S3 geog term 2 test

1.3 what are the climatic characteristics of TRFs and tropic desert regions
TROPICAL DESERT TROPICAL RAINFOREST
(bilma, Sahara) (yangambi, Congo basin)
Highest mean monthly 33˚c (have seasons) 26˚c (no seasons)
temp
Hottest months July Whole year
Lowest mean 17˚c 25˚c
temperature
Coldest month Jan, Dec -
Annual range of temp 26.1˚c 25.5˚c
Annual rainfall 18mm 1900mm
Rainfall distribution Uneven distribution summer Wet throughout the entire
rain scanty and unreliable year no distinct wet and dry
seasons
Main facts governing climate
- Location (latitude, distance from the sea)
- Offshore wind and onshore rain shadow
Rainfall distribution
- Yangambi (tropical rainforest)
o High annual rainfall
o Evenly distributed
o Precipitation is found throughout the entire year
1.3.2 how do clouds and rain form in tropical areas
Convection rain forms on a heated surface
• is the most common type of rain that falls in both tropical rainforests and
tropical deserts
Formation of convection rain
1. intensely heated earth‘s surface
2. Air expands and rises
3. Air temperature falls
4. Relative humidity increases
5. Water is saturated in the air at the dew point
6. Condensation occurs, water vapor condenses into clouds
7. Condensation releases heat, and air continues to rise
8. Strong convection currents are created and thick clouds, i.e cumulonimbus cloud
9. Cooler air sinks to replace the rising air
10. Falls as convection rain
Things to note
• clouds must be drawn above the condensation level line
• Saturation is the state at which the relative humidity of air reached 100%
• The Dew point shows the air temperature at which saturation occurs
• Condensation level shows the altitude (height) at which condensation occurs
• Cumulonimbus clouds are thick clouds formed by a strong convection current
Other facts about convection rain
• commonly occurs in tropical regions and in continental interiors during summer
• In hk -> mainly occurs in summer when the land is intensely heated
• Occurs in the afternoon, when the convection current is the strongest
• Duration of rain is short but is often accompanied by thunderstorms
1.4 what is the relationship between rainfall and vegetation
annual rainfall height

tropical rainforest over 2000mm 35m 5˚N/S

tropical forest 1000-2000 mm 25m 10˚N/S

Woodland 1000-2000 mm 20m 15˚N/S

savanna 500-1000mm 5m 20˚N/S

Desert below 500mm 1m 25˚N/S

• vegetation becomes shorter in height, Less leafy plants fewer layers less dense
Biome
• an ecosystem at the world scale, defined by the dominant vegetation in the
region
o The distribution is controlled by climate
Climate-vegetation relationship
• As the amount of annual rainfall decreases
o Vegetation cover changes from dense to sparse
o Fewer species of plants and fewer tree layer in a vertical structure
o Plants are shorter, there are fewer trees
• The savanna -. A transitional region between the rainforest and the desert
Characteristics of plants in tropical Rainforest
• Hot and humid equatorial climate
o Support dense forests
o Many different kinds of plants grow in the hot and humid environments
• Home to over 50%of the world’s plants and animals
o Over 5000 kinds of plant species, ⅓ of the world’s bird species -> Rich in
biodiversity
• Plants grow continuously throughout the year
o No cold and dry seasons, Forest are evergreen
Evergreen, layered structure, a rich diversity of plant species -> Plants survive with
adaptation
- Tropical rainforests contain over 30 million species of plants and animals -> half
of the earth’s wildlife and at least two-thirds of its plant species -> rich in
biodiversity
Congo basin South-east asia Amazon basin
Up to 100000 plants Over 25000 plant 6000 flora
species species species
Rain forest plants account for the raw materials needed to make ¼ of western
medicines (>120)
 name heights Characteristic

layer emergent 50m tall, straight, smooth trunks

A Upper most layer, Are widely spaced
Old trees (50-100 yrs old)
Important for trees to grow high -> they are in
comp with other trees and plants for light and
water
Umbrella-shaped crowns -> fully exposed to the
sun
“Emerge” from the canopy later -> reach

layer main canopy 20-30m home to over 70% of the animals in the rain forest
B Food is plentiful
Dense, tall trees
Oval-shaped + overlapping crowns, long branches
-> blocks up to 90% of the sun
Most productive parts of the forest
Photosynthesis is at its greatest
Close and continuous canopy blocks sunlight from
penetrating down to the floret floor

layer under 15~ m dark gloomy area

C canopy/ Much larger leaves compared to those in the
young layer upper layer
Sapling (young trees) wait here for larger plants
for trees to die ->Leaving a gap in the canopy->
for them to grow into
Tree trunks are more slender
Conical-shaped crowns
Dies easily due to insufficient sunlight

layer shrub 5m mostly woody shrubs

D Adopted to require less sunlight
Large+dark-colored leaves
The relative humidity is very height in here (due to
constant shade)
Some shrubs, ferns and other plants which don't
need much sunlight can be grown in here
Much cooler than the top 3 layers

layer forest 0m very dark and damp in here

E floor/ 1% of sunlight
ground level Very little vegetation (only6-7%)
Very few plants can survive on the forest
floor, only mosses and fungi
Rotting leaves and dead animals accumulate to
form a layer of dead organic matter -> Litter
Many creepy crawling animals
Photosynthesis-> through absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing the oxygen -> stabilize the earth’s climate (lungs
of the earth) Rain forests store water like huge sponges -> Amazon forests alone store over half of the earth’s
rainwater Rainforests continually recycle huge quantities of water -> feeding the rivers, lakes Without
rainforests….. droughts would become more common -> lead to wide spread famine and disease ( regulate water
resources) Hot & wet climate throughout the year -> favors continuous growth of plants all year round -> evergreen
Fallen leaves will be quickly replaced by new ones Layered structure (plants -> develop special forms to adapt to
the forest environment)
Leaves
- Broad leaves +arrange their
leave at a different angle
o Maximize the absorption of
sunlight
- Drip tip (i.e pointed end of the
leaf) and waxy coating
o Easier for water to run off
the leaves and waterproof
- Very green
o Higher rate of
photosynthesis
Roots
- Thin soil layer in the TRFs
o Heavy rain -> wash away soil
- Shallow -> To absorb water and nutrients on/ near the surface
- Extensive ->Increase the area over which water and nutrients can be absorbed
from the soil
- Most rainforest soil is very poor with all the nutrients available largely remaining
at surface leave (litter)
- Butter roots
o Large wide roots on all sides of a shallowly rooted tree
o Commonly found in emergent and canopy layers
o Shallow roots -> aren’t strong enough to support the heavy, tall trees
o Roots that grow out from the tree trunk i.e large roots have ridges that
create a large surface area that help to support large trees
o Sometimes up to 10 m -> prevent the tree from falling over
- Aerial roots
o Roots above ground
o Grow from the plant stem or leaf tissues
o To absorb the moisture and dissolved minerals in the air
trunks
- Straight
o So that they can grow tall
- Branchless
o More water falls on the top of the tree
o They put their efforts into growing tall so they gain the most sunlight
Special plants
- In TRFs -> keen competition for sunlight, space, and nutrients
- Different growth habits
o Adaptation for growing in dark forests where the competition for light is
intense
 Climbers - Grows harmlessly upon another plant
(air plant) - Rooted in the soil at ground leave and use trees, as well as
other means of vertical support -> liana
- wind the way up the trees to the canopy to get access to a
well-lit area
- Climb along the three trunks for physical support
- Survive by growing on or climbing up tree trunks-> reach a
great height -> absorb sunlight

Epiphytes - Grows harmlessly upon another plant

- Attach to trunks and branches in the canopy layer
- Photosynthesis to make their own food
- Live on another plant
- Survive by growing on or climbing up tree trunks-> reach a
great height -> absorb sunlight

Stranglers - Start their life as epiphytes -> then send their roots into the
soil -> quickly surround the host trees -> block sunlight and
cause the death of the host tree
- Sprouts form a small, sticky seed -> descend along the trunk of
the host tree, eventually reaching the ground and entering the
soil -> the host tree dies and decomposes-> nutrients -> large
hollows that provide shelter and breeding site
- Killer trees s for bats, bird, and other animals
- Doesn’t grow up form the ground
Parasites - Grow on other host plants
- No chlorophyll
- No photosynthesis
- Obtain most of the nutrients they need form the host (harmful
to host)
- Also known as stink flower
o Emits a strong odor similar to rotting meat
- Can grow to be 3 feet across
- Weight up to 15 pound
- Parasitic plant -> no visible leaves, roots, or stem
- Attaches itself to a host plant to obtain
Forest degradation: where the
1.1 what is happening to tropical rainforest forest ecosystem lose their capacity
• Amazon rainforest located 2-4º south of the equator to provide important ecosystem
• Home to over 2 million plant and animal species services to people&nature
• 1150 types of trees can be found in 1km2
of the forest
There is a decline or decrease in rainforest
cover Little remaining along Brazil’s coastline
declining along the amazon river
a possible reason for the change is cattle
ranching and agriculture size of the
rainforest has decreased dramatically “fish-
skeleton pattern
Why are forests being cleared?
- Land for commercial agriculture (cash crop + cattle ranching)
- Wood (timber logging à old, big treesà expensive hardwood (eg mahogany for
hardwood furniture) à expensive furniture (high demand in developed nations)
- Mineral reserves eg gold or iron results in open-cast mining (mining activities)
- Land for development, urbanization, and infrastructure development as the
population grows (an increase of investment)
- Firewood for locals (small scale comparatively)
farming activities which cause large-scale removal of tropical rainforest in the
amazon basin
Amount of Extensive
- Cattle ranching
input-output
o main cause of deforestation
per unit of land
o extensive way
Output Pastoral
§ On average one cow occupies
one hectare of land for grazing Use of output Commercial
o Multinational enterprises buy large product Beef
areas at a low cost to rear cattle
o Landowners in brazil use cattle to Permanence of Sedentary
gain legal ownership of land farmland
§ Cattle provide beef to overseas Level of Low tech
market technology
o requires a large piece of pastureland, Owner Large
as the land in the rainforest is cheap international;
the economic return is much higher companies
o The increasing global demand for meat and beef encourages development
of this business for export
o The improving living standard of different places also lead to the growth of
the domestic market
o Changing eating habit à westernization à increasing demand for junk
food in the entire world
o Why is this performed in Brazil à low production cost
- Plantations
o Only row one type of crop in grown à Monoculture
o Lands have been cleared for growing cash crops
o Land areas for this is large
o Crops that are for sale are called cash crops
o Large agribusiness enterprises grow these crops on a large-scale farm
o Soya and corn are common because they are highly capitalized and
mechanized
§ soybeans
• They can be used as food fodder and biofuel (increase profit)
• A small portion of human food
• Mostly as fodder for animals (eg chicken, cattle, and fish)
What are the effects of deforestation on the rainforest
- local climate (negative effect)
o temperature increase, relative humidity decrease, wind speed increase
o higher surface temperature stronger wind
 Day time n daytime, since forest cover dcrease3 à incoming solar radiation
reaching the ground increase à temperatures of the air and the soil
increase
Evening in the evening, since forest cover decrease à heat loss from the ground
surface increase à the temperature of the air and the soil decrease
o compared to a normal forest, the deforested one has a larger range of air
and soil temperature
o without the dense canopy layer to block direct sunlightà increase
temperature à increase evaporation à change the rainfall pattern
o trees are forest barriers to slow down wind speed so without the trees
there is nothing that can slow down wind speed à stronger wind
- on plant & animal species (negative effect)
o damaging the ecological balance and lowering the biodiversity
§ vegetation is to provides food and habitat for a variety of species
and wildlife +depends on each other for survival à the death of
some species may lead to the extinction of some other species
- on native tribes (negative effects)
o loss of traditional lifestyle and culture
§ native people have been living in rainforests for a very long time
leading them to have traditional lifestyles eg shifting cultivation and
hunting à different human activities have reduced the land
available for them to live à new people will bring in new lifestyles
àNew and more different culture à disease
- on global climate ( negative effect)
o changes the global climate, speed up climate change à warmer climate
o plants take in and store carbon dioxide to do photosynthesis à green
plants are a carbon sinks) à will accumulate a lot of biomass
o when the plants are burned or left to rot à carbon dioxide will be
released into the atmosphere (which is a kind of greenhouse gas) à
absorbs and traps the heat radiating from the earth’s surface à global
warming
o the number of trees decrease, the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed will
also decrease
- on humans (negative effect)
o loss of important and valuable resources
§ humans may not be affected directly
§ result of climate changes and extinction of species à loss of many
important recourses (raw material) à lowers the quality of living
conditions and leads to the emergence of various problem
1.3 what are the impacts of deforestation on the water cycle
- trees are very important in the function of the water cycle which helps to
maintain a balance between the water in the flows and the water on land
- deforestation takes place, water balance goes away à changes in the cycle
- deforestation lead to
- water cycle à movement of water, water evaporates into the air then
condenses into clouds then falls as precipitation and water returns to the sea
Absorption Decrease
Interception Decrease
Infiltration Decrease Moisture is released form plants as water vapour then
rises up into the air
Condensation Decrease When water vapour rises it cools and condenses into
water droplets these group tgt to form cloud
Surface storage Increase
Groundwater Decrease
storage
Overland flow Increase Water overflows on the land surface
transpiration decrease Moisture is releases from plants as water vapour, then
rises up into air
Precipitation
evaporation Increase When the sun heats the earth’s surface, the water
increase, river, lakes, and soil evaporate and
becomes water vapor and rises up into the air
- large areas of the earth are covered by water fresh water is limited
- main storage of water is the atmosphere, land, and ocean or sea
o land à surface storage and subsurface storage
§ surface à lake, vegetation, snow ice; subsurface à Soil and rocks
processes in a water cycle
- called hydrological cycle
- regulation of water cycle
- can result in both drier and
wetter environments (flood
risk and drought risk)
- consists of stores àOcean
lakes and reservoirs; flows à
condensation, evaporation,
precipitation (rainfall)
deforestation influence the rainforest ability to regulate the water cycle
- flood regulation (linked to soil erosion), precipitation, storms, droughts
type of precipitation
Rain Most common, falling droplets Snow Fall->temp of cloud below freezing
sleet Mix of ice and rain freeze while fall Hail Frozen rain by thunderstorms
Drainage basin
- is the area of land that is drained by a river and
tributaries (small stream flows into main river)
- the edge of a river basin is marked by a
boundary called the watershed (dotted line)
- river source à the original point from which the
river flows 9where the river starts)
- the river mouth à or estuary is part of the river
where the river debouches the sea or ocean
- a confluence is a spot where two or more tributaries meet or when a tributary
feeds into the main channel
- the catchment area à all precipitation falling drains into the main river
 parts of a river
- made up of three parts (upper, middle, and lower)
o upper course
§ with source of river and waterfall, steep sides and V-shaped valleys
§ very steep gradient
o middle course
§ tributary, wider and shallower valleys
§ enters a gentler section, the river starts to wind
§ meandering channel
o lower course
§ estuary, sea, wide flat-bottomed valleys, and floodplains
§ gentlest section reaches the end of its journey, extensive flatland on
the two sides—floodplain
2.1 trouble with water
- what are droughts
o rainfall in area is much lower than normal for an extended period
o not enough water for usual consumption, water storage
what are the risks of it increasing because of deforestation
§ decreased transpiration, precipitation (in the local area and
transboundary (areas downwind), decreasing the water holding
capacity of soil which decreases infiltration
§ reduces the moisture from vegetation and cloud convection
§ deforestation will disrupt the water cycle, slash n burnsà
pollution will reduce cloud convection -. Higher risk of drought à
higher risk of fire as its dry à smoke will decrease rainfall even
further (negative feedback loop)
- what are floods
o when the water level in the river channel is higher than the river banks
(reaches bank full level) and overflows onto surrounding land
what are the risks of it increasing because of deforestation
§ reduced interception and increasing overland flow or surface runoff
§ increase risk of soil erosion by water à which leads to silting
- what is silting how does it result in floods
o deforestation results in increased soil erosion by wind and water
§ lack of roots to hold soil in place
o soil erosion à Soil is washed into the river by rainwater
o silting is when sediments get washed into the rivers which reduces their
maximum holding capacity
o it is when sediments stay on the river bed it causes the river to become
shallower and the river cannot hold as much water as before leading to
the decrease of the holding capacity
o results in increased surface runoff (lack of trees to intercept) also result
in a higher chance of flood during rain as the
river reaches bankfull more quickly
2.2 what are the effects of flooding
- negative effects
1. deaths and injuries
2. water contamination and spread of diseases
 3. disruption of communications and infrastructure
4. disruption of transportation
5. damage to buildings and other urban areas
6. crop failure
- disrupting utility services such as gas and electricity supplies.
- Polluting drinking water
2.2.2 positive effects of Flood on Agriculture
• It might help farmers as flood water might bring sediment which is known as
alluvium à It improves soil fertility
• Fertile and moist soil that is suitable for agriculture
• When you see flat low-lying land on either side of the river à Floodplain
• These are regularly flooded areas
• The soil in some are is salty--. Very difficult to grow crops on
o Flood water dissolves and removes the salt from the soil
2.3 what can be done to solve the problem of flood
• Flood measures; hard engineering strategies; soft engineering strategies
o Hard: human man-made engineering responses
o Soft: use of natural methods to cope with nature
• Regulating river flows
o Building dams and reservoirs
§ Can hold and store excess river water during periods of high rainfall
§ Help regulate river flow downstream
o Restoring the storage functions of lakes
§ Reclamation of land from lakes is prohibited
§ Asked people to give up farmland and fish ponds reclaimed from
lakes
§ Have a larger capacity to hold excess water during the wet season
o Afforestation
§ To increase the amount of
water infiltrating into the
ground
§ Reduce overland flow and
prevent too much rain from
flowing into the river after
rain
• increasing the holding capacity of river
channels
o Preventing silting
§ Silting à make river bed shallow
To stop we need to stop soil erosion
§ Planting trees controlling
deforestation (tree roots can hold the soil)
§ Terracing and building terraces (prevent soil erosion caused by
water)
§ Stopping grazing on steep sloped
o Building dykes
§ Build along the sides of the river channels
§ The height of river banks can be raised
§ Increase the holding capacity and prevent overflowing
 o Deepening and widening river channels
§ Increase the holding capacity of the river and allow a larger amount
of water within the channels
o Dredging river channels
§ Removing sediments from the river channel helps lower the river bed
and increases the holding capacity
Case study: water management in Bangladesh
• Where is Bangladesh
o The latitude ranges between 20.59 and 26.63
N, neighbored by India and Myanmar
o Densely-populated, low-lying, mainly riverine
country, south Asia with coastline of 580 km
o Has a tropical monsoon climateà by heavy
rainfall, high temps and high humidity
o Floods and cyclones accompanied by storm
surges affect periodically
• Three main river
o Brahmaputra-jamuna river
o Ganges-Padma river
o Surma-Meghna river
• Water problems in Bangladesh
o Flooding
• 22% of the area is flooded every year à The coastal area
§ Natural factors
• Abundant rainfall (typhoons and monsoon rain)
o Hight annual rainfall (20000mm)
o Seasonal variation
• Larger water flow
o Three large main rivers passing through Bangladesh
• Relief
o Low-lying country
§ A large part is around 10 meters above sea level
o Flood water can travel rapidly and far
o River flow slowly and silting is serious
• Climate changes
o Intensifies the melting of snow 9on the Himalayas); the
occurrence and strength of typhoons
o Higher sea levels and stronger storm surges
§ Pushes more seawater onto the land
o increasing the risk of flooding in coastal areas
§ human factors
• people in the mountain cut down trees à soil erosion
increasingàsiltation of rivers downstreamà high risk of flood
• raid increase in population à rapid urban development and
the expansion of settlements à Such land is covered by
concrete for building houses (concrete is impermeable, water
cannot be absorbed therefore the water flows over the
surface) à increases flood risk as the water enters the river
more rapidly (source of river à India)
 o water shortage
• only 40% have proper sanitation
• as the warmer season brings massive amounts of water in
frequent monsoons and the cooler season brings droughts
• 80% of the water that is available is used for agriculture
§ Increasing water demand
• Growing population
• The growing economy and agricultural sector (manufacturing
as well)
• Water intensive activities
§ Decreasing water supply
• Nov to April is the dry season
• Dams are built in the upper course of the river à water that
flows into Bangladesh is reduced
§ Difficulties in accessing clean water
• Sanitation is poor
o Sewage toilets water gets flushed into the river
• The river is polluted form manufacturing and pesticides
• Flooding by seawater makes the water system in coastal areas
ineffective and contaminated with seawater
o Sea level change in Bangladesh
§ The coastal area is very close to sea level à sea level rise is
expected to cause widespread flooding (climate change)
o Rapid population growth and increase of irrigation à more freshwater
o Inadequate clean water supply and poor sanitation à major challenge
faced by Bangladesh à thousands of people die each year from
waterborne diseases
How do people manage the river
• Regulate the discharge à The peak discharge is lowered (less discharge)
• Increase the bankfull discharge
o By increasing the water-holding capacity of surrounding rivers
Q: Explain how embankments/ afforestation/ dredging can help reduce flood risk
A: state the management technique, explain how it influences/ changes the water cycle
processes, and state how it reduced flood risk (increase capacity, reduce/deliver
river discharge, remover danger)
How does Bangladesh manage their water problems
a) Build up the banks with earth or concrete to make embankments/ levees
Embankments/ levees: increase height of the river banks and increase water-holding capacity
b) Dredge material from the bed and banks dredge materialà results in wider deeper
straighter channels à increase capacity c) Change crop patterns using drought-resistant
crops less water-intensive crops build irrigation canals to ensure a more stable supply of
water d) Build houses on silts to prevent house and property from being damaged e) Drill
wells water is extracted from groundwater f) Set up a warning system early warning,
evacuate
g) Rainwater collection for household use to prepare for droughts h) Stop people from
building in flood-prone area, plants more trees and prevent cutting of trees, and pass
a law to control the use of coastal areas crops trees will help regulate waterà more
infiltration à less overland flow à more interception à less siltation (delay time for water to
reach the river )