CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

This system is made up of the heart, blood, blood vessels, and lymphatics. It is the
body’s delivery system, concerned with circulating blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients
to every part of the body.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The purpose of the digestive system is to turn the food you eat into something useful for
the body. When you eat, your body uses this system to digest food so your cells can
use it to make energy. The organs involved in this system include the mouth, stomach,
and intestines.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
This system is made up of a collection of glands, including the pituitary and thyroid
glands, as well as the ovaries and testes. It regulates, coordinates, and controls a
number of body functions by secreting chemicals into the bloodstream. These
secretions help control moods, growth and development, and metabolism.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
This system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Its main function is to act
as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body
fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body
temperature.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
This system is made up of muscle tissue that helps move the body and move materials
through the body. Quite simply, muscles move you. Muscles are bundles of cells and
fibers that work in a simple way: they tighten up and relax.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the control center of the human body. It is made up of the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves. It receives and interprets stimuli and transmits impulses to
organs. Your brain uses the information it receives to coordinate all of your actions and
reactions.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human reproductive system ensures that humans are able to reproduce and
survive as a species. It is made up of organs such as the uterus, penis, ovaries, and
testes.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in
order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system
does this through breathing. It consists of the nose, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, bronchi,
and lungs.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to
supporting and protecting our bodies, allowing bodily movement, producing blood cells,
and storing minerals. This system consists of bones, cartilage, and joints.

URINARY SYSTEM
The purpose of the urinary system is to filter out excess fluid and other substances from
your bloodstream. Some fluid gets reabsorbed by your body but most gets expelled as
urine. The organs found in this system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.

ORGAN SYSTEMS: STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS

As part of this course, you must be knowledgeable about various organ systems, their
key structures, and the main functions of each organ system. These notes will give you
an overview of these organ systems and important information about each system.

CIRCULATORY (CARDIOVASCULAR) SYSTEM:

 PURPOSE:
o transport substances throughout the body
 nutrients such as glucose from DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
transported to cells
 oxygen from RESPIRATORY SYSTEM to cells
 carbon dioxide (a waste gas) from cells to RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM for removal
 hormones from the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 immune cells from the IMMUNE SYSTEM
 proteins secreted by cells
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o heart:
 bundle of muscle arranged into four “chambers” that fill with blood
and contract to “pump” blood throughout the body
 ATRIUM (ATRIA – plural): smaller chambers of the heart
that receive blood from veins; contract to pump blood
into VENTRICLES
  VENTRICLES: larger, more muscular chambers of the
heart that pump blood into ARTERIES(blood
vessels that carry blood away from the heart)
o blood
 made of two major parts…
 fluid called serum (made mostly of water, which allows it to
dissolve most substances for transport)
 cells
o red blood cells: carry oxygen to cells and carry
carbon dioxide away from cells
o white blood cells: immune cells that fight infection
o VASCULAR TISSUE (blood vessels): any tube that transports blood
 arteries: carry blood directly away from the heart
 arterioles: smaller than arteries; form as arteries branch into
smaller tubes; found between arteries and capillaries
 capillaries: smallest blood vessels in body; only blood vessels
with thin enough “walls” to allow exchange of substances between
blood and cells
 venules: tubes that form when capillaries merge together into
larger blood vessels; bring blood back from the capillaries to the
heart
 veins: large blood vessels that form as venules merge into larger
blood vessels; deliver blood directly into ATRIA (chambers of the
heart that receive blood)
o VASCULAR TISSUE IN PLANTS: although plants do NOT have a
circulatory system, they do need a means of transporting substances
through the plant structure
 xylem: tubes primarily responsible for transporting water from the
roots to the leaves
 phloem: tubes primarily responsible for transporting glucose
throughout the plant (in whatever direction is needed)

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o allows gas exchange between circulatory system and external
environment
 gases move by simple diffusion
 oxygen moves into the blood of the circulatory system
 carbon dioxide moves out of the blood of the circulatory
system
o NOTE: this is the only system that allows gas exchange between the
blood and the external environment
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o lungs
o bronchi
 o bronchioles
o alveoli

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o breaks apart large, complex molecules found in food until they are small
enough to be absorbed into the circulatory system for transport to cells;
 nutrients absorbed are primarily for energy and used in building
other molecules needed by the organism
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o esophagus
o stomach
o small intestine
o large intestine

URINARY & EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

 PURPOSE:
o waste removal (except for gases, which are removed by the respiratory
system)
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o URINARY SYSTEM:
 kidneys
 urinary bladder

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o transmitting nerve impulses to coordinate an organism’s movements;
storing information; controlling perception
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o NEURONS: nerve cells; typically organized into large, interconnected
networks to send nerve impulses throughout the body
 AXON: portion of a neuron capable of transmitting nerve
impulses to other neurons
 DENDRITE: portion of neuron that receives nerve impulses from
other neurons
o brain
o spinal cord
o sensory organs

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o controls many bodily processes and helps
maintain HOMEOSTASIS through the production of chemical
messengers called HORMONES
  HOMEOSTASIS: an organism’s or cell’s ability to maintain a
stable internal environment
 temperature: humans maintain a relatively stable body
temperature by shivering when cold and sweating when hot
 water balance: osmosis plays a major role in the ability of
humans to maintain appropriate levels of water within their
cells
 pH:
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o GLANDS: structures that secrete HORMONES
o HORMONES: chemical messengers typically produced by GLANDS in
one part of the body and transported by the circulatory system to
a different area of the body where they will have their effect
 INSULIN:
 ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE:

MUSCULAR SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o stimulated by nervous system to cause movements (often by pulling on
the structures of the skeletal system)
 CONTRACTIONS: shortening of muscle that cause movements;
stimulated by nerves of the nervous system
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o muscles made of contractile proteins (contractile fibers) organized into
groups and often attached to bones of the skeletal system by tendons

SKELETAL SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o provides support and structure for the body
o protects vital organs
o provides attachment sites for muscles of the MUSCULAR SYSTEM
to allow more effective movements
o plays a role in blood cell formation
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o bones
o marrow
o joints

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o allows production of offspring essential to the sustainability of a species
from generation to generation
o provides a means by which genetic information can be passed from
parents to offspring
 KEY STRUCTURES:
 o gonads
o gametes
o zygote
o ANGIOSPERMS: “flowering plants” reproduce sexually when a pollen
grain containing a sperm cell fuses (merges) with a egg cell

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o provides a first-line defense against foreign substances entering the
body
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o skin

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o works closely with circulatory system to filter substances in the blood
and detect infections
o plays a role in returning fluids back to the circulatory system
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o lymph nodes
o lymph

IMMUNE SYSTEM:
 PURPOSE:
o fights infections and protects organisms from foreign substances that
enter the organism
 KEY STRUCTURES:
o macrophages
o B-cells
o T-cells

Body Systems and Their Functions

 Organ Systems - There are 11 different organ systems in the human body. These
include the (1) Integumentary (Skin); (2)Muscular; (3) Skeletal; (4) Nervous;
(5) Endocrine; (6) Circulatory; (7) Lymphatic; (8) Respiratory; (9) Digestive;
(10) Urinary; and (11) Reproductive.
o Integumentary System – This system includes skin and hair as
organs. The skin protects all of the other organs of the body from attack by germs
and viruses, and helps the body to minimize water loss. Hair helps to protect the
body from heat loss and protects the skin from ultraviolet rays (sunburn).
o Muscular System – This system includes muscles as an organ. There are three
kinds of muscle tissue: skeletal muscles that move the skeleton, smooth muscles
are provide control and movement in other organs, and cardiac muscles that pump
 blood through the heart. In addition, the connective tissue (tendons) connects
muscles to bones.
o Skeletal System – This system includes bones and joints as organs. This
system protects vital organs of the body, such as the lungs, heart, brain and spinal
cord, and provides support for all of the organ systems. By working with the
muscular system, it also allows the body to move, secure food and protect itself.
o Nervous System – This system includes the brain, spinal cord and nerves as
organs. It receives information from all the other body organs and then directs
each organ how to operate as a team.
o Endocrine System – This system includes the pancreas and pituitary gland. It
controls homeostasis (under direction from the nervous system) by releasing
hormones that control chemical reactions in the body.
o Circulatory System – This system includes the heart, veins and arteries as
organs.
o Lymphatic System – This system includes the spleen and thymus. It removes
dead cells and foreign bodies from body fluids.
o Respiratory System – This system includes the lungs and trachea as organs. It
takes oxygen from the air and transfers it into the blood stream, and takes carbon
dioxide from the blood stream and exhales it out of the body.
o Digestive System – This system includes the stomach, small intestines and
large intestines as organs. It processes food into glucose, minerals and amino
acids, which it passes to the circulatory system for delivery.
o Urinary System – This system includes the kidneys and bladder as organs. It
maintains a proper balance of water and chemicals in the blood filters out waste
products from the blood and flushes the waste products out of the body.
o Reproductive System – This system includes the ovaries and testes. It allows
for the continued survival of the species by creating new organisms.
 Cooperation Between Systems – All of the organ systems help one another to keep
the body functioning as a whole. For example, the digestive system processes food into
glucose that every cell of the body uses as food, and the respiratory system processes air
and filters out the oxygen that every cell of the body needs to “burn” the glucose to create
energy. Neither system could complete their jobs without the circulatory system
delivering the glucose and oxygen to each cell, or without the nervous system (brain)
directing and coordinating all of these jobs.

The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as
one unit. Ten major organ systems of the body are listed below, along with
several organs that are associated with each system.

Organ Systems

Circulatory System: transports nutrients and gasses to cells andtissues throughout

body.
 Cardiovascular: heart, blood vessels, blood
 Lymphatic: Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils
 Digestive System: breaks down food polymers into smaller molecules to provide
energy for the body.
 Primary organs: mouth, stomach, intestines, rectum
 Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, liver, pancreas
Endocrine System: helps to maintain growth andhomeostasis within the body.
 pituitary gland, pineal gland, hypothalamus, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland
Integumentary System: protects the internal structures of the body from
damage, prevents dehydration, stores fat and produces vitamines and
hormones.
 skin, nails, hair, sweat glands
Muscular System: enables movement of the body.
 muscles
Nervous System: monitors and coordinates internal organ function and
responds to changes in the external environment.
 brain, spinal cord, nerves
Reproductive System: enables the production of offspring through sexual
reproduction.
 Male: testes, scrotum, penis, vas deferens, prostate
 Female: ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
Respiratory System: provides the body with oxygen via gas exchange between
air from the outside environment and gases in the blood.
 lungs, nose, trachea, bronchi
Skeletal System: supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form.
 bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, cartilage
Urinary/Excretory Systems: removes wastes and maintains water balance in the
body.
 kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, ureters

It is important to keep in mind that these systems don't just exist as

individual units. The final product of these cooperating systems is one unit
called the body. Each system depends on the others, either directly or
indirectly, to keep the body functioning normally.

Integumentary
A. Functions
1. protect underlying tissues from injury
2. prevent excessive loss or absorption of water and the consequent effect on tissues
3. aid excretion and absorption of specific metabolites and ions
4. almost all sense organs are derived in part from the integument
B. Components
skin: composed of epidermis above and the dermis below as well as the derivatives of these
two layers (e.g., scales, hair, feathers)
Skeletal
A. Functions
1. provide a framework for all body sustems
2. provide attachments for muscules, tendons, and fascia
3. enclose and protect vital organs
4. serve as a reserve storehouse for minerals
B. Components
1. bones, cartilage and ligaments divided into the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column,
ribs) and the appendicular skeleton (pectoral and pelvic girdles, limbs)

Muscular
A. Functions
1. movement of body and parts
2. maintenance of posture
3. internal transport and expulsion (movement of food through digestive tract, blood
through vessels, germ cells through reproductive tract, bile from gallbladder, urine from
kidneys, feces from alimentary canal)
4. homeostatic adjustments such as size of opening of the pupil of the eye, the pylorus,
the anus, and blood vessels; heat production in some vertebrates
B. Components
1. smooth (nonstriated) muscles of involuntary control found primarily in wall of
digestive tract, genital ducts, and blood vessels
2. cardiac muscle of involuntary control restricted to the heart
3. striated muscles generally under voluntary control found attached to the skeleton so
intimately that the name "musculoskeletal system" is often applied; tendons (the
connective tissue bands that bind striated muscle to bone)

Digestive
A. Functions
1. capture and physical/chemical disintegration of food
2. absorption, detoxification, alteration, storage, and controlled release of the products of
digestion and metabolism
B. Components
1. alimentary canal: mouth and oral cavity with associated teeth, tongue, and jaws;
pharynx (associated intimately with the respiratory system); esophagus, stomach.
intestine (divided and specialized in various ways)
2. accessary glands: salivary, liver, pancreas

Circulatory
A. Functions
1. transport of materials to and from cells
2. transport, formation, and storage of blood cells for oxygen transport, defense, and
immunogenic functions
3. drain fluids from between cells and return it to the regular circulatory system from
which it leaked
B. Components
1. heart, arteries (from the heart to the tissues), arterioles (small arteries), capillaries
(extremely small vessels connecting arterioles and venules), venules (small veins), veins
(from tissues to the heart
2. spleen (and other sites in various vertebrates, but always intimately associated with the
digestive tract and/or skeletal system)
3. lymphatic system

Respiratory
A. Functions
1. exchange of gases (primarily intake of oxygen and discharge of carbon dioxide)
between the organism and its environment (water or air)
2. various accessary functions from production of sound to nest building
B. Components
1. lungs, gills, and/or skin, depending on which groups of vertebrates are under
discussion; lungs and gills are derived from and intimately connected with the
pharyngeal region of the digestive system

Excretory
A. Functions
1. chemical, and to a lesser extent physical, homeostasis (maintenance of a constant
internal environment) by (a) excreting toxic and metabolic waste products, especially
those containing nitrogen; (b) maintaining proper water balance; (c) maintaining proper
concentration of salts and other substances in the blood; (d) maintaining proper acid-base
equilibrium in body fluids
B. Components
1. kidneys and excretory ducts variously aided by the gills, lungs, skin, and/or intestines.
2. the mode of development and use of common ducts makes this and the reproductive
system inseparable morphologically so that the two are often referred to as the urogenital
system.

Reproductive
A. Functions
1. formation of zygotes by the union of two gametes to produce new individuals of the
same biological species
B. Components
1. primary sex organs in the form of male (testes) or female (ovaries) gonads
2. secondary sex organs concerned with transport of gametes from their site of formation
to their site of union
3. accessary sex organs assuring union of gametes, such as glands and external genitalia

Endocrine
A. Functions
1. regulation and correlation/integration of body activities through chemical substances
(hormones) carried by the blood.
 2. as opposed to the method of action of the nervous system, the endocrine system is
slower acting, being limited by the rate of blood flow, but it is capable of long,
continuous action.
B. Components
1. a large number of cell types discharge secretions that have regulatory effects on other
cells. In more primitive vertebrates, these cells tend to be widely scattered in other
tissues. More advanced vertebrates have discrete aggregations of these cells to form
endocrine glands.

Nervous
A. Functions
1. regulation and correlation/integration of body activities through conduction within and
between individual cells or neurons, which eventually cause a response in some other
system (especially muscular contractions). The nervous system is fast acting; conduction
may be faster than 90 meters per second.
B. Components
1. Central nervous system (CNS): brain, spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): craniospinal nerves, which exit from the protective
skeletal sheath of the cranium and vertebrae and may be either of a voluntary nature (to
striated muscles) or involuntary (to smooth muscles); nerves of the latter type are often
referred to collectively as the autonomic nervous system. Sensory nerves from either
complex sense organs (e.g., eye, ear) or simple receptors (e.g., cutaneous sensory
nerves) enter the CNS via the craniospinal nerves.

ORGAN SYSTEMS REVIEW

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Components: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
Function: covers and protects body
Specific features:
-Protection against injury
-Sensory receptors in skin tell about the environment (touch, pressure, heat, cold, pain)
-Prevents drying out of cells
-Helps maintain body temperature (capillaries and sweat glands in skin)
-Sweat glands excrete water and some wastes
-Skin has Vitamin D precursor, which is converted to Vitamin D by sunlight

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Components: bones, cartilage, ligaments
Function: supports and protects body; muscles attached to bones; provides calcium storage; site
of blood cell formation
Specific features:
-Supports body via bony framework
 -Protects delicate vital organs (for their weight, bones are nearly as strong as steel)
-Bones are levers that transmit muscular forces; muscles are attached to bones by bands of
connective tissue called tendons. When muscles contract, they pull on bones. Bones are held
together at the joints by bands of connective tissue called ligaments.
-Marrow inside some bones produces blood cells (specifically inside flat bones: skull, ribs and
breastbone)
-Bones serve as banks for storage and release of minerals like calcium and phosphorus

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Components: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
Function: moves parts of the skeleton, locomotion; pumps blood; aids movement of internal
materials
Specific features:
-Muscle cells contract and become shorter and thicker; because muscle cells are long and
narrow, they are called fibers
-Skeletal muscles are attached to bones; they are voluntary muscles, which make our bodies
move. They are striped or striated in appearance.
-Cardiac muscle is found in the walls of the heart; it contacts involuntarily and is also striated.
-Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the digestive tract, uterus, blood vessels and other
internal organs. The fibers are not striated and they are involuntary.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Components: nerves and sense organs, brain and spinal cord
Function: receives stimuli from external and internal environments, conducts impulses and
integrates activities of other systems
Specific features:
-Two divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral
-Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
-Peripheral nervous system consists of the sense organs (eyes, ears, taste buds,
olfactory receptors, touch receptors) and the nerves which connect the spinal cord with the rest of
the body. These nerves are classified as either afferent (transmit information from the periphery
to the spinal cord) or efferent (transmit information from the spinal cord to the periphery).
-Peripheral nervous system is subdivided into two divisions: somatic division (consists
of receptors and nerves concerned with changes in the outside environment; the sense organs and
afferent nerves) and the autonomic division (regulates the internal environment; primarily the
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of the efferent system of nerves).

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Components: pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, hypothalamus gland, pineal gland,
kidney, pancreas, ovaries, testes and other ductless glands (which are defined as tissues that
secrete hormones that diffuse into the blood vessels)
Function: regulates body chemistry and many body functions
Specific features:
-These glands are regulated by feedback control: information about hormone levels or
their effect is fed back to the gland to regulate the hormone's release
-Endocrine activity is controlled by the hypothalamus gland (which is located in the brain). This
gland links the nervous and endocrine systems. As a result of nervous stimuli, it secretes several
releasing and inhibiting hormones that affect the activity of the other glands.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Components: heart, blood vessels, blood; lymph and lymph structures
Function: transports materials from one part of the body to another; defends body against
disease
Specific features:
-Consists of two subsystems: the cardiovascular system (includes the heart which pumps the
blood through the blood vessels) and the lymphatic system (which helps to preserve fluid balance
and protects the body against disease)
-Transports nutrients from the digestive system to all parts of the body
-Transports oxygen from the lungs to all the cells of the body
-Transports carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes from the cells to the excretory organs
-Transports hormones from the endocrine glands to the target tissues
-Helps maintain normal body temperature
-Helps maintain fluid balance
-Protects the body against disease-causing organisms. The lymphocytes, which are a
type of white blood cell, are formed in the lymph tissue: lymph glands, spleen, thymus, tonsils
and lymphoid tissue in the gut. There are two types of lymphocytes: T lymphocytes (the
mediators of cellular immunity; these cells destroy the invader) and B lymphocytes (the
antibody-producing cells; humoral immunity).
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Components: lungs and air passageways
Function: exchanges gases between the blood and the external environment
Specific features:
-Respiration includes breathing, gas exchange between lungs and blood, transport of gases
through the body by the blood, gas exchange between the blood and the cells and cellular
respiration (the chemical reaction pathways by which chemical energy is obtained from food).
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Components: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas
Function: ingests and digests foods, absorbs them into the blood
Specific features:
-Salivary glands, liver and pancreas are not part of the digestive system but secrete digestive
juices into it
-The digestive system involves four major processes:
1. Ingestion-taking food into the mouth, chewing and swallowing
2. Digestion-breakdown of food into smaller pieces (catalyzed by enzymes)
3. Absorption-transfer of digested food through the wall of the intestine and into
the circulatory system
4. Elimination-removal of undigested and unabsorbed food from the body (in feces)

URINARY SYSTEM
Components: kidney, bladder and associated ducts
Function: excretes metabolic wastes; removes substances present in excess from the blood
Specific features:
-Urine is made by the kidneys; it's transported from the kidneys to the bladder by the ureters; the
bladder stores the urine then the urine leaves the bladder and exits the body via the urethra.
-95% of urine is water. Also present is urea, which is produced in the liver (urea is the excretion
form of nitrogen waste).

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Components: testes, ovaries and associated structures
Function: reproduction, which provides for continuation of the species