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UNIT III
(1) Data link layer design issues: Services, Framing, Error
detection and correction,Enor and flow control,
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(2) Stop-and-Wait protocol

Stop and Wait Protocol
Before understanding the stop and Wait protocol, we first know about the error control mechanism. The
error control mechanism is used so that the received data should be exactly same whatever sender has
sent the data. The error control mechanism is divided into two categories, i.e., Stop and Wait ARQ and
sliding window. The sliding window is further divided into two categories, i.e., Go Back N, and Selective
Repeat. Based on the usage, the people select the error control mechanism whether it is stop and
wait or sliding window.

What is Stop and Wait protocol?

Here stop and wait means, whatever the data that sender wants to send, he sends the data to the receiver.
After sending the data, he stops and waits until he receives the acknowledgment from the receiver. The
stop and wait protocol is a flow control protocol where flow control is one of the services of the data link
layer.

It is a data-link layer protocol which is used for transmitting the data over the noiseless channels. It provides
unidirectional data transmission which means that either sending or receiving of data will take place at a
time. It provides flow-control mechanism but does not provide any error control mechanism.

The idea behind the usage of this frame is that when the sender sends the frame then he waits for the
acknowledgment before sending the next frame.
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Primitives of Stop and Wait Protocol

The primitives of stop and wait protocol are:

Sender side

Rule 1: Sender sends one data packet at a time.

Rule 2: Sender sends the next packet only when it receives the acknowledgment of the previous packet.

Therefore, the idea of stop and wait protocol in the sender's side is very simple, i.e., send one packet at a
time, and do not send another packet before receiving the acknowledgment.

Receiver side
Rule 1: Receive and then consume the data packet.

Rule 2: When the data packet is consumed, receiver sends the acknowledgment to the sender.

Therefore, the idea of stop and wait protocol in the receiver's side is also very simple, i.e., consume the
packet, and once the packet is consumed, the acknowledgment is sent. This is known as a flow control
mechanism.

Working of Stop and Wait protocol

The above figure shows the working of the stop and wait protocol. If there is a sender and receiver, then
sender sends the packet and that packet is known as a data packet. The sender will not send the second
packet without receiving the acknowledgment of the first packet. The receiver sends the acknowledgment
for the data packet that it has received. Once the acknowledgment is received, the sender sends the next
packet. This process continues until all the packet are not sent. The main advantage of this protocol is its
simplicity but it has some disadvantages also. For example, if there are 1000 data packets to be sent, then
all the 1000 packets cannot be sent at a time as in Stop and Wait protocol, one packet is sent at a time.

Disadvantages of Stop and Wait protocol

The following are the problems associated with a stop and wait protocol:

1. Problems occur due to lost data

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Suppose the sender sends the data and the data is lost. The receiver is waiting for the data for a long time.
Since the data is not received by the receiver, so it does not send any acknowledgment. Since the sender
does not receive any acknowledgment so it will not send the next packet. This problem occurs due to the
lost data.

In this case, two problems occur:

o Sender waits for an infinite amount of time for an acknowledgment.

o Receiver waits for an infinite amount of time for a data.

2. Problems occur due to lost acknowledgment

Suppose the sender sends the data and it has also been received by the receiver. On receiving the packet,
the receiver sends the acknowledgment. In this case, the acknowledgment is lost in a network, so there is
no chance for the sender to receive the acknowledgment. There is also no chance for the sender to send
the next packet as in stop and wait protocol, the next packet cannot be sent until the acknowledgment of
the previous packet is received.

In this case, one problem occurs:

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o Sender waits for an infinite amount of time for an acknowledgment.

3. Problem due to the delayed data or acknowledgment

Suppose the sender sends the data and it has also been received by the receiver. The receiver then sends
the acknowledgment but the acknowledgment is received after the timeout period on the sender's side.
As the acknowledgment is received late, so acknowledgment can be wrongly considered as the
acknowledgment of some other data packet.

(2) Sliding Window Protocol

The sliding window is a technique for sending multiple frames at a time. It controls the data packets
between the two devices where reliable and gradual delivery of data frames is needed. It is also used in TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol).

In this technique, each frame has sent from the sequence number. The sequence numbers are used to find
the missing data in the receiver end. The purpose of the sliding window technique is to avoid duplicate
data, so it uses the sequence number.

Types of Sliding Window Protocol

Sliding window protocol has two types:

1. Go-Back-N ARQ
2. Selective Repeat ARQ

Go-Back-N ARQ
Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is also known as Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request. It is a data link layer
protocol that uses a sliding window method. In this, if any frame is corrupted or lost, all subsequent frames
have to be sent again.
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The size of the sender window is N in this protocol. For example, Go-Back-8, the size of the sender window,
will be 8. The receiver window size is always 1.

If the receiver receives a corrupted frame, it cancels it. The receiver does not accept a corrupted frame.
When the timer expires, the sender sends the correct frame again. The design of the Go-Back-N ARQ
protocol is shown below.

The example of Go-Back-N ARQ is shown below in the figure.

Selective Repeat ARQ

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Selective Repeat ARQ is also known as the Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request. It is a data link
layer protocol that uses a sliding window method. The Go-back-N ARQ protocol works well if it has fewer
errors. But if there is a lot of error in the frame, lots of bandwidth loss in sending the frames again. So, we
use the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol. In this protocol, the size of the sender window is always equal to
the size of the receiver window. The size of the sliding window is always greater than 1.

If the receiver receives a corrupt frame, it does not directly discard it. It sends a negative acknowledgment
to the sender. The sender sends that frame again as soon as on the receiving negative acknowledgment.
There is no waiting for any time-out to send that frame. The design of the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol
is shown below.

The example of the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol is shown below in the figure.
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Difference between the Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ?

Go-Back-N ARQ Selective Repeat ARQ

If a frame is corrupted or lost in it,all subsequent In this, only the frame is sent again, which is corrupted or lost.
frames have to be sent again.

If it has a high error rate,it wastes a lot of There is a loss of low bandwidth.
bandwidth.

It is less complex. It is more complex because it has to do sorting and searching

as well. And it also requires more storage.

It does not require sorting. In this, sorting is done to get the frames in the correct order.

It does not require searching. The search operation is performed in it.

It is used more. It is used less because it is more complex.

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(3) Static and Dynamic allocation

Static storage allocation
o In static allocation, names are bound to storage locations.
o If memory is created at compile time then the memory will be created in static area and only once.
o Static allocation supports the dynamic data structure that means memory is created only at compile time and
deallocated after program completion.
o The drawback with static storage allocation is that the size and position of data objects should be known at
compile time.
o Another drawback is restriction of the recursion procedure.

Stack Storage Allocation

o In static storage allocation, storage is organized as a stack.
o An activation record is pushed into the stack when activation begins and it is popped when the activation
end.
o Activation record contains the locals so that they are bound to fresh storage in each activation record. The
value of locals is deleted when the activation ends.
o It works on the basis of last-in-first-out (LIFO) and this allocation supports the recursion process.

Heap Storage Allocation

o Heap allocation is the most flexible allocation scheme.
o Allocation and deallocation of memory can be done at any time and at any place depending upon the user's
requirement.
o Heap allocation is used to allocate memory to the variables dynamically and when the variables are no more
used then claim it back.
o Heap storage allocation supports the recursion process.

Example:

1. fact (int n)
2. {
3. if (n<=1)
4. return 1;
5. else
6. return (n * fact(n-1));
7. }
8. fact (6)

The dynamic allocation is as follows:

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* Dynamic allocation*
The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer to allocate memory
at runtime. Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4 functions of stdlib.h header file.

1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc()
4. free()

Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static memory allocation and
dynamic memory allocation.

static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation

memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.

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memory can't be increased while executing program. memory can be increased while executing program.

used in array. used in linked list.

Now let's have a quick look at the methods used for dynamic memory allocation.

malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.

calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.

malloc() function in C
The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory.

67.4M

1.2K

Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM

It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.

It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of malloc() function is given below:

1. ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)

Let's see the example of malloc() function.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
5. printf("Enter number of elements: ");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
8. if(ptr==NULL)
9. {
10. printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
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11. exit(0);
12. }
13. printf("Enter elements of array: ");
14. for(i=0;i<n;++i)
15. {
16. scanf("%d",ptr+i);
17. sum+=*(ptr+i);
18. }
19. printf("Sum=%d",sum);
20. free(ptr);
21. return 0;
22. }

Output

Enter elements of array: 3

Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

calloc() function in C
The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.

It initially initialize all bytes to zero.

It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of calloc() function is given below:

1. ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)

Let's see the example of calloc() function.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
5. printf("Enter number of elements: ");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc
8. if(ptr==NULL)
9. {
10. printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
11. exit(0);
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12. }
13. printf("Enter elements of array: ");
14. for(i=0;i<n;++i)
15. {
16. scanf("%d",ptr+i);
17. sum+=*(ptr+i);
18. }
19. printf("Sum=%d",sum);
20. free(ptr);
21. return 0;
22. }

Output

Enter elements of array: 3

Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

realloc() function in C
If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by realloc() function. In
short, it changes the memory size.

Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.

1. ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)

free() function in C
The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free() function.
Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.

Let's see the syntax of free() function.

(4) Multiple access protocol

Multiple access protocol- ALOHA, CSMA,
CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is used in a computer network to transmit the data between two devices or nodes. It
divides the layer into parts such as data link control and the multiple access resolution/protocol. The
upper layer has the responsibility to flow control and the error control in the data link layer, and hence it
is termed as logical of data link control. Whereas the lower sub-layer is used to handle and reduce the
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collision or multiple access on a channel. Hence it is termed as media access control or the multiple access
resolutions.

Data Link Control

A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting data over a dedicated link using various techniques
such as framing, error control and flow control of data packets in the computer network.

What is a multiple access protocol?

When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the data link control is enough
to handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated path to communicate or transfer the data between
two devices. In that case, multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously transmits the data over
the channel. It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access protocol is required to reduce
the collision and avoid crosstalk between the channels.

For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher asks a question, all the
students (small channels) in the class start answering the question at the same time (transferring the data
simultaneously). All the students respond at the same time due to which data is overlap or data lost.
Therefore it is the responsibility of a teacher (multiple access protocol) to manage the students and make
them one answer.

Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the different process as:

A. Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In random access
protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any station control another station.
Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However, if more
than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a collision or data conflict. Due to the collision,
the data frame packets may be lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.
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Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on the channel.

o Aloha
o CSMA
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA

ALOHA Random Access Protocol

It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium to transmit
data. Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network simultaneously when a data
frameset is available for transmission.

Aloha Rules

1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha

Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure Aloha. In pure Aloha, when
each station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances
of collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost. When any station transmits the data frame to a
channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge the receiver
end within the specified time, the station waits for a random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb).
And the station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame until
all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.

1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.

2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
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As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared channel and transmitting
data frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at the same time. Only two
frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the same time, other
frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can
occur, and both will suffer damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last
bit of the second frame. Both frames are completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the data
frame.

Slotted Aloha

The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure Aloha has a very high
possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval
called slots. So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at
the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the stations are
unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait until the beginning of the
slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the
beginning of two or more station time slot.

1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.

2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.
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CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a channel (idle
or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the
channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision
on a transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the shared channel and
if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the
channel to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data, each node must
sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must
wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent mode
defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with
a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes
the frame with the next time slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station before the
transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the channel is inactive, each station
waits for its turn to retransmit the data.
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CSMA/ CD

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data frames. The
CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel
before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the
transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any
collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to
terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.

CSMA/ CA

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier transmission of data
frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a
channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only
a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been successfully transmitted to the
receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the
frame occurs in the shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.

Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:
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Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it gets the channel
is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for some time, and this time period is
called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the station.

Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots. When the
station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot number of slots as wait time.
If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send
data packets when the channel is inactive.

Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame to the shared
channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.

B. Controlled Access Protocol

It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the controlled access method, each
station interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular station approved by all other stations. It
means that a single station cannot send the data frames unless all other stations are not approved. It has
three types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling, and Token Passing.

C. Channelization Protocols
It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared channel to be shared
across multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes. It can access all the stations at the same
time to send the data frames to the channel.

Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time, distance and codes:

1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA

It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the available bandwidth into equal
bands so that multiple users can send data through a different frequency to the subchannel. Each station
is reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk between the channels and interferences of
stations.
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TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It allows the same frequency bandwidth
to be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid collisions in the shared channel, it divides the channel
into different frequency slots that allocate stations to transmit the data frames. The
same frequency bandwidth into the shared channel by dividing the signal into various time slots to
transmit it. However, TDMA has an overhead of synchronization that specifies each station's time slot by
adding synchronization bits to each slot.

CDMA

The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method. In CDMA, all stations can
simultaneously send the data over the same channel. It means that it allows each station to transmit the
data frames with full frequency on the shared channel at all times. It does not require the division of
bandwidth on a shared channel based on time slots. If multiple stations send data to a channel
simultaneously, their data frames are separated by a unique code sequence. Each station has a different
unique code for transmitting the data over a shared channel. For example, there are multiple users in a
room that are continuously speaking. Data is received by the users if only two-person interact with each
other using the same language. Similarly, in the network, if different stations communicate with each other
simultaneously with different code language.
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(5) Collision-free and limited-contention protocols

Almost collisions can be avoided in CSMA/CD.they can still occur during the contention period.the
collision during contention period adversely affects the system performance, this happens when the cable
is long and length of packet are short. This problem becomes serious as fiber optics network come into
use. Here we shall discuss some protocols that resolve the collision during the contention period.
 Bit-map Protocol
 Binary Countdown
 Limited Contention Protocols
 The Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
Pure and slotted Aloha, CSMA and CSMA/CD are Contention based Protocols:
 Try-if collide-Retry
 No guarantee of performance
 What happen if the network load is high?

Collision Free Protocols:

 Pay constant overhead to achieve performance guarantee
 Good when network load is high

1. Bit-map Protocol:
Bit map protocol is collision free Protocol in In bitmap protocol method, each contention period
consists of exactly N slots. if any station has to send frame, then it transmits a 1 bit in the respective
slot. For example if station 2 has a frame to send, it transmits a 1 bit during the second slot.
In general Station 1 Announce the fact that it has a frame questions by inserting a 1 bit into slot 1.
In this way, each station has complete knowledge of which station wishes to transmit. There will
never be any collisions because everyone agrees on who goes next. Protocols like this in which the
desire to transmit is broadcasting for the actual transmission are called Reservation Protocols.

For analyzing the performance of this protocol, We will measure time in units of the contention bits
slot, with a data frame consisting of d time units. Under low load conditions, the bitmap will simply
be repeated over and over, for lack of data frames.All the stations have something to send all the
time at high load, the N bit contention period is prorated over N frames, yielding an overhead of
only 1 bit per frame.
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Generally, high numbered stations have to wait for half a scan before starting to transmit low
numbered stations have to wait for half a scan(N/2 bit slots) before starting to transmit, low
numbered stations have to wait on an average 1.5 N slots.

2. Binary Countdown:
Binary countdown protocol is used to overcome the overhead 1 bit per binary station. In binary
countdown, binary station addresses are used. A station wanting to use the channel broadcast its
address as binary bit string starting with the high order bit. All addresses are assumed of the same
length. Here, we will see the example to illustrate the working of the binary countdown.
In this method, different station addresses are ORed together who decide the priority of
transmitting. If these stations 0001, 1001, 1100, 1011 all are trying to seize the channel for
transmission. All the station at first broadcast their most significant address bit that is 0, 1, 1, 1
respectively. The most significant bits are ORed together. Station 0001 see the 1MSB in another
station addresses and knows that a higher numbered station is competing for the channel, so it gives
up for the current round.
Other three stations 1001, 1100, 1011 continue. The next bit is 1 at station 1100, swiss station 1011
and 1001 give up. Then station 110 starts transmitting a frame, after which another bidding cycle
starts.

Limited Contention Protocols

 Collision based protocols (pure and slotted ALOHA, CSMA/CD) are good when the
network load is low.
 Collision free protocols (bitmap, binary Countdown) are good when load is high.
 How about combining their advantages
1. Behave like the ALOHA scheme under light load
2. Behave like the bitmap scheme under heavy load.

Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol:

 partition the group of station and limit the contention for each slot.
 Under light load, everyone can try for each slot like aloha
 Under heavy load, only a group can try for each slot
 How do we do it:
1. treat every stations as the leaf of a binary tree
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2. first slot (after successful transmission), all stations

can try to get the slot(under the root node).
3. if no conflict, fine
4. in case of conflict, only nodes under a subtree get to try for the next one. (depth
first search)

For Example:

 Slot-0: C*, E*, F*, H* (all nodes under node 0 can try which are going to send),
conflict
 Slot-1: C* (all nodes under node 1can try}, C sends
 Slot-2: E*, F*, H*(all nodes under node 2 can try}, conflict
 Slot-3: E*, F* (all nodes under node 5 can try to send), conflict
 Slot-4: E* (all nodes under E can try), E sends
 Slot-5: F* (all nodes under F can try), F sends
 Slot-6: H* (all nodes under node 6 can try to send), H sends.

(6) Virtual LAN, LAN and MANs

What is Virtual LAN
Virtual Local Area Networks or Virtual LANs (VLANs) are a logical group of computers that appear to be
on the same LAN irrespective of the configuration of the underlying physical network. Network
administrators partition the networks to match the functional requirements of the VLANs so that each
VLAN comprise of a subset of ports on a single or multiple switches or bridges. This allows computers
and devices in a VLAN to communicate in the simulated environment as if it is a separate LAN.

Features of VLANs
 A VLAN forms sub-network grouping together devices on separate physical LANs.
 VLAN's help the network manager to segment LANs logically into different broadcast domains.
 VLANs function at layer 2, i.e. Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
 There may be one or more network bridges or switches to form multiple, independent VLANs.
 Using VLANs, network administrators can easily partition a single switched network into multiple networks
depending upon the functional and security requirements of their systems.
40 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

 VLANs eliminate the requirement to run new cables or reconfiguring physical connections in the present
network infrastructure.
 VLANs help large organizations to re-partition devices aiming improved traffic management.
 VLANs also provide better security management allowing partitioning of devices according to their security
criteria and also by ensuring a higher degree of control connected devices.
 VLANs are more flexible than physical LANs since they are formed by logical connections. This aids is
quicker and cheaper reconfiguration of devices when the logical partitioning needs to be changed.
Types of VLANs

 Protocol VLAN − Here, the traffic is handled based on the protocol used. A switch or bridge segregates,
forwards or discards frames the come to it based upon the traffics protocol.
 Port-based VLAN − This is also called static VLAN. Here, the network administrator assigns the ports on
the switch / bridge to form a virtual network.
 Dynamic VLAN − Here, the network administrator simply defines network membership according to device
characteristics.

Difference between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Networks are very important in our lives. Be it a social network or a computer network, it is essential. Social
networks are essential in building cordial relationships among family, work/ office colleagues, and friends.
Social relationships are built either through personal interaction or social media. Similarly, there are
computer networks that help in building social relationships. These networks depend upon the speed at
which the internet is provided. All these three networks, i.e., LAN, MAN, and WAN, are used for providing
internet services to people. Let us discuss about them in detail.
41 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

LAN
LAN (Local Area Network) is defined as a computer network that is responsible for connecting local areas
like schools, residents, universities, etc. The main function of the local area networks is to link the
computers, thereby providing access to the printers, photocopies, and other services. LAN has client-server
architecture.

There are two types of LAN, i.e., peer-to-peer LAN and client/ service LAN. All these networks are connected
to one central security database. It is interesting to note that LAN has wired networks, and all the computers
and printers are connected through these wires. A LAN is used as an exclusive network for organizations,
schools, universities, etc. One of the major examples of LAN is the computers in school. All the computers
are connected through wires with one central database.

MAN
A MAN, also called the Metropolitan Area Network, is defined as the computer network that joins the
metropolitan areas. MAN works either through wires/ cables or modem. Telephone company network is a
common example of MAN as they provide high-speed DSL line to the consumers. The main characteristic
of MAN is that it is the interconnection between several links/ networks in a metropolitan area. Point-to-
point connections are used in MAN. The network size of MAN ranges from 5-50 Kms. The regional sources
are often shared in MAN. It is interesting to note that MAN is either owned by a group or by a network
provider. Therefore, the metropolitan area network is not that expensive. The setup is quite easy, and the
internet speed is relatively high. Thus, the implementation cost is saved in MAN.

WAN
A WAN, also called the Wide Area Network, is defined as a telecommunications network that extends over
a large area. The primary purpose of WAN is computer networking. The networks are linked to
communicate with one another.

WAN is not associated with a particular location. It helps in communication and sharing the required
information among the connections. WAN is the largest network as compared to MAN and LAN. A WAN
may cover a country, continent, etc. Examples of WAN include broadband services, 3G or 4G connections,
etc. Some of the advantages of WAN are that it covers a larger geographical area, the software, resources,
and other information is shared, has a high bandwidth, the travel charges are reduced, etc. Now, there are
certain contrasting points between LAN, MAN, and WAN. So, let us have a look at them.

S.NO. LAN MAN WAN

1. LAN is defined as a computer On the other hand, MAN is On the other hand, WAN is defined
network that links the local areas defined as a computer as the telecommunications network
like schools, universities, network that links the that covers a large geographical
organizations, etc. metropolitan areas. area.
42 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

2. The full form of the LAN is Local The full form of MAN is The full form of WAN is a Wide Area
Area Network. Metropolitan Area Network. Network.

3. LAN is a wired network, i.e., all The connections in MAN are The network of WAN is connected
the computers and printers are connected through modem through broadband services, 3G or
connected through wires. or cables/ wires. 4G internet services, etc.

4. The ownership of LAN is private. The ownership of MAN The ownership of WAN might be
might be public or private. private or public.

5. The internet speed of LAN is very The sped of MAN is The speed of WAN is relatively less
high, i.e., 1000 Mbps. moderate, i.e., 44-155 Mbps. than MAN and LAN, i.e., 150 Mbps.

6. The maintenance cost of LAN is The maintenance cost of The maintenance cost of WAN is
easy. MAN is difficult. difficult.

7. The bandwidth of LAN is high. The bandwidth of MAN is The bandwidth of WAN is relatively
less. low.

8. Examples: Examples: Examples:

o City o Broadband and internet
o College
o Building throughout the country or
o School
continent.
o University
o Hospital

So, these are some of the contrasting points between LAN, MAN, and WAN. Now, there are certain features
regarding LAN, MAN, and WAN. So, let us have a look at them.

Characteristics of LAN
1. It is a network owned by a private owner.
2. Personal computers, printers, etc., are connected through LAN.
3. LANs are very easy to design and troubleshoot.
4. A central database is used to connect the LAN networks.
5. The data transfer rate of LAN is 10 Gbits/s.
6. LANs are limited to local areas.

Characteristics of MAN
1. MAN is a larger network than LAN.
 43 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

2. The geographical area covered is larger than LAN.

3. MAN generally covers a city. The television network is the prime example of MAN.
4. Two or more computers are connected through this network.

Characteristics of WAN
1. The largest area, like a country, is covered by WAN.
2. Different metropolitan countries are linked through the telecommunications network.
3. WAN may be interconnected in and around the world.
4. The connection between the networks is established through telephone lines or satellites.

So, these are some of the characteristics of LAN, MAN, and WAN. All these three connections are widely
used to connect different areas. Telephones and the internet are common examples of these networks.
Thus, LAN, MAN, and WAN are essential networks that connect people, places, and countries together.

(7) IEEE Standards for LAN and MAN

IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It is the largest technical professional
association dedicated to advancing innovation and technological excellence for the benefit of humanity. It
is designed to build industry standards, serve professionals involved in every aspect of electrical, electronic
and computing field. It also organizes conferences and provides a platform for publications. IEEE has
around 1,000 employees to support its activities. The Management council comprises the Executive
Director and senior executives. It manages the IEEE staff operations. As of January 2017, Karen Bartleson is
the President and CEO of IEEE.

IEEE focuses in following areas:

o Electrical Engineering
o Electronics & Communication Engineering
o Computer Engineering
o Information Technology
 44 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

History
IEEE was founded in 1963 by the merger of the two institutes, first is Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) and
second is American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE).

Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE) was founded in 1912 and AIEE is founded in 1884. In the beginning, it
had 150,000 members, 140,000 of whom were from the United States. By 2010, it had more than 395000
members in 160 countries.

Headquarters
IEEE is headquartered in New York in United States of America.

IEEE Standards
o 802 - LAN/MAN
o 802.1 - Media access control (MAC)
o 802.2 - Logical Link Control (LLC)
o 802.3 - Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
o 802.11 - Wireless Networking "WiFi"

Growth and Globalization

Technologies under IEEE are continuously spread across the world and reach into more and more area of
people lives. According to records, by the early 21st century, IEEE served its members and their interests
with 38 Societies; 130 journals, transactions and magazines; more than 300 conferences annually; and 900
active standards.

Key points
o IEEE is pronounced as Eye Triple E.
o It is a non-profit professional association.
o It works for the benefit of Humanity.
o It is best known for developing standards for computer and electronic industry.

(8) Bluetooth, Cellular telephony

Bluetooth Technology in Mobile Computing

Bluetooth technology is a high speed and low powered wireless technology designed to connect phones
or other portable equipment for communication or file transmissions. This is based on mobile computing
technology. Following is a list of some prominent features of Bluetooth technology:
45 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

o Bluetooth is also known as IEEE 802.15 standard or specification that uses low power radio communications
to link phones, computers and other network devices over a short distance without using any type of
connecting wires.
o As Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard so, it is used to send or receive data to connected
devices present across a certain distance using a band of 2.4 to 2.485 GHz.
o In Bluetooth technology, the wireless signals transmit data and files over a short distance, typically up to 30
feet or 10 meters.
o Bluetooth technology was developed by a group of 5 companies known as Special Interest Group formed in
1998. The companies are Ericsson, Intel, Nokia, IBM, and Toshiba.
o The range of Bluetooth technology for data exchange was up to 10 meters in older versions of devices, but
the latest version of Bluetooth technology i.e., Bluetooth 5.0, can exchange data in the range of about 40-
400 meters.
o The average speed of data transmission in Bluetooth technology was around 1 Mbps in the very first version.
The second version was 2.0+ EDR, which provided the data rate speed of 3Mbps. The third was 3.0+HS, which
provided the speed of 24 Mbps. The latest version of this technology is 5.0.

History of Bluetooth
There is an amazing story behind the history of Bluetooth technology. The Bluetooth wireless technology
was named after a Danish King named Harald Blatand. His last name means "Bluetooth" in English. The
name "Bluetooth" was awarded to this technology because the Danish King named Harald Blatand was
united the Denmark and Norway, same as Bluetooth wireless technology is used to unite two disparate
devices for communication or data transmission.

Ericsson Mobile Communications started the development of Bluetooth technology in 1994. The main
motive behind the development of this amazing technology was to find an alternative to the use of cables
for communication between mobile phones and other devices. In 1998, 4 big companies of that time
named Ericsson, IBM, Nokia and Toshiba formed the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which
published the 1st version of Bluetooth technology in 1999. After that, four versions have been released.
The latest version of this technology is Bluetooth 5.0.

The Architecture of Bluetooth Technology

o In Bluetooth technology, the network of Bluetooth consists of a Personal Area Network or a
o Bluetooth's architecture is also called a "Piconet" because it is made of multiple networks.
o It contains a minimum of 2 to a maximum of 8 Bluetooth peer devices.
o It usually contains a single master and up to 7 slaves.
o Piconet provides the technology which facilitates data transmission based on its nodes, i.e., Master node and
Slave Nodes.
o The master node is responsible for sending the data while the slave nodes are used to receive the data.
46 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

o In Bluetooth technology, data transmission occurs through Ultra-High frequency and short-wavelength radio
waves.
o The Piconet uses the concept of multiplexing and spread spectrum. It is a combination of code division
multiple access (CDMA) and frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique.

How does Bluetooth work?

As we stated that there is one master and up to 7 slaves may exist for a Bluetooth connection. The master
is the device that initiates communication with other devices. The master device handles the
communications link and traffic between itself and the slave devices associated with it. The slave devices
have to respond to the master device and synchronize their transmit/receive timing with the master
device's specified time.

Conditions for Successful Data transmission

Following is a list of some conditions that must be satisfied for a successful data transmission in Bluetooth
technology:

o Maximum number of Master Node - 1

o Maximum number of Slave Nodes - 7
o Maximum number of Nodes in a Piconet - 8
o Maximum number of devices that can be paired - 28 - 1 = 255
o Number of devices that can be parked → Infinite (∞)

Explanation
o The parked node is a type of node that is ready to be connected and stand by node is a type of node that
can either become a slave or parked node or remains idle or disconnected.
47 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

o In Bluetooth technology, the data transmission can only occur between master and slave nodes. It cannot be
done between slave and slave nodes. However, two master nodes can be connected.
o If the connection from the master node gets disconnected, the whole Piconet gets disconnected.
o If there is a connection between two master nodes, then that network is called as Scatter-net.
o It means scatter-nets are created when a device becomes an active member of more than one Piconet and
the adjoining device shares its time slots among the different piconets.
o If the number of slaves or devices is increased in a Piconet, then the data transmission speed will be
decreased, and if the number of slaves or devices is decreased in number, then the data transmission speed
will be increased.

Specifications of Bluetooth Technology

Bluetooth technology can be specified in two types:

o The Core Specification

o The Pro?les Speci?cation

The Core Specifications

The core specification is used to define the Bluetooth protocol stack and the requirements for the testing
and qualification process of the Bluetooth-based products.

The core specification of Bluetooth Technology contains 5 layers:

1. Radio: It is used to specify the requirements for radio transmission such as frequency, modulation, and power
characteristics for a Bluetooth transceiver.
2. Baseband Layer: It is used to define physical and logical channels, voice or data link types, various packet
formats, transmit and receive timing, channel control, and the mechanism for frequency hopping and device
addressing. It also specifies point to point or point to multipoint links. The length range of a packet can vary
from 68 bits to a maximum of 3071 bits.
3. Link Manager Protocol (LMP): The Link manager protocol is used to de?ne the procedures for link set up
and ongoing link management.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP): It is used for adapting upper-layer protocols to
the baseband layer.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): It facilitates the Bluetooth device to query other Bluetooth devices for
device information, provided services, and the characteristics of those services.

Here, the first three layers denote the Bluetooth module, whereas the last two layers make up the host.
The interface between these two logical groups is called the Host Controller Interface.

The Pro?les Speci?cation

48 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

It provides usage models to show detailed information about using the Bluetooth protocol for various
types of applications.

Advantages of Bluetooth Technology

Following is a list of some advantages of the Bluetooth technology:

o Bluetooth Technology is based on Wireless technology. That's why it is cheap because it doesn't need any
transmission wire that reduces the cost.
o It is very simple to form a Piconet in Bluetooth technology.
o It removes the problem of radio interference by using the Speed Frequency Hopping technique.
o The energy or power consumption is very low, about 0.3mW. It makes it possible for the least utilization of
battery life.
o It is robust because it guarantees security at a bit level. The authentication is controlled using a 128bit key.
o You can use it for transferring the data, and verbal communication as Bluetooth can support data channels
of up to 3 similar voice channels.
o It doesn't require line of sight and one to one communication as used in other modes of wireless
communications such as infrared.

Disadvantages of Bluetooth Technology

Following is a list of some disadvantages of the Bluetooth technology:

o In Bluetooth technology, the bandwidth is low.

o The data transmission range may also be an issue because it is also less.

Applications of Bluetooth Technology

Bluetooth technology is used in many communicational and entertainment devices. The following are some
most used applications of the Bluetooth technology:

o Bluetooth technology is used in cordless desktop. It means the peripheral devices such as a mouse, keyboard,
printer, speakers, etc. are connected to the desktop without a wire.
o It is used in the multimedia transfer, such as exchanging multimedia data like songs, videos, pictures etc. that
can be transferred among devices using Bluetooth.
o This technology is also used in the following devices: i.e.
o Bluetooth Speakers.
o Bluetooth Headphones.
o Bluetooth Headsets for calling purposes.
o Bluetooth gaming consoles etc.
 49 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

(9) ISDN Broad Band

ISDN: Integrated Service Digital Network
The telephone system was viewed as a means of transmitting voice before Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN), with some special services being offered for data. Speech and data can now be integrated
on the same lines using ISDN, which was not possible with the traditional telephone system.

Although ISDN is a packet-switched network that enables digital speech and data transmission, it is also a
circuit-switched telephone network system. This may lead to speech or data quality that is superior to what
an analogue phone can deliver. It offers a packet-switched connection that can transfer data at a rate of
sixty-four kilobits per second. It offered upstream and downstream bandwidth at a maximum rate of 128
kbit/s. Channel bonding allowed for a higher data rate. Six to eight 64 kb/s channels on ISDN B-channels
with three or four BRIs are typically bonded.

The OSI model is used by ISDN as the network between the physical layer and data-link, but ISDN is often
only used with Q.931 and its related protocols. These signalling protocols, which were first developed in
1986, are used to initiate and terminate circuit-switched connections as well as for advanced calling features
for the user. In between single desktop videoconferencing systems and group videoconferencing systems,
ISDN enables simultaneous audio, video, and text communication between them.

Interfaces for ISDN

The ISDN interfaces are as follows:ello Java Program for Beginners

1. BRI, or Basic Rate Interface

BRI uses two data-bearing channels (referred to as "B" channels) and one signalling channel (referred to as
a "D" channel) to start connections. The D channel can only go as fast as 16 Kbps, whereas the B channels
can go as fast as 64 Kbps. The two channels operate separately from one another. For instance, one channel
might be used to establish a TCP/IP connection to one site while the other is used to fax information to a
different place. ISDN is supported through a basic rate interface in iSeries (BRl).

According to the basic rate interface (BRl), a digital pipe with two B channels running at 64 Kbps each and
one D channel running at 16 Kbps is required. This translates to 144 Kbps of speed. In addition, a 48 Kbps
operating overhead is needed for the BRl service itself. Consequently, a 192 Kbps digital pipe is needed.

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) - The Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23
or 30 B channels, depending on the country you are in. PRI is not supported by the iSeries. A digital pipe
with 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D channel is incorporated in the conventional Primary Rate Interface
(PRI). 1.536 Mbps is equal to 23 B channels at 64 Kbps apiece and 1 D channel at 64 Kbps. Additionally, the
PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead. As a result, PRI needs a 1.544 Mbps digital pipe.

3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN): Unlike narrowband ISDN, which relies significantly on copper cable to
operate over the current communications infrastructure, B-ISDN is primarily dependent on the
development of fibre optics.
50 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

Services offered by ISDN

ISDN offers customers a fully integrated digital service. The bearer services, teleservices, and supplemental
services are subcategories of this service.

1. Bearer Services - The bearer network allows users to communicate with one another via voice, data, and
video without the network changing the nature of the connection. The network does not have to manage the
data, which prevents it from changing the information's content. Bearer services are present in the OSI
model's top three levels. They have precise definitions thanks to the ISDN standard. They can be transmitted
across circuit-, packet-, frame-, or cell-switched networks.
2. Teleservices - In this case, the network has the option to modify or process the data's contents. Layers 4
through 7 of the OSI model relate to these services. Teleservices are built to manage complicated user needs
and rely on the bearer services' infrastructure. The user is not required to understand every step of the
procedure. Telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex, and teleconferencing are all examples of teleservices.
Even though these services are specifically defined by the ISDN, they have not yet been become standards.
3. Additional Service- Supplementary services offer bearer services and teleservices more capably. Call waiting,
message handling, and reverse charging are a few examples of supplemental services that are common in
today's telephone company offerings.

Principle of ISDN
The ITU-T standards serve as the foundation for how ISDN operates (formerly CCITT). For the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T), with its
headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, organises telecommunications standards. According to ITU-T
recommendations, ISDN's different guiding concepts include:

o Accommodate switched and un-switched applications.

o Accommodate both voice and non-voice applications.
o Using 64-kbps connections only.
o Networked intelligence.

International Development
According to a study by the German Department of Science, the number of ISDN channels per 1,000
people was as follows in 2005.:

o Norway: 401
o Denmark: 339
o Germany: 333
o Switzerland: 331
o Japan: 240
51 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

o United Kingdom: 160

o Finland: 160
o Sweden: 135
o Italy: 105
o France: 85
o Spain: 58
o United States: 47

Australia
Telstra offers ISDN services to its commercial clients. The minimum monthly fee for voice and data calls
was changed by Telstra. There are two main categories of ISDN services i.e., Basic Rate services, either ISDN
2 or ISDN 2 Enhanced. The Basic Rate services, ISDN 10/20/30, are of different kind. Telstra stated that
beginning from January 31, 2018, recent sales of ISDN products would cease. By 2022, it would be
announced when ISDN service would officially end and transition to the new service would begin.

France
Under the brand name Numeris (2 B+D), a professional Duo and residential I2 version of the ISDN service
is provided by France Telecom. In France, ISDN is commonly referred to as RNIS and is widely accessible.
Although it is still prevalent in more remote and outlying locations and for applications like business voice
and point-of-sale terminals, the use of ISDN for data transfer and Internet access is decreasing because of
the arrival of ADSL.

Germany
The number of installed analogue lines was declining because of ISDN's success. BRI and PRI were both
offered by Deutsche Telekom (DTAG). Competing phone providers frequently provided just ISDN and no
analogue lines. Due to the ubiquitous accessibility of ADSL services, voice and fax traffic were the main
uses of ISDN.

Due to the fact that the pairing of DSL with an analogue line had no cost benefit over a combined ISDN-
DSL connection, ISDN (BRI) and ADSL/VDSL were frequently bundled on the same line up until 2007. When
the manufacturers of the ISDN technology stopped producing it and spare parts were difficult to find, this
behaviour started to cause problems for the operators. Since then, phone companies have been offering
less expensive xDSL-only solutions that use VoIP for telephony to cut costs by running separate data and
voice networks.

Most German operators stopped supplying ISDN lines about 2010 and started offering increased VoIP on
top of DSL lines. In Germany, there are no longer any new ISDN lines available as of 2018. Existing ISDN
lines have been phased out since 2016 and existing customers have been urged to switch to VoIP services
based on DSL. Other carriers like Vodafone anticipate their phase-out to be complete by 2022, while
Deutsche Telekom originally planned to phase out by 2018.

Greece
52 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

Greece's established telecommunications provider, OTE, provides ISDN BRI (BRA) services. After ADSL was
introduced in 2003, the significance of ISDN for data transport began to wane, and it is now only used for
specialised corporate applications with point-to-point requirements.

India
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Reliance Communications, and Bharti Airtel, the country's top three
communication service providers, provide both PRI and ISDN BRI services. DLC technology is used by Bharti
Airtel and Reliance Communications to deliver these services. With the advent of broadband technologies,
ADSL is taking on more of the bandwidth demand. ISDN is still a vital backup network for point-to-point
leased line customers such as banks, Eseva Centres, Life Insurance Corporation of India, and SBI ATMs.

Japan
NTT, a Japanese telecommunications corporation, launched its INS Net 64 and INS Net 1500 branded ISDN
services on April 19, 1988. This was the result of NTT's own investigation and test of what it called the INS
(Information Network System) in the 1970s.

Previously, using Japanese digital telephone exchange technology created by Fujitsu, the first I interface
ISDN was experimentally implemented in April 1985. Modern ISDN services employ the I interface rather
than the outdated and incompatible Y interface.

As alternative technologies like ADSL, cable Internet connection, and fibre to the home gained more
traction in Japan, the number of ISDN subscribers decreased. NTT has announced their plans to switch
backend from PSTN to the IP network between 2020 and 2025 on November 2, 2010. ISDN services will be
phased out during this transfer, and fibre optic services are advised as a replacement.

Norway
As a result of NTT's independent investigation and testing of INS in the 1970s begun by Telenor, a
Norwegian telecommunications operator, and it also started providing state-wide ISDN services on April
19, 1988, under the trademarked names INS Net 64 and INS Net 1500.

United Kingdom
In the UK, British Telecom (BT) provides both ISDN30 and ISDN2e (BRI) (PRI). Up until April 2006, Home
Highway and Business Highway were BRI ISDN-based systems that offered both integrated analogue
connectivity and ISDN. For direct computer access, later versions of the Highway devices also had built-in
USB ports. Home Highway was purchased by many home users, typically for Internet access, even though
it was slower than ADSL since it was accessible in areas where ADSL was not. BT revealed their intention to
phase out the UK's ISDN infrastructure by 2025 in the early months of 2015.

United States and Canada

In Canada and the US, ISDN-BRI has never become a widely used telephone access technology; it is still a
specialised offering. Customers found the service to be "a solution in search of a problem" and found it
challenging to navigate and use the wide variety of options and features.
 53 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

(10) ATM Networks

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications
Standards Section (ITU-T) that is very efficient for the relay of calling. Also, it is used to transfer all the
services like voice, data, or video. These services can be conveyed in a small fixed-sized packet called the
cell. These cells are connected in a network that transmits the data asynchronously.

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a technology that was developed in the year between 1970 and
1980. This was considered the revolution in packet switching. Each cell consists of 53 bytes longs. Further,
the 53 bytes long can be divided into 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Before making an ATM call, we
need to send a message to set up the connection.

All the cells follow the same path connected to the destination. The cell can also handle both variable and
constant rate traffic. Thus it has multiple types of traffic with end-to-end encryption. Asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) does not depend on the transmission medium. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) uses cell
or packet switching and virtual circuits to switch the transmission medium. The main purpose of designing
the Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is to help implement high-performance multimedia networking.

ATM Cell Format

In Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), the data are transmitted through a fixed-size unit called cells. As we
know, each cell has 53 bytes long. There are two types of Asynchronous transfer modes (ATM). These are
as follows:

1. UNI header

This is used in the private connection in the Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network between ATM
switches and ATM endpoints.

2. NNI header

It communicates between the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switches.

Working of ATM
Two types of connection use the Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM). A virtual path can be created end-
to-end across an ATM network, as it does not route the cells to a particular virtual circuit. In case of major
failure, all cells belonging to a particular virtual path are routed the same way through the ATM network,
thus helping faster recovery.

Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the cells, which are Virtual Path and
Virtual Connection switches that can have different virtual channel connections between them, serving the
purpose of creating a virtual trunk between the switches, which can be handled as a single entity. Its basic
operation is straightforward looking up the connection value in the local translation table, determining the
outgoing port of the connection, and the new VPI/VCI value of the connection on that link.
54 |M.sc sem I ADVANCE COMPUTER NETWORK

ATM vs. DATA Networks (Internet)

o ATM is a "virtual circuit" based: Here, the path is reserved before transmission. While Internet Protocol (IP)
is connectionless, end-to-end resource reservations are impossible. RSVP is a new signaling protocol on the
internet.
o ATM Cells: Fixed or small, and the Tradeoff is between voice or data. At the same time, IP packets are of
variable size.
o Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit locally assigned labels in cells.
At the same time, IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets.

ATM Applications
1. ATM WANs

To send the data over a long distance, we use WAN and a router to connect ATMs and other networks.

2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services

It helps manage ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable of full-service virtual private
networking, including integrated multimedia access.

3. Frame relay backbone

Frame relay services are a networking infrastructure for a range of data services and enable frame-relay
ATM service to Internetworking services.

ATM by choice provides the networking infrastructure for establishing residential broadband services in
search of highly scalable solutions.

5. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks

To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures we build the ATM infrastructure to carry
out the telephonic and private-line traffic.