest to
a nonscience major, and represent what would typically be found on a major news source.
∙ The inclusion of a series of the relevancy-based BioNow videos that offer relevant, applied classroom resources to allow
students to feel that they can actually do and learn biology themselves.
∙ A website, RicochetScience.com, managed by Dr. Windelspecht, that provides updates on news and stories that are inter-
esting to nonscience majors. The Biology101 project links these resources to the major topics of an introductory biology
text. The site also features videos and tutorial animations to assist the students in recognizing the relevancy of what they
are learning in the classroom.

viii
 BRIEF CONTENTS

1. Exploring Life and Science 1

Unit 5 Reproduction in Humans
Unit 1 Human Organization 17. Reproductive System 355
18. Development and Aging 382
2. Chemistry of Life 19
3. Cell Structure and Function 43
4. Organization and Regulation of Body Systems 66 Unit 6 Human Genetics
19. Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance 407
Unit 2 Maintenance of the 20. Cancer 431
Human Body 21. Genetic Inheritance 450
22. DNA Biology and Technology 472
5. 
Cardiovascular System: Heart and
Blood Vessels 89
6. Cardiovascular System: Blood 111 Unit 7 Human Evolution and
7. The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 128 Ecology
8. Biology of Infectious Diseases 147
23. Human Evolution 498
9. Digestive System and Nutrition 167
24. Ecology and the Nature of Ecosystems 523
10. Respiratory System 195
25. Human Interactions with the Biosphere 543
11. Urinary System 216

Unit 3 Movement and Support

in Humans
12. Skeletal System 236
13. Muscular System 258

Unit 4 Integration and Coordination

in Humans
14. Nervous System 279
15. Senses 306
16. Endocrine System 328

ix
CONTENTS

Chapter
1 Chapter
4
Exploring Life and Science 1 Organization and Regulation of Body Systems 66
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2 4.1 Types of Tissues 67
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals 7 4.2 Connective Tissue Connects and Supports 67
1.3 Science as a Process 9 4.3 Muscular Tissue Moves the Body 70
1.4 Challenges Facing Science 15 4.4 Nervous Tissue Communicates 71
4.5 Epithelial Tissue Protects 73
4.6 Integumentary System 75
Uni 1 Human Organization 4.7 Organ Systems, Body Cavities, and Body
Membranes 79

Chapter
2 4.8 Homeostasis 82

Chemistry of Life 19
2.1 From Atoms to Molecules 20
Unit 2 Maintenance of the
2.2 Water and Life 24
Human Body
2.3 Molecules of Life 28
2.4 Carbohydrates
2.5 Lipids 31
29 Chapter
5
Cardiovascular System: Heart and
2.6 Proteins 35
Blood Vessels 89
2.7 Nucleic Acids 37
5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System 90
5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels 91
Chapter
3 5.3 The Heart Is a Double Pump
5.4 Blood Pressure 97
92

Cell Structure and Function 43

5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways 100
3.1 What Is a Cell? 44
5.6 Exchange at the Capillaries 102
3.2 How Cells Are Organized 47
5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders 103
3.3 The Plasma Membrane and How Substances
Cross It 49
3.4 The Nucleus and Endomembrane System
3.5 The Cytoskeleton, Cell Movement, and
53 Chapter
6
Cardiovascular System: Blood 111
Cell Junctions 55
6.1 Blood: An Overview 112
3.6 Metabolism and the Energy Reactions 58
6.2 Red Blood Cells and the Transport of Gases 114
6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against
Disease 117
6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting 118
6.5 Human Blood Types 120
6.6 Homeostasis 124

x
 Contents xi

Chapter
7 Chapter
11
The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 128 Urinary System 216
7.1 The Lymphatic System 129 11.1 The Urinary System 217
7.2 Innate Immune Defenses 131 11.2 Kidney Structure 220
7.3 Adaptive Immune Defenses 134 11.3 Urine Formation 223
7.4 Acquired Immunity 139 11.4 Kidneys and Homeostasis 226
7.5 Hypersensitivity Reactions 142 11.5 Urinary System Disorders 230

Chapter
8 Unit 3 M
 ovement and Support
in Humans
Biology of Infectious Diseases 147
8.1 Bacteria and Viruses 148
8.2 Infectious Diseases and Human Health 151
8.3 Emerging Diseases 161
Chapter
12
Skeletal System 236
8.4 Antibiotic Resistance 163
12.1 Overview of the Skeletal System 237
12.2 Bones of the Axial Skeleton 239
Chapter
9 12.3 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
12.4 Articulations 246
244

Digestive System and Nutrition 167

12.5 Bone Growth and Homeostasis 246
9.1 Overview of Digestion 168
9.2 The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
9.3 The Stomach and Small Intestine 172
170
Chapter
13
9.4 The Accessory Organs and Regulation of Muscular System 258
Secretions 177 13.1 Overview of the Muscular System 259
9.5 The Large Intestine and Defecation 179 13.2 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction 263
9.6 Nutrition and Weight Control 182 13.3 Whole Muscle Contraction 268
13.4 Muscular Disorders 272

Chapter
10 13.5 Homeostasis 274

Respiratory System 195 Unit 4 Integration and Coordination

10.1 The Respiratory System 196 in Humans
10.2 The Upper Respiratory Tract 197

14
10.3 The Lower Respiratory Tract 199
Chapter
10.4 Mechanism of Breathing 201
10.5 Control of Ventilation 204 Nervous System 279
10.6 Gas Exchanges in the Body 206 14.1 Overview of the Nervous System 280
10.7 Disorders of the Respiratory System 208 14.2 The Central Nervous System 286
14.3 The Limbic System and Higher Mental
Functions 292
14.4 The Peripheral Nervous System 295
14.5 Drug Therapy and Drug Abuse 299
xii Contents

Chapter
15 Unit 6 Human Genetics
Senses 306
15.1 Overview of Sensory Receptors and
Sensations 307
15.2 Somatic Senses 308
Chapter
19
Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance 407
15.3 Senses of Taste and Smell 310
19.1 Chromosomes 408
15.4 Sense of Vision 312
19.2 The Cell Cycle 409
15.5 Sense of Hearing 319
19.3 Mitosis 411
15.6 Sense of Equilibrium 322
19.4 Meiosis 413
19.5 Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis 421
Chapter
16 19.6 Chromosome Inheritance 422
Endocrine System 328
16.1 Endocrine Glands 329
16.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 333
Chapter
20
Cancer 431
16.3 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 338 20.1 Overview of Cancer 432
16.4 Adrenal Glands 340 20.2 Causes and Prevention of Cancer 437
16.5 Pancreas 344 20.3 Diagnosis of Cancer 441
16.6 Other Endocrine Glands 347 20.4 Treatment of Cancer 444
16.7 Hormones and Homeostasis 349

Unit 5 Reproduction in Humans

Chapter
21
Genetic Inheritance 450
21.1 Genotype and Phenotype 451

Chapter
17 21.2 One- and Two-Trait Inheritance
21.3 Inheritance of Genetic Disorders
452
458
Reproductive System 355 21.4 Beyond Simple Inheritance Patterns 461
17.1 Human Life Cycle 356 21.5 Sex-Linked Inheritance 465
17.2 Male Reproductive System 357
17.3 Female Reproductive System
17.4 The Ovarian Cycle 364
361 Chapter
22
DNA Biology and Technology 472
17.5 Control of Reproduction 369
22.1 DNA and RNA Structure and Function 473
17.6 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 374
22.2 Gene Expression 477
Chapter
18 22.3 DNA Technology 484
22.4 Genomics and Gene Therapy 492
Development and Aging 382
18.1 Fertilization 383
18.2 Pre-embryonic and Embryonic Development 384
18.3 Fetal Development 389
18.4 Pregnancy and Birth 395
18.5 Aging 398
 Contents xiii

Unit 7 Human Evolution and

Chapter
25
Ecology Human Interactions with the Biosphere 543
25.1 Human Population Growth 544
25.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution 546
Chapter
23 25.3 Biodiversity 556
25.4 Working Toward a Sustainable Society 562
Human Evolution 498
23.1 Origin of Life 499
23.2 Biological Evolution 501 Appendix A P
 eriodic Table of the Elements A-1
Metric System A-2
23.3 Classification of Humans 507
Appendix B Answer Key A-3
23.4 Evolution of Hominins 510
23.5 Evolution of Humans 514
Glossary G-1

24
Index I-1
Chapter

Ecology and the Nature of Ecosystems 523

24.1 The Nature of Ecosystems 524
24.2 Energy Flow 527
24.3 Global Biogeochemical Cycles 531
READINGS

BIOLOGY TODAY BIOETHICS

Growth Hormones and Pituitary Should Infertility Be Treated? 373 The Effects of Biocultural Evolution on
Dwarfism 338 DNA Fingerprinting and the Criminal Population Growth 519
Manipulation of the Genitalia 363 Justice System 486 The California Drought 533

BIOLOGY TODAY HEALTH

Fiber in the Diet 31 Swallowing a Camera 181 You Can Avoid Osteoporosis 252
The Omega-3 Fatty Acids 33 Searching for the Magic Weight-Loss The Importance of Exercise 273
Good and Bad Cholesterol 34 Bullet 184 Correcting Vision Problems 318
The Metabolic Fate of Pizza 62 Protein and Vegetarians 186 Noise Pollution 321
Prevention of Cardiovascular New Dietary Guidelines 190 Preventing Transmission of STDs 377
Disease 104 Are E-cigs Safe? 210 Preventing and Testing for Birth
Aspirin and Heart Disease 120 Questions About Smoking, Tobacco, and Defects 391
What to Know When Giving Blood 123 Health 211 Alzheimer Disease 402
Adult Vaccinations 141 Urinalysis 225 Prevention of Cancer 440
HIV Testing 156 Urinary Difficulties Due to an Enlarged Cancer Self-Examinations 442
The Story of Zika 162 Prostate 231
Heartburn (GERD) 175

BIOLOGY TODAY SCIENCE

Adapting to Life at High Elevations 6 Rigor Mortis 269 Testing for Genetic Disorders 494
Discovering the Cause of Ulcers 14 Nerve Regeneration and Stem Homo floresiensis 516
Green Fluorescent Proteins and Cells 282 Biomagnification of Mercury 528
Cells 46 Identifying Insulin as a Chemical Regulating Carbon Dioxide
Face Transplantation 79 Messenger 346 Emissions 536
The Challenges of Developing an AIDS Inactivating X Chromosomes 423 Bees Now Officially Listed as an
Vaccine 157 The Immortal Henrietta Lacks 435 Endangered Species 560
Artificial Lungs 201 Genetics of Eye Color 462 Using Science to Save Jaguars 561
Lab-Grown Bladders 219 Hemophilia: The Royal Disease 468
Identifying Skeletal Remains 247 Discovering the Structure of DNA 474
Osteoarthritis and Joint Replacement Reproductive and Therapeutic
Surgery 249 Cloning 488
Botox and Wrinkles 267

Health Icon: ©Janis Christie/Digital Vision/Getty Images; Science Icon: ©Antenna/Getty Images; Bioethical Icon: ©JGI/Blend Images LLC

xiv
 C H A P T E R

1
Exploring Life
and Science

©Thomas Deerinck/NCMIR/Science Source

SEM 37,000X

Artificial Life CHAPTER OUTLINE

1.1 The Characteristics of Life
What are the minimal requirements for life? That question has occupied
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals
the minds of philosophers and scientists for thousands of years.
­However, in just the past decade, answers to this question have begun
1.3 Science as a Process
to emerge from a developing field of scientific study called artificial life. 1.4 Challenges Facing Science
One of the first of these studies occurred in 2010, when a research
team led by Craig Venter (a pioneer in genetic research) was successful
in removing the genetic information contained within the DNA of a bac-
terium and replacing it with a synthetic form of DNA.
In 2016, the same group of researchers took their research one
step further. This time, they asked what minimal instructions were
needed by a cell for it to be considered alive. They constructed a cell
that functioned on just 473 genes (humans have around 19,000). In the
process, they not only narrowed in on what the minimal requirements
for life are, but also created the first example of an artificial species.
The development of artificial life opens up the opportunity for
­humans to construct cells that perform specific tasks, such as produc-
ing insulin, cleaning toxic waste, or producing fuel more efficiently.
However, there are concerns about these new endeavors, and some
scientists are urging constraint until the risks have been determined.
In this chapter, we are going to explore the concept of life by exam-
ining the general characteristics that are shared by all living organisms
on our planet.
As you read through the chapter, think about the following questions:
1. What are the basic characteristics that define life?
2. How do the processes of adaptation and evolution shape life over
time?
3. How might the use of artificial life help scientists address some of
the challenges facing society?

1
2 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
LE AR N I NG OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Explain the basic characteristics common to all living
organisms.
2. Describe the levels of organization of life.
3. Explain why the study of evolution is important in
understanding life.
The science of biology is the study of living organisms and the
environments they live in. All living organisms (Fig. 1.1) share
several basic characteristics. They (1) are organized, (2) acquire
materials and energy, (3) are homeostatic, (4) respond to stimuli,
(5) reproduce and have the potential for growth, and (6) have an
evolutionary history.
Life Is Organized
Life can be organized in a hierarchy of levels (Fig. 1.2). Note that,
at the very base of this organization, atoms join together to form
the molecules, which in turn make up a cell. A cell is the smallest
medicinal leech mushrooms
meerkats
sunflower
Figure 1.1 All life shares common characteristics.
From the simplest one-celled organisms to complex plants and animals, all life shares several basic characteristics.
(leech): ©Sergei Primakov/Shutterstock; (mushrooms): ©IT Stock/age fotostock; (bacteria): ©Paul Gunning/Science Photo Library/Getty Images; (meerkats): ©Jami Tarris/Getty
Images; (sunflower): ©MedioImages/Punchstock; (Giardia): Source: Dr. Stan Erlandsen/CDC
structural and functional unit of an organism. Some organisms,
such as bacteria, are single-celled organisms. Humans are multi-
cellular, because they are composed of many different types of
cells. For example, the structure of nerve cells in the human body
allows these cells to conduct nerve impulses.
A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a particular
function. Nervous tissue is composed of millions of nerve cells
that transmit signals to all parts of the body. An organ is made
up of several types of tissues, and each organ belongs to an
­organ system. The organs of an organ system work together to
accomplish a common purpose. The brain works with the spinal
cord to send commands to body parts by way of nerves.
­Organisms, such as trees and humans, are a collection of organ
systems.
The levels of biological organization extend beyond the
­individual. All the members of one species (a group of inter-
breeding organisms) in a particular area belong to a population.
A tropical grassland may have a population of zebras, acacia
trees, and humans, for example. The interacting populations of
the grasslands make up a community. The community of
­populations interacts with the physical environment to form an
ecosystem. Finally, all the Earth’s ecosystems collectively make
up the biosphere (Fig. 1.2, top).
bacteria
9,560×
Giardia
 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 3

Figure 1.2 Levels of biological organization.

Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere inhabited
by living organisms
Life is connected from the atomic level to the biosphere. The cell is the
basic unit of life, and it comprises molecules and atoms. The sum of all
life on the planet is called the biosphere.

Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Species
A group of similar, interbreeding organisms

human tree
Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue

nerve cell plant cell

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms
of the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element; composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
4 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
S C I E N C E I N YO U R LI F E
How many cells are in your body?
The number of cells in a human body varies depending on the
size of the person and whether cells have been damaged
or lost. However, most estimates suggest there are well over
100 trillion cells in a human body.
Life Requires Materials and Energy
Humans, like all living organisms, cannot maintain their organization
or carry on life’s activities without an outside source of materials and
energy. Energy is the capacity to do work. Like other animals, hu-
mans acquire materials and energy by eating food (Fig. 1.3).
Food provides nutrient molecules, which are used as building
blocks or for energy. It takes energy to maintain the organization of
the cell and the organism itself. Some nutrient molecules are bro-
ken down completely to provide the energy necessary to convert
other nutrient molecules into the parts and products of cells. The
term m­ etabolism describes all the chemical reactions that occur
within a cell.
a.
b.
Figure 1.3 Humans and other animals must acquire energy.
All life, including humans (a) and other animals, such as this mongoose
(b), must acquire energy to survive. The method by which organisms
acquire energy is dependent on the species.
(a): ©Ariel Skelley/Getty Images; (b): ©Gallo Images-Dave Hamman/Getty Images
The ultimate source of energy for the majority of life on Earth
is the sun. Plants, algae, and some bacteria are able to harvest the
energy of the sun and convert it to chemical energy by a process
called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces organic mole-
cules, such as sugars, that serve as the basis of the food chain for
many other organisms, including humans and all other animals.
Living Organisms Maintain an Internal
Environment
For the metabolic pathways within a cell to function correctly, the
­environmental conditions of the cell must be kept within strict operat-
ing limits. Many of the metabolic activities of a cell, or organism, func-
tion in maintaining homeostasis—a constant internal environment.
In humans, many of our organ systems work to maintain
­homeostasis. For example, human body temperature normally
fluctuates slightly between 36.5 and 37.5°C (97.7 and 99.5°F) dur-
ing the day. In general, the lowest temperature usually occurs be-
tween 2 a.m. and 4 a.m., and the highest usually occurs between
6 p.m. and 10 p.m. However, activity can cause the body tempera-
ture to rise, and inactivity can cause it to decline. The metabolic
activities of our cells, tissues, and organs are dependent on
­maintaining a relatively constant body temperature. Therefore, a
number of body systems, including the cardiovascular system and
the nervous system, work together to maintain a constant tempera-
ture. The body’s ability to maintain a normal temperature is also
somewhat dependent on the external temperature. Even though we
can shiver when we are cold and perspire when we are hot, we will
die if the external temperature becomes overly cold or hot.
This text emphasizes how all the systems of the human body
help maintain homeostasis. For example, the digestive system
takes in nutrients, and the respiratory system exchanges gases with
the environment. The cardiovascular system distributes nutrients
and oxygen to the cells and picks up their wastes. The metabolic
waste products of cells are excreted by the urinary system. The
work of the nervous and endocrine systems is critical, because
these systems coordinate the functions of the other systems.
Living Organisms Respond
It would be impossible to maintain homeostasis without the body’s
ability to respond to stimuli, both from the internal and external
environments. Response to external stimuli is more apparent to us,
because it involves movement, as when we quickly remove a hand
from a hot stove. Certain sensory receptors also detect a change in
the internal environment, and then the central nervous system
brings about an appropriate response. When you are startled by a
loud noise, your heartbeat increases, which causes your blood pres-
sure to increase. If blood pressure rises too high, the brain directs
blood vessels to dilate, helping restore normal blood pressure.
All life responds to external stimuli, often by moving toward
or away from a stimulus, such as the sight of food. Organisms may
use a variety of mechanisms to move, but movement in humans
and other animals is dependent on their nervous and musculoskel-
etal systems. The leaves of plants track the passage of the sun
­during the day; when a houseplant is placed near a window, its
stems bend to face the sun. The movement of an animal, whether

a.
Figure 1.4 Growth and development define life.
a. A small acorn becomes a tree, and (b) following fertilization an embryo becomes a fetus by the process of growth and development.
(a) (seedling): ©Bogdan Ionescu/Shutterstock; (a) (tree): ©Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images; (b) (sperm/egg): ©David M. Phillips/Science Source; (b) (fetus): ©Brand X
Pictures/Punchstock
self-directed or in response to a stimulus, constitutes a large part of
its behavior. Some behaviors help us acquire food and reproduce.
Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop
Reproduction is a fundamental characteristic of life. Cells come into
being only from preexisting cells, and all living organisms have
­parents. When organisms reproduce, they pass on their genetic in-
formation to the next generation. Following the fertilization of an
egg by a sperm cell, the resulting zygote undergoes a rapid period of
growth and development. This is common in most forms of life.
Figure 1.4a illustrates that an acorn progresses to a seedling before
it becomes an adult oak tree. In humans, growth occurs as the fertil-
ized egg develops into a fetus (Fig. 1.4b). Growth, recognized by an
increase in size and often in the number of cells, is a part of devel-
opment. In multicellular organisms, such as humans, the term
­development is used to indicate all the changes that occur from the
time the egg is fertilized until death. Therefore, it includes all the
changes that occur during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. De-
velopment also includes the repair that takes place following an injury.
The genetic information of all life is DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). DNA contains the hereditary information that directs not
only the structure of each cell but also its function. The informa-
tion in DNA is contained within genes, short sequences of heredi-
tary material that specify the instructions for a specific trait. Before
reproduction occurs, DNA is replicated so an exact copy of each
gene may be passed on to the offspring. When humans reproduce,
a sperm carries genes contributed by a male into the egg, which
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 5
480×
b.
contains genes contributed by a female. The genes direct both
growth and development so that the organism will eventually
­resemble the parents. Sometimes mutations, minor variations in
these genes, can cause an organism to be better suited for its
environ­ment. These mutations are the basis of evolutionary change.
Organisms Have an Evolutionary History
Evolution is the process by which a population changes over time.
The mechanism by which evolution occurs is natural selection
(see Section 23.2). When a new variation arises that allows certain
members of a population to capture more resources, these members
tend to survive and have more offspring than the other, unchanged
members. Therefore, each successive generation will include more
members with the new variation, which represents an adaptation
to the environment. Consider, for example, populations of humans
who live at high altitudes, such as the cultures living at elevations of
over 4,000 meters (m) (14,000 ft) in the Tibetan Plateau. This envi-
ronment is very low in oxygen. As the Science feature “Adapting to
Life at High Elevations” investigates, these populations have
evolved an adaptation that reduces the amount of hemoglobin, the
oxygen-carrying pigment in the blood. As the feature explains, this
adaptation makes life at these altitudes possible.
Evolution, which has been going on since the origin of life and
will continue as long as life exists, explains both the unity and the
diversity of life. All organisms share the same characteristics of life
because their ancestry can be traced to the first cell or cells. Organ-
isms are diverse because they are adapted to different ways of life.
6 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
B I O L O G Y T O D AY Science
Adapting to Life at High Elevations
Humans, like all other organisms, have an evolutionary history.
This means not only that we share common ancestors with other
animals but that over time we demonstrate adaptations to changing
environmental conditions. One study of populations living in the
high-elevation mountains of Tibet (Fig. 1A) demonstrates how the
processes of evolution and adaptation influence humans.
Normally, when a person moves to a higher altitude, his or her
body may respond by making more hemoglobin, the component of
blood that carries oxygen, which in turn thickens the consistency of
the blood. For minor elevation changes, this does not present much
of a problem. But for people who live at extreme elevations (some
people in the Himalayas can live at elevations of over 13,000 ft, or
close to 4,000 m), excess hemoglobin can present a number of
health problems, including chronic mountain sickness, a disease
that affects people who live at high altitudes for extended periods
of time. The problem is that, as the amount of hemoglobin
­increases, the blood thickens and becomes more viscous. This can
cause elevated blood pressure, or hypertension, and an increase in
the formation of blood clots, both of which have negative physio-
logical effects.
Figure 1A
Individuals living at high elevations, such as these Tibetans, have
become adapted to their environment.
©Michael Freeman/Corbis
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.1
1. List the basic characteristics of life.
2. Summarize the levels of biological organization.
3. Explain the relationship between adaptations and
evolutionary change.
Because high hemoglobin levels would be a detriment to peo-
ple at high elevations, it makes sense that natural selection would
favor individuals who produce less hemoglobin at high elevations.
Such is the case with the Tibetans in this study. Researchers have
identified an allele of a gene that reduces hemoglobin production at
high elevations. Comparisons between Tibetans at both high and
low elevations strongly suggest that selection has played a role in
the prevalence of the high-elevation allele.
The gene is EPSA1, located on chromosome 2 of humans.
EPSA1 produces a transcription factor that basically regulates
which genes are turned on and off in the body, a process called gene
expression. The transcription factor produced by EPSA1 has a num-
ber of functions in the body. For example, in addition to controlling
the amount of hemoglobin in the blood, this transcription factor also
regulates other genes that direct how the body uses oxygen.
When the researchers examined the variations in EPSA1 in the
Tibetan population, they discovered that the Tibetan version greatly
reduces the production of hemoglobin. Therefore, the Tibetan pop-
ulation has lower hemoglobin levels than people living at lower
altitudes, allowing these individuals to escape the consequences of
thick blood.
How long did it take for the original population to adapt to liv-
ing at higher elevations? Initially, the comparison of variations in
these genes between high-elevation and low-elevation Tibetan pop-
ulations suggested that the event may have occurred over a 3,000-
year period. But researchers were skeptical of those data because
they suggested a relatively rapid rate of evolutionary change. Addi-
tional studies of genetic databases yielded an interesting finding—
the EPSA1 gene in Tibetans was identical to a similar gene found in
an ancient group of humans called the Denisovans (see Section 23.5).
Scientists now believe that the EPSA1 gene entered the ­Tibetan
population around 40,000 years ago, either through interbreeding
between early Tibetans and Denisovans, or from one of the immedi-
ate ancestors of this now-lost group of early humans.
Questions to Consider
1. What other environments do you think could be studied to
look for examples of human adaptation?
2. In addition to hemoglobin levels, do you think people at high
elevations may exhibit other adaptations?
C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S
Both homeostasis and evolution are central themes in the study
of biology. For more examples of homeostasis and evolution,
refer to the following discussions:
Section 4.8 explains how body temperature is regulated.
Section 11.4 explores the role of the kidneys in fluid and salt
homeostasis.
Section 23.3 examines the evolutionary history of humans.
 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 7

single-celled; others are multicellular. Humans are multicelled

1.2 Humans Are Related
to Other Animals
LE AR N I NG OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Summarize the place of humans in the overall
classification of living organisms.
2. Understand that humans have a cultural heritage.
3. Describe the relationship between humans and the
biosphere.
Biologists classify all life as belonging to one of three domains.
The evolutionary relationships of these domains are presented in
Figure 1.5.
Two of these domains, domain Bacteria and domain A ­ rchaea,
contain prokaryotes, single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus
(Fig. 1.6). Organisms in the third domain, Eukarya, all contain
cells that possess a nucleus. Some of these organisms are
Eukarya.
Historically, domain Eukarya was divided into one of four
kingdoms (Fig. 1.6). The organisms in kingdom Protista comprise a
very diverse group of organisms, ranging from single-celled forms
to a few multicellular organisms. Some protists use photosynthesis
to manufacture food, and some must acquire their own food.
The other three kingdoms of eukaryotes in Figure 1.6 (plants,
fungi, and animals) all evolved from protists. Plants (kingdom
­Plantae) are multicellular, photosynthetic organisms. Example plants
include azaleas, zinnias, and pines. Among the fungi (­kingdom
Fungi) are the familiar molds and mushrooms that, along with bacte-
ria, help decompose dead organisms. Animals (kingdom Animalia)
are multicellular organisms that must ingest and process their food.
Aardvarks, jaguars, and humans are representative animals.
Recently, the development of improved techniques in analyz-
ing the DNA of organisms suggests that not all of the protists share
the same evolutionary lineage, meaning that the evolution of the
eukaryotes has occurred along several paths. A new taxonomic
group, called a supergroup, is being developed to explain these

BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)

Protists

Plants

EUKARYA
Fungi

domains
kingdoms
Animals
common ancestor

4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

Billions of Years Ago (BYA)

Figure 1.5 The evolutionary relationships of the three domains of life.

Living organisms are classified into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The Eukarya are further divided into kingdoms (see Fig. 1.6).
8 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

Domain Archaea Domain Bacteria

• Prokaryotic cells • Prokaryotic cells

of various shapes of various shapes
• Adaptations to • Adaptations to
extreme environments all environments
• Absorb or • Absorb, photosynthesize,
chemosynthesize food or chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical • Unique chemical
characteristics 6,600× characteristics
33,200×
Sulfolobus, an archaean E.coli, a bacterium

Domain Eukarya; Kingdom Protista Domain Eukarya; Kingdom Plantae

• Algae, protozoans, • Certain algae, mosses, ferns,

slime molds, and conifers, and flowering plants
water molds • Multicellular, usually with
• Complex single cell specialized tissues,
(sometimes filaments, containing complex cells
colonies, or even • Photosynthesize food
multicellular)
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
160× or ingest food
Phalaenopsis, orchid, a flowering plant
Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan

Domain Eukarya; Kingdom Fungi Domain Eukarya; Kingdom Animalia

• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts, • Sponges, worms, insects,

and ringworms fishes, frogs, turtles,
• Mostly multicellular filaments with birds, and mammals
specialized, complex cells • Multicellular with
• Absorb food specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• Ingest food

Cantharellula, a club fungi Vulpes, a red fox

Figure 1.6 The classification of life.

This figure provides some of the characteristics of the organisms of each of the major domains and kingdoms of life. Humans belong to the domain
Eukarya and kingdom Animalia.
(archaea): ©Eye of Science/Science Source; (bacteria): ©Science Photo Library/Getty Images; (paramecium): ©M. I. Walker/Science Source; (orchids): ©Pixtal/age fotostock;
(mushrooms): ©Ingram Publishing; (fox): ©Fuse/Getty Images

evolutionary relationships. While these relationships are still being
studied and analyzed, current thinking places the animals in the
same supergroup as the fungi.
Most animals are invertebrates, such as earthworms, insects, and
mollusks. Vertebrates are animals that have a nerve cord protected by
a vertebral column, which gives them their name. Fish, reptiles, am-
phibians, and birds are all examples of vertebrates. Vertebrates with
hair or fur and mammary glands are classified as mammals. Humans,
raccoons, seals, and meerkats are examples of mammals.
Humans are primate mammals that are most closely related to
apes. We are distinguished from apes by our (1) highly developed
brains, (2) completely upright stance, (3) creative language, and
(4) ability to use a wide variety of tools. Humans did not evolve from
apes; apes and humans share a common, apelike ancestor. Today’s
apes are our evolutionary cousins. Our relationship to apes is
analogous to you and your first cousin being descended from your
grandparents. We could not have evolved directly from our cousins,
because we are contemporaries—living on Earth at the same time.
Humans Have a Cultural Heritage
Humans have a cultural heritage in addition to a biological heri-
tage. Culture encompasses human activities and products passed
on from one generation to the next outside of direct biological
­inheritance. Among animals, only humans have a language that
allows us to communicate information and experiences symboli-
cally. We are born without knowledge of an accepted way to be-
have, but we gradually acquire this knowledge by adult instruction
and the imitation of role models. Members of the previous genera-
tion pass on their beliefs, values, and skills to the next generation.

Many of the skills involve tool use, which can vary from how to
hunt in the wild to how to use a computer. Human skills have also
produced a rich heritage in the arts and sciences. However, a soci-
ety highly dependent on science and technology has its drawbacks
as well. Unfortunately, this cultural development may mislead us
into believing that humans are somehow not part of the natural
world surrounding us.
Humans Are Members of the Biosphere
All life on Earth is part of the biosphere, the living network that
spans the surface of the Earth into the atmosphere and down into
the soil and seas. Although humans can raise animals and crops for
food, we depend on the environment for many services. Without
microorganisms that decompose, the waste we create would soon
cover the Earth’s surface. Some species of bacteria help us by
cleaning up pollutants like heavy metals and pesticides.
Freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers and lakes, provide fish
to eat, drinking water, and water to irrigate crops. Many of our
crops and prescription drugs were originally derived from plants
that grew naturally in an ecosystem. Some human populations
around the globe still depend on wild animals as a food source. The
water-holding capacity of forests prevents flooding, and the ability
of forests and other ecosystems to retain soil prevents soil erosion.
For many people, these forests provide a place for recreational ac-
tivities like hiking and camping.
S C I E N C E I N YO U R LI F E
How many humans are there?
As of 2017, it was estimated that there were over 7.6 billion
humans on the planet. Each of those humans needs food, shel-
ter, clean water and air, and materials to maintain a healthy life-
style. We add an additional 80 million people per year—that is
like adding the population of ten New York Cities per year! This
makes human population growth one of the greatest threats to
the biosphere.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.2
1. Define the term biosphere.
2. Define culture.
3. Explain why humans belong to the domain Eukarya and
kingdom Animalia.
C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S
To learn more about the preceding material, refer to the
following discussions:
Chapter 23 examines recent developments in the study of
human evolution.
Chapter 24 provides a more detailed look at ecosystems.
Chapter 25 explores how humans interact with the biosphere.
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 9
1.3 Science as a Process
LE AR N I NG OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Describe the general process of the scientific method.
2. Distinguish between a control group and an experimental
group in a scientific test.
3. Recognize the importance of scientific journals in the
reporting of scientific information.
4. Interpret information that is presented in a scientific graph.
5. Recognize the importance of statistical analysis to the
study of science.
Science is a way of knowing about the natural world. When scien-
tists study the natural world, they aim to be objective, rather than
subjective. Objective observations are supported by factual infor-
mation, whereas subjective observations involve personal judg-
ment. For example, the fat content of a particular food would be an
objective observation of a nutritional study. Reporting about the
good or bad taste of the food would be a subjective observation. It
is difficult to make objective observations and conclusions, be-
cause we are often influenced by our prejudices. Scientists must
keep in mind that scientific conclusions can change because of
new findings. New findings are often made because of recent
­advances in techniques or equipment.
Religion, aesthetics, ethics, and science are all ways in which
humans seek order in the natural world. The nature of scientific
inquiry differs from these other ways of knowing and learning,
because the scientific process employs the scientific method, a
standard series of steps used in gaining new knowledge that is
widely accepted among scientists. The scientific method (Fig. 1.7)
acts as a guideline for scientific studies.
The approach of individual scientists to their work is as var-
ied as the scientists. However, much of the scientific process is
descriptive. For example, an observation of a new disease may
lead a scientist to describe all the aspects of the disease, such as
the environment, the age of onset, and the characteristics of the
disease. Some areas of biology, such as the study of biodiversity
in the ecological sciences (see Section 1.4), lend themselves more
to this descriptive approach. Regardless of their area of study,
most scientists spend a considerable amount of time performing a
descriptive analysis of their observation before proceeding into
the steps of the scientific method. Scientists often modify or adapt
the process to suit their particular field of study, but for the sake
of discussion it is useful to think of the scientific method as con-
sisting of certain steps.
Start with an Observation
Scientists believe that nature is orderly and measurable—that natu-
ral laws, such as the law of gravity, do not change with time—and
that a natural event, or phenomenon, can be understood more fully
through observation—a formal way of watching the natural world.
Observations may be made with the senses, such as sight and
smell, or with instruments; for example, a microscope enables us
to see objects that could never be seen by the naked eye. Scientists
10 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

Observation

Hypothesis 1
Potential Hypothesis 2
hypotheses Reject
Hypothesis 3 Prediction Experiment hypothesis 1

Remaining Reject
possible Hypothesis 2 Prediction Experiment
Hypothesis 3 hypothesis 2
hypotheses

Last remaining Figure 1.7 The scientific method.

possible Hypothesis 3 On the basis of new and/or previous observations,
hypothesis Modify hypothesis a scientist formulates a hypothesis. The hypothesis
is used to develop predictions to be tested by
further experiments and/or observations, and new
Predictions
data either support or do not support the
hypothesis. Following an experiment, a scientist
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4 often chooses to retest the same hypothesis or to
test a related hypothesis. Conclusions from many
different but related experiments may lead to the
development of a scientific theory. For example,
Predictions studies pertaining to development, anatomy, and
Conclusion
confirmed
fossil remains all support the theory of evolution.

may expand their understanding even further by taking advantage
of the knowledge and experiences of other scientists. For instance,
they may look up past studies on the Internet or at the library, or
they may write or speak to others who are researching similar
topics.
Develop a Hypothesis
After making observations and gathering knowledge about a
phenomenon, a scientist uses inductive reasoning. Inductive
­ Scientists often perform an experiment, which is a series of pro-
­reasoning occurs whenever a person uses creative thinking to
combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole. Chance alone can
help a scientist arrive at an idea. The most famous case pertains to
the antibiotic penicillin, which was discovered in 1928. While
­examining a petri dish of bacteria that had accidentally become
contaminated with the mold Penicillium, Alexander Fleming
­observed an area around the mold that was free of bacteria. Flem-
ing had long been interested in finding cures for human diseases
caused by bacteria, and he was very knowledgeable about antibac-
terial substances. So when Fleming saw the dramatic effect of
Penicillium mold on bacteria, he reasoned that the mold might be
producing an antibacterial substance.
We call such a possible explanation for a natural event a
­hypothesis. A hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, so it is
much more informed than a mere guess. Fleming’s hypothesis was
supported by further study, but sometimes a hypothesis is not sup-
ported and must be either modified and subjected to additional
study or rejected. When thinking about how to test the hypothesis,
the scientist may make a prediction, or an expected outcome,
based on knowledge of the factors involved in the observation.
All of a scientist’s past experiences, no matter what they might
be, may influence the formation of a hypothesis. But a scientist
considers only hypotheses that can be tested by experiments or
further observations. Moral and religious beliefs, although very
important to our lives, differ among cultures and through time and
are not always testable.
Test the Hypothesis
cedures, to test a hypothesis. To determine how to test a hypothe-
sis, a scientist uses deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning
involves “if . . . then” logic.
The manner in which a scientist intends to conduct an experi-
ment is called the experimental design. A good experimental design
ensures that scientists are examining the contribution of a specific
variable, called the experimental variable, to the ­observation. The
result is termed the responding variable, or dependent variable, be-
cause it is due to the experimental variable.
To ensure the results will be meaningful, an experiment con-
tains both test groups and a control group. A test group is exposed
to the experimental variable, but the control group is not. If the
control group and test groups show the same results, the experi-
menter knows that the hypothesis predicting a difference between
them is not supported.
Scientists often use model organisms and model systems to
test a hypothesis. Some common model organisms are shown in
Figure 1.8. Model organisms are chosen because they allow the
researcher to control aspects of the experiment, such as age and
genetic background. Cell biologists may use mice for modeling the
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 An extremely tough paper made from silk, a recent invention
of T. Oishi, a Japanese manufacturer, would be specially
useful for such a purpose....
It will be noticed that the texture is very compact and free
from pores, as might, indeed, be expected on account of the
fineness of the silk fibres of which it is composed. It must not
be forgotten that cotton fibres are tubes, and gas may pass
through them even when they are embedded in an
impermeable film. Silk fibres, on the other hand, are solid, as
well as stronger than cotton.
Another way in which a tough, flexible cement may be
utilised is to cement a metal foil to a textile fabric. Aluminium
foil, for instance, cemented to cotton by means of flexile
collodion, gives a completely impermeable fabric of much
greater suppleness than the sheet aluminium hitherto used for
balloons.
Fine aluminium flakes dusted upon the freshly varnished
surface adds greatly to the impermeability of the fabric, and
the same may be said of coarsely powdered mica.

It may be noted in this connection that an impermeable varnish

does not only apply to balloon and airship construction, but will also
have its use for impregnating the planes of the heavier-than-air
machines.

6. Great cost of airships.

The cost of airships compared with that of aëroplanes certainly
favours the extended use of the latter in war. It is easy to spend
£50,000 on a very large airship. Supposing the cost of an aëroplane
seating two persons is £1,000, it is a question from an economic
point of view whether the possession of fifty aëroplanes is not far
better military value for the money expended on the solitary airship.
But in the case of the latter it is not only initial expense that has to be
considered, but cost of housing, maintenance, and hydrogen gas.
These items are very considerable. The upkeep of one large airship
very much exceeds that incurred with fifty aëroplanes.

7. The great amount of personnel needed for the manipulation of

large airships.
It is no exaggeration to say that the ground manipulation of large
airships necessitates the attendance of quite an army. In the case of
a Zeppelin the exigencies of wind may call for the assistance of 300
trained sappers on landing. This is the reason why it is so advisable
to have the resting-places of large airships on water. In the case of
rigid airships a slight bump on the earth may do considerable
damage. Colonel Moedebeck has laid especial stress on the
advisability of water landing.

In practice it is never possible, even by working the motor

against the wind, to avoid a certain amount of bumping, since
the aërostatical equilibrium is not easily judged and allowed
for, especially in strong winds. On this account the safer water
landing is always preferable.
An airship can be anchored more easily with the point
against the wind on water. It is quite impossible to anchor on
land when assistance is not forthcoming to hold down the
airship. On water, also, the airship will give a little to side
winds and to alterations in the direction of the wind, without
overturning. On land this danger is not excluded, even with
rigid airships. Of course, a watertight and seaworthy car is a
necessary condition for landing on water.
The landing requires great attention, and rapid, decisive
handling and management on the part of the aëronaut.

In the opinion of the same expert airship travelling on a large

scale would not be possible without the publication of special charts,
which would furnish information concerning natural airship harbours,
and their relation to various winds, and also of the various airship
sheds which may be erected. He states it would be highly dangerous
to undertake airship voyages without the existence of suitable
stations against storms, and where gas supplies, driving material,
and ballast could be renewed.

8. Great liability of being destroyed by aëroplanes in war.

This is no doubt one of the greatest dangers the airship has to
face in war. The aëroplane is the airship’s deadliest enemy. So
terrible to the airship is this hornet of the air that the former has no
chance of making an attack. It must ever remain on the defensive.
The speed and quickly rising power of modern aëroplanes settles
this question. When the aëroplane is advancing the airship cannot
escape. Nor can it now any longer rise to safe altitude, for the
nimbler heavier-than-air machines can easily outdo it.
The only salvation of the attacked airship is its mitrailleuse gun
fixed on the platform at its topmost part, but the chance of hitting the
swiftly advancing aëroplane is fairly remote.
There are more ways than one in which the fatal attack of
aëroplane v. airship can be made. The airman can, indeed, ram the
gas-bags by hurling himself and machine against it. Then destruction
would be swift and sure, with the probable loss of the airman’s own
life. Better tactics would be to fly above, and drop suitable weapons
on the fragile gas-bag; a few sharp and jagged stones would
probably suffice. Sharp darts of steel would be all-effective. So easy,
indeed, would it be for one aëroplane skilfully handled to end the
existence of the largest airship that one cannot refrain from asking
the question whether on this account alone it can survive as the
instrument of war?

9. Insufficient power of quickly rising.

This is a point which wants the attention of the aëronautical
engineer. The old-fashioned spherical balloons were made to rise
and fall by the alternate sacrifice of gas and ballast. Thus the very
life-blood of the balloon became quickly exhausted. It was obvious
that when airships supplanted balloons the former must be supplied
with a less exhausting process of vertical movement.
 As has already been mentioned, when treating of the Zeppelin
airship, for the purpose of rising horizontal planes are now fitted to
airships. Some engineers have thought these should be
supplemented by a mechanical device, so that the speed of rising
might be augmented. The late Baron de Bradsky provided his airship
with a horizontal screw placed beneath the car. But one horizontal
screw beneath an airship tends to twist it round—to convert it into an
aërial top. To avoid this effect it would be necessary to have two
horizontal screws rotating in opposite directions. This precaution was
absent in de Bradsky’s construction, and it kept on twisting round,
with the disastrous effect that the steel wires which held the car to
the balloon snapped, with tragic results. But the idea of the
horizontal screw is worth reviving. It has been a cherished plan of M.
Julliot to include the principle in his designs, but on account of extra
weight he has, I believe, hitherto not tried the interesting experiment.
The colour of most of the airships is a disadvantage, though this
is a matter so easy of alteration that it has not been included in the
list of disadvantages.
In military airships, and, it may be added, aëroplanes also, the
colour should be a neutral tint that is as invisible as possible against
the sky. Most of the airships have been made a glaring yellow, so
that the india-rubber in the envelopes may be better preserved from
the action of light. This protection may have to be sacrificed to the
overpowering advantages of invisibility in the case of naval and
military airships.
 CHAPTER VI
THE ADVENT OF THE AËROPLANE

The year of 1908 will be memorable in aëronautical science for its

demonstration of the possibility of mechanical flight. Day after day in
France and America was then seen the spectacle of men flying in
the air, with a grace equal to that of the soaring bird. This was done
with a machine not raised by the buoyancy of a gas, but with one
that was heavier than the medium in which it travels, and whose
sustentation and direction was accomplished by dexterity and skill.
The experiments of the brothers Wright were new triumphs of man,
new examples of the old truths that a difficulty is a thing to be
overcome, and that the impossibility of to-day may be the
achievement of to-morrow. This progress in human flight was not the
result of any new discovery; it was the sequence of a long series of
experiments; nor was it one nation only that forged the links that
connected past researches to the successful issues of the present
century.
It is, however, not without honour to the British nation that one of
the fundamental principles of the biplane was proposed and
elucidated by a Briton in 1866. I refer to the important principle of
superposed surfaces advanced in that year by the late F. H.
Wenham. He pointed out that the lifting power of such a surface can
be most economically obtained by placing a number of small
surfaces above each other. Wenham built flying machines on this
principle with appliances for the use of his own muscular power. He
obtained valuable results as to the driving power of his superposed
surfaces, but he did not accomplish flight.
In 1872, H. von Helmholtz emphasised the improbability that
man would ever be able to drive a flying machine by his own
muscular exertion. After his statements there came a period of
stagnation in the attempts to navigate the air by bodies heavier than
air.
It is difficult to say how much aëronautical science owes to two
illustrious names—Sir Hiram Maxim and the late Professor Langley.
The two eminent men took up the subject of flight about the same
time in the last decade of the last century, and applied to it all the
scientific knowledge of the time. The flying machine had come to be
associated in the public mind with foolhardiness and failure. In the
discussion following Sir Hiram Maxim’s paper, “Experiments in
Aëronautics,” read before the Society of Arts on November 28th,
1894, he said, “At the time I took up this subject it was almost
considered a disgrace for anyone to think of it; it was quite out of the
question practically.” But these two scientific men stepped into the
breach, rescued aëronautics from a fallen position, and fired in its
cause the enthusiasm of men of light and leading.
Sir Hiram Maxim built the largest flying machine that had been
constructed. It spread 4,000 square feet of supporting surface, and
weighed 8,000 lb. The screw propellers were no less than 17 feet 11
inches in diameter, the width of the blade at the tip being 5 feet. The
boiler was of 363 h.p. The machine ran on wheels on a railway line,
and was restrained from premature flight by two wooden rails placed
on each side above the wheels. On one occasion, however, the
machine burst through the wooden rails and flew for 300 feet.
In 1896 Langley’s tandem-surfaced model aërodrome had luck
with the aërial currents, and flew for more than three-quarters of a
mile over the Potomac River. This machine had 70 square feet
supporting surface, weighed 72 lb., and had an engine of 1 h.p.,
weighing 7 lb. It is well known how, in later years, Langley
exaggerated his model into a machine which carried a man, and how
twice, when it was put to the test over water, at the very moment of
being launched, it caught in the launching ways and was pulled into
the water. It is interesting to note that the American aviator, Mr.
Curtiss, has lately unearthed the Langley flying machine, and flown
on it. Thus to Langley has come a posthumous aëronautical honour.
 Lilienthal, in Germany, in considering equilibrium, experimented
with what are called gliding machines—aëroplanes which are
launched from some hillside against the wind, and depend upon
gravity for their motive power. In this way the art of balancing could
be practised on motorless gliders. With Lilienthal commenced the
age of systematic experimental flight; he made the discovery of the
driving forward of arched surfaces against the wind; he made some
2,000 glides, and sometimes from a height of 30 metres he glided
300 metres. The underlying principle of maintaining equilibrium in the
air has been recognised to be that the centre of pressure should at
all times be on the same vertical line as the centre of gravity due to
the weight of the apparatus. Lilienthal sought to keep his balance by
altering the position of his centre of gravity by movements of his
body. One day he was upset by a side gust and was killed. Pilcher, in
England, took up his work. With his soaring machines he made
some hundred glides, but he also made one too many. One day, in
1899, in attempting to soar from level ground by being towed by
horses, his machine broke, and he fell to the ground. He died shortly
afterwards, a British martyr of the air.
Mr. Octave Chanute’s experiments in 1896–1902 formed
important links in flight development. He first introduced the vital
principle of making the surfaces movable instead of the aviator, and
he made use of superposed surfaces. Though his work was a stage
in the development of the flying machine, it was reserved to two
other geniuses, the brothers Wright, to bring flight to a point of
progress where prejudiced critics would be for ever silenced.
The brothers Wright first carried out laboratory experiments; they
then, in 1900, first began to experiment with gliding machines at Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina. With the comparatively small surfaces (15.3
square metres) they used in that year, they endeavoured to raise the
machine by the wind like a kite; but finding that it often blew too
strongly for such a system to be practical, in 1901 they abandoned
the idea and resorted to gliding flight.
These machines of 1901 had two superposed surfaces, 1.73
metres apart, each being 6.7 metres from tip to tip, 2.13 metres
wide, and arched 1-19th. The total supporting surface was 27 square
metres. They dispensed with the tail which previous experimenters
had considered necessary. Instead, they introduced into their
machine two vital principles, upon which not only the success of their
preliminary gliding experiments depended, but also their later ones
with their motor-driven aëroplanes—(1) the hinged horizontal rudder
in front for controlling the vertical movements of the machine; (2) the
warping or flexing of one wing or the other for steering to right or left.
Later, a vertical rudder was also added for horizontal steering.
The combined movements of these devices maintained equilibrium.
The importance of the system of torsion of the main carrying
surfaces cannot be overestimated. We have only to look to nature for
its raison d’être, and observe a flight of seagulls over the sea: how
varied are the flexings of nature’s aëroplanes in their wondrous
manœuvrings to maintain and recover equilibrium! Since the
appearance of the Wright motor-driven aëroplane, the principle of
moving either the main surface or attachments to the main surface
has been very generally adopted in other types of flying machines. A
feature of these early experiments was the placing of the operator
prone upon the gliding machine, instead of in an upright position, to
secure greater safety in alighting, and to diminish the resistance.
This, however, was only a temporary expedient while the Wrights
were feeling their way. In the motor-driven aëroplanes the navigator
and his companion were comfortably seated. After the experiments
of 1901, the Wrights carried on laboratory researches to determine
the amount and direction of the pressures produced by the wind
upon planes and arched surfaces exposed at various angles of
incidence. They discovered that the tables of the air pressures which
had been in use were incorrect. Upon the results of these
experiments they produced, in 1902, a new and larger machine. This
had 28.44 square metres of sustaining surfaces—about twice the
area that previous experimenters had dared to handle. The machine
was first flown as a kite, so that it might be ascertained whether it
would soar in a wind having an upward trend of a trifle over seven
degrees; and this trend was found on the slope of a hill over which
the current was flowing. Experiment showed that the machine
soared under these circumstances whenever the wind was of
sufficient force to keep the angle of incidence between four and eight
degrees. Hundreds of successful glides were made along the full
length of this slope, the longest being 22½ feet, and the time 26
seconds. A motor and screw propellers were then applied in place of
gravity, in 1903, and four flights made, the first lasting 12 seconds,
and the last 59 seconds, when 260 metres were covered at a height
of two metres.
In 1904, several hundred flights were made, some being circular.
All this work was carried on in a secluded spot and unpublished. In
December, 1905, the world was startled by the news that the
brothers Wright had flown for 24¼ miles in half an hour, at a speed
of 38 miles an hour. More than this at the time the brothers would not
say, and for three years the world thirsted for the fuller knowledge
only revealed in 1908. In the interval some went so far as to distrust
the statements of the brothers Wright; but those who, like myself,
had had the privilege of correspondence with them from their first
experiments felt the fullest confidence that every statement they had
made was fact.
I have somewhat dwelt on the preliminary experiments of the
brothers Wright with their gliding structures as indicating the rapidity
of progress attained when sound scientific method is combined with
practical experiment. Too often in the past there has been a
tendency amongst the workers in science to keep theory and
practice apart. They are, however, interdependent. Each has a
corrective influence on the other.
To the labours of the Wright brothers we certainly owe the advent
of the mobile and truly efficient military air scout. It is their efforts that
have revolutionised warfare. In the present war we see only the
beginnings of what will one day be; but they are none the less truly
prophetic.
It was the enthusiastic Captain Ferber, who later became a
victim to his ardour for aërial achievement, who realised what the
brothers Wright had accomplished for military aëronautics. The latter
having entered into communications with the French Government
respecting the sale of their machines, Captain Ferber was deputed
by the French Government to go to America and report on their
claims. As the brothers Wright at that time so carefully guarded the
secrecy of their details, he was not allowed to see the machine when
he arrived, and had to be content with the mere hearsay of certain
persons at Ohio, who had witnessed their flights. But he had
sufficient faith in the brothers Wright to recommend the French
Government to buy their invention.
The negotiations, however, fell through at the time, but in 1908
Wilbur Wright came to France to carry on experiments at Le Mans,
while his brother, Mr. Orville Wright, went to Fort Myers in America.
In Wilbur Wright’s machine at Le Mans, the two superposed
slightly concave surfaces were about 12.50 metres long and 2
metres wide. They were separated by a distance of 1.80 metres. At a
distance of 3 metres from the main supporting surfaces was the
horizontal rudder for controlling the vertical motions; this was
composed of two oval superposed planes. At 2.50 metres in front of
the main supporting surfaces was the vertical rudder, composed of
two vertical planes.
The 25 h.p. motor was placed on the lower aëro-surface; this
weighed ninety kilogrammes. At the left of the motor were the two
seats, side by side, for the aëronaut and his companion. The two
wooden propellers at the back of the machine were 2.50 metres in
diameter. They revolved at the rate of 450 revolutions per minute.
The area of the sustaining surfaces was fifty square metres. The
weight of the whole machine (with aviator) was about 450
kilogrammes. Levers under the control of the aviator regulated the
various functions of the machine, the flexing of the carrying surfaces,
the movements of the horizontal rudders, the vertical rudder, etc.
Soon after the experiments at Le Mans had commenced there
came the news of the accident to Mr. Orville Wright’s machine in
America, in which the latter’s leg was broken and Lieutenant
Selfridge was killed. This was a critical moment for aëronautical
science. I can myself bear witness to its depressing effect on an
illustrious aëronautical assemblage, for I was myself present at
Wilbur Wright’s aëroplane shed when the telegram came bearing the
sad news. The sacrifice of one life at that moment seemed to
counterbalance the advantages gained by the triumph of the
brothers Wright. Even Wilbur Wright himself seemed to half repent
he had conquered the air! He exclaimed, “It seems all my fault.” It
was, indeed, then little thought what the future toll of the air would
have to be.
Fortunately for aëronautical progress, two days afterwards
Wilbur Wright recovered his nerve, and made the convincing flight of
1 hour 31 minutes 25 4-5th seconds.
From that day onwards there has been an increasing flow of
progress in the mastery of the air.
 CHAPTER VII
TYPES OF AËROPLANES

France has indeed been the breeding-place for types of aëroplanes.

From France have the nations of late been largely gathering them—
save Germany. She has preferred to evolve her own distinctive
types. Even before Wilbur Wright appeared with his machine at Le
Mans and the details were known, hearsay of his doings had fired
the French imagination to do what he had done. In ignorance of the
vital principle of movable surfaces that the Wrights had evolved,
there came into existence the unbending, rigid type that was not
destined to survive.
The first of these was the bird of prey of M. Santos Dumont.
Rudely simple was it in its construction. Two box kites formed the
supporting surface. In the centre was the motor, with the screw
behind. To attain flight the machine was run upon wheels along the
ground until a certain speed was reached, when the machine rose
into the air. With this the inventor did not do much more than make
aërial jumps; but rude as it was it contained one feature which has
since been retained in all aëroplanes. In this one respect it was an
advance—and a very necessary one—upon the Wright machine.
That feature was the attachment of wheels to the machine that has
been mentioned above. This was, indeed, an important step in the
evolution of the aërial scout. Had it been necessary to continue using
the external starting catapults that were a feature of the early
experiments of the Wrights, the application of the aëroplane to
warfare would have been somewhat limited.
The well-known Voisin machine was another outcome of this
period, but, imperfect as it was, it brought Mr. Henry Farman into
fame, for on it he was the first man in Europe to fly any distance
worthy of mention.

The Farman Biplane.

Discontented with the Voisin machine, Mr. Henry Farman
constructed one of his own design. Though it appeared at an early
stage of aëroplane development, it still remains one of the most
efficient types of biplanes. It has been used enormously in France,
and armoured Farmans play an important part in the great war that is
proceeding.
Mr. Farman quickly realised that for maintaining lateral stability
the vertical planes fitted between the main planes of the Voisin type
were a very poor substitute for the wing-warping method of the
brothers Wright. He, however, produced the movement of the main
surfaces in an original manner. He hinged small flaps to the rear
extremities of the main planes. These he called “ailerons.” They
produce much the same effect as the wing-warping method of the
brothers Wright. When the biplane tilted sideways, the flaps were
drawn down on the side that was depressed. The pressure of the air
on the flaps forced the aëroplane back on an even keel. In the
normal condition the flaps flew out straight in the wind on a level with
the main planes. Another noticeable feature of Mr. Farman’s
machine was the production of the first light and efficient landing
chassis. This was a combination of wooden skids and bicycle
wheels. Below the biplane, on wooden uprights, he fitted two long
wooden skids. On either side of each skid he placed two little
pneumatic tyred bicycle wheels, connected by a short axle. These
were held in position on the skid by stout rubber bands passing over
the axle.
In a general way the wheels raised the skids from the ground,
but if the ascent was abrupt the wheels were forced against the
rubber bands and the skids came in contact with the ground. With
the abatement of the force of the shock the wheels came again into
play.
Simplification of the chassis is becoming evident in the latest
forms of all military aëroplanes, the reduction of weight in this portion
of the apparatus being important.
To Mr. Farman belongs the credit of having first applied to his
aëroplane the now famous Gnome motor, in which seven or more
cylinders revolve. It can truly be said that the influence of this motor
on facilitating flight generally, and very particularly military aviation,
has been nothing short of prodigious. The aëroplane, like the airship,
had to wait for the light petroleum motor. Its advent made flight
possible, but achievement in flight would have been comparatively
small had it not been for the welcome appearance of a motor
specially adapted to the purpose.
The early forms of aëroplane engines in which the cylinders
were fixed had proved to be quite unreliable owing to the high
speeds at which the engines had to work. Overheating, loss of
power, and stopping were frequent occurrences. The water-cooling
and air-cooling systems introduced were equally inefficient. The very
fact that the cylinders of the Gnome motor revolved effected the
desideratum of automatic cooling, and also gave a smooth, even
thrust to the propeller.
If the aëroplanes in the present war were flying over the enemy’s
lines with old-fashioned engines, they would be dropping down into
hostile hands as quickly as dying flies from the ceiling on the first
winter days.
After the introduction of the Gnome motor, it was quickly realised
that the speeds secured by its use gave the aëroplane a stability that
was absent in the more slowly moving machines. Winds that were
the bugbear of the aëroplanists could then be combated, and the
aëroplane ceased to be the fine-weather machine. Heights could
then be climbed that a little while before were undreamt of. It is said
that there are some disadvantages in the case of revolving cylinders
—that they have been known to produce a gyroscopic effect that has
upset the machine. This, however, is a somewhat doubtful point. It
may be urged that the greater silence of motors with fixed cylinders
is an advantage in war. This may sometimes be so, and it is quite
possible that for offensive aëroplanes a special type of motor may be
in the future evolved.
To return to the other features of the Farman machine. The plan
he adopted in his racing machines of making the upper plane larger
than the lower one was a valuable step in speed-producing
machines.
The records won by Mr. Farman with his machines alone testify
to its efficiency. Often he has held the world’s records of distance,
duration, and height, wrestling, indeed, for these with the Blériot
monoplane.
In 1911 Mr. Farman began to make types of biplanes specially
designed for military use, and in which he studied how he could best
give the observing officer an unobstructed view of the ground
beneath him. He placed both pilot and observer in seats projecting in
front of the main planes. He also made a new departure in placing
his upper plane in advance of the lower one. He claimed that this
facilitates climbing and descent. He has, however, quite lately
evolved a newer type of scouting machine.
In this the lower plane is only one-third the span of the upper
one. The nacelle is not mounted on the lower plane, as in the
ordinary types of his machine, but, instead, strung from the main
spars of the top one. The usual chassis is absent. There is a single
running wheel mounted at each end of the lower plane, which is
brought very close to the ground. The upper and lower planes are
separated by four pairs of struts. The tail is similar to that used on
the ordinary type.
The following are the dimensions of one of the latest 1914 types
of one-seated Farman machines:—
 Length 3.75 metres
Span 11.50 metres
Area 26 sq. metres
Weight (total) 290 kgs.
„ (useful) 175 kgs.
Motor 80 h.p. Gnome
Speed 110 km. per hour

The following are the details of one of his high-power

hydroplanes (1914):—

Length 8.80 metres

Span 18.08 metres
Area 50 sq. metres
Weight (total) 605 kgs.
„ (useful) 275 kgs.
Maximum speed 105 km. per hour
 [Topical Press.
A BLÉRIOT MONOPLANE IN FLIGHT,
showing one of the two wings attached to the tubular body of machine, chassis,
stabilising plane, and rudder at rear.

The Blériot Monoplane.

At the same time that Mr. Henry Farman was making his first
flights on his biplanes, M. Blériot was experimenting with
monoplanes. His first attempts were disastrous. Time after time he
was dashed to the ground. But he persevered, and produced a
machine which by its performance staggered the aëronautical world.
When he was first experimenting most people thought that it was
in superposed surfaces that success alone lay. They forgot the
researches of Langley. These had showed that support depended on
two factors—speed and surface; that when speed is increased a less
supporting surface will suffice. The success of Blériot took the world
by surprise. If I were asked to name the men who have done most to
further practical aëronautical development, I should unhesitatingly
say: 1, the brothers Wright; 2, Blériot; 3, Pégoud.
The first have been already dealt with. I will speak of the two
latter together.
Of the work of both there has been one underlying characteristic
—simplicity. The former has produced a machine stripped indeed of
encumbering complexities, in which the restriction of accessories to
what is absolutely necessary is carried to a fine art; the latter with
that very machine has performed experiments in the air that the most
sanguine enthusiast of a few years back would have deemed far
beyond the region of the possible. In his graceful air diving, looping
the loop, and flying upside down, he gave the world a great object-
lesson of the materiality of air. He showed the air can give the aviator
as much support as the water can to a fancy swimmer. He showed
that if the aëroplane is an unstable thing, the human brain can
supply the stability; that in human flight, like the bird and its wings,
the machine and individual can be in closest touch. No one has
stripped the air of its terrors as has M. Pégoud. In the yielding air
there is indeed safety! It is the ground the aviator has to fear!
I have spoken of the simplicity of the Blériot monoplane. In the
machine with which M. Blériot flew over the Channel in 1909,
stretched like the wings of a bird on either side of a tubular wooden
frame partly covered with canvas and tapering to the rear, are placed
the two supporting planes, rounded at the ends. At the front end is
placed the motor (in the original type a three-cylindered engine, now
replaced by the Gnome motor), geared direct to a 6 feet 6 inches
wooden propeller, and on a level with the rear end of the planes.
Immediately behind the engine is the petrol tank, and behind that the
aviator’s seat. Near the rear end of the frame and underneath it is
the fixed tail, with two movable elevating tips. How simple is the
working of this monoplane! Moving a lever backwards and forwards
actuates the tips of the fixed tail at the back of the machine, and
causes it to rise or fall. Moving the same lever from side to side
warps the rear surfaces of the supporting planes. The act of pushing
from side to side a bar on which the aviator’s feet rest puts the
rudder into action and steers the machine.
 The triumphs of the Blériot monoplane would fill many pages. It
was the first machine to fly over an expanse of water—the Channel.
Later, it carried M. Prior from London to Paris without a stop,
traversing 250 miles in three hours 56 minutes, beating the
performances of the fleetest express trains by three hours. If it no
longer for the moment holds the record of height, which it has so
often done, it carried M. Garros up to a height of 5,000 metres.
When his engine broke down at that prodigious height, by its superb
gliding powers it brought him safely to earth!
It has flown over the Alpine peaks! It carried the first aëroplane
post—1,750 letters and cards—from Hendon to Windsor in
seventeen minutes!
In 1911 Blériot No. XI. flew with ten persons on board.
Its past records have indeed fitted it to be a military machine. It is
doubtlessly destined to play an important rôle in the present war in
the hands of the French aviators. Especially suitable is this type for
the one-seated military machine. Often it may be desirable to employ
a two-seated machine to carry pilot and observer; but there is often,
too, a use for the single-seated type of machine flying at a rate of
some eighty miles an hour. The work of these observers is to make
swift dashes over the enemy’s lines, make a speedy reconnaissance
of the enemy’s position, and return at once to headquarters with
what information has been obtained.
The following are the dimensions, etc., of the 1914 type of
armoured Blériot monoplanes:—

Length 6.15 metres

Span 10.10 metres
Area 19 sq. metres
Motor 80 h.p. Gnome
Speed 100 km. per hour

The Antoinette Monoplane.

 There is another monoplane that will figure in the history of
aëronautics—the Antoinette monoplane. This was the first flying
machine to fly in a wind. Up to the time that Mr. Latham went to the
flying meeting at Blackpool, which took place almost immediately
after the famous Rheims meeting, aviators had only dared to fly in
calm weather. On the flying grounds there used to be tiny flags on
posts. When the flags hung down limply that was the time for flying.
When they moved about, even languidly, that was the time to put the
aëroplane to rest in its shed. Aviators then underestimated the
capabilities of their own machines.
When the aviators came to England the island breezes kept the
little flags vigorously moving about. The aviators were consternated.
The public was disappointed. It began to regard flight as a calm-
weather business. Aëroplanes could not face one breath of wind! Of
what practical use would they ever be!
Latham at that time had his Antoinette monoplane at Blackpool.
It consisted of large and strongly built wings, giving a surface of
about 575 square feet, set at a dihedral angle. The motor was some
60 h.p. At the back of the body of the machine were fixed horizontal
and vertical fins. There were hinged horizontal planes at the end of
the tail for elevating or lowering the machine. “Ailerons” were used
on the main surface for controlling lateral stability. One day, at
Blackpool, Latham went up in a very high wind, and remained in the
air for a considerable time. How much of the stability of his machine
was due to his dexterity, or how much to the machine, it is difficult to
say. Probably the fact that the wings were set at a dihedral angle had
much to do with it. He also had a much larger horse power than his
contemporaries, which no doubt contributed to his success. Anyhow,
by the Antoinette monoplane flight was redeemed from the reproach
that it was merely a pastime for ideal weather conditions. From that
time aviators have sought the winds as well as the calms. Now
aircraft can fly in winds of forty-eight or even fifty miles an hour! This
step of Latham gave a great impetus towards the military adoption of
the aëroplane. The military and naval mind tends to despise what is
only of use in the most favourable conditions. It had put aside the