(eBook PDF) Work in the 21st Century:

An Introduction to Industrial and

Organizational Psychology, 6th Edition
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-work-in-the-21st-century-an-introductio
n-to-industrial-and-organizational-psychology-6th-edition/
vi  Contents

Inter-Rater Reliability 77
Validity 78
Criterion-Related Validity 80
Predictive Validity 80
Concurrent Validity 80
Content-Related Validity 81
Construct Validity 82

PART 2 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

3 Individual Differences and Assessment 86

Module 3.1 An Introduction to Individual Differences 88
Some Background 88
Differential Psychology, Psychometrics, and I-O Psychology 90
Identifying Individual Differences 90
Varieties of Individual Differences 91

Module 3.2 Human Attributes 94

Abilities 94
Cognitive Abilities 94
Intelligence as “g” 94
Is “g” Important at Work? 95
Is “g” as Important in Other Countries as It Is in the United States? 96
Specific Cognitive Abilities Beyond “g” 96
Physical, Sensory, and Psychomotor Abilities 99
Physical Abilities 99
Sensory Abilities 100
Psychomotor Abilities 101
Personality and Work Behavior 102
The Big Five and Other Models of Personality 102
Implications of Broad Personality Models 105
Additional Attributes 106
Skills 106
Knowledge 106
Competencies 108
Emotional Intelligence 108

Module 3.3 Foundations of Assessment 111

The Past and the Present of Testing 111
What Is a Test? 113
What Is the Meaning of a Test Score? 114
 Contents  vii

What Is a Test Battery? 114

Where to Find Tests? 114
Administrative Test Categories 115
Speed versus Power Tests 115
Group versus Individual Tests 116
Paper-and-Pencil versus Performance Tests 116
Testing and Culture 117
International Assessment Practices 118

Module 3.4 Assessment Procedures 120

Assessment Content versus Process 120
Assessment Procedures: Content 120
Cognitive Ability Tests 120
Tests That Produce a Single Score 121
Tests of Specific Abilities 121
Cognitive Test Batteries 122
Knowledge Tests 122
Tests of Physical Abilities 122
Psychomotor Abilities 123
Personality 124
Practical Issues Associated with Personality Measures 125
Faking 125
Integrity Testing 127
Emotional Intelligence 130
Individual Assessment 130
Interviews 131
Assessment Centers 133
Work Samples and Situational Judgment Tests 135
Work Sample Tests 135
Situational Judgment Tests 136

Module 3.5 Special Topics in Assessment 140

Incremental Validity 140
Measuring Implicit Variables at Work 141
Biographical Data 141
Grades and Letters of Recommendation 143
Minimum Qualifications 144
Controversial Assessment Practices: Graphology and the
Polygraph 145
Drug and Alcohol Testing 145
Computer-Based and Internet Assessment 147
Unproctored Internet Testing 148
viii  Contents

Mobile Assessment 149

Computer Adaptive Testing 149

4 Job Analysis and Performance 151

Module 4.1 A Basic Model of Performance 153
Campbell’s Model of Job Performance 153
Typical versus Maximum Performance 157
Criterion Deficiency and Contamination 158

Module 4.2 Extensions of the Basic Performance Model 160

Task Performance versus Organizational Citizenship Behavior 160
Causes and Correlates of OCB 162
The Dark Side of Performance: Counterproductive Work Behaviors 163
Dishonesty 164
Absenteeism 164
Sabotage 164
Causes of and Treatments for CWB 165
OCB and CWB: Two Ends of the Same Continuum? 166
Adaptive Performance 167
A Brief Recap 168
Expert Performance 168
Types of Performance Measures 169

Module 4.3 Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties and Practices 171

The Uses of Job Analysis Information 171
Job Description 171
Recruiting 171
Selection 172
Training 172
Compensation 172
Promotion/Job Assignment 172
Job Design 173
Workforce Reduction/Restructuring 174
Criterion Development 174
Performance Evaluation 175
Litigation 175
Types of Job Analysis 175
How Job Analysis Is Done 176
Work Analysis 178

Module 4.4 Job Analysis: Newer Developments 180

Electronic Performance Monitoring as Part of a Job Analysis 180
Cognitive Task Analysis 181
 Contents  ix

Personality-Based Job Analysis 182

A Summary of the Job Analysis Process 183
Computer-Based Job Analysis 183
O*NET 183
Competency Modeling 186

Module 4.5 Job Evaluation and the Law 189

Job Evaluation 189
The Concept of Comparable Worth 190
Job Analysis and Employment Litigation 191

5 Performance Measurement 193

Module 5.1 Basic Concepts in Performance Measurement 194
Uses for Performance Information 194
Relationships among Performance Measures 195
Hands-On Performance Measures 196
Electronic Performance Monitoring 197
Performance Management 199

Module 5.2 Performance Rating—Substance 202

Theories of Performance Rating 202
Focus on Performance Ratings 203
Overall Performance Ratings 203
Trait Ratings 204
Task-Based Ratings 204
Critical Incidents Methods 204
OCB and Adaptive Performance Ratings 205
Structural Characteristics of a Performance Rating Scale 205
Rating Formats 207
Graphic Ratings Scales 207
Checklists 208
Behavioral Ratings 209
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales 209
Behavioral Observation Scales 210
Employee Comparison Methods 210
A New Variation on the Paired Comparison Method: CARS 211
Concluding Thoughts on Performance ­Rating Formats 212

Module 5.3 Performance Rating—Process 214

Rating Sources 214
Supervisors 214
Peers 216
Self-Ratings 216
x  Contents

Subordinate Ratings 217

Customer and Supplier Ratings 217
360-Degree Systems 217
Rating Distortions 218
Central Tendency Error 218
Leniency/Severity Error 218
Halo Error 218
Rater Training 219
Administrative Training 219
Psychometric Training 219
Frame-of-Reference Training 220
Reliability and Validity of ­Performance Ratings 220
Reliability 220
Validity 221

Module 5.4 The Social and Legal Context of Performance

Evaluation 222
The Motivation to Rate 222
Goal Conflict 224
Performance Feedback 225
Destructive Criticism 225
360-Degree Feedback 226
Performance Evaluation and Culture 228
Performance Evaluation and the Law 229
Performance Evaluation and Protected Groups 233

6 Staffing Decisions 236

Module 6.1 Conceptual Issues in Staffing 237
An Introduction to the Staffing Process 237
The Impact of Staffing Practices on Firm Performance 238
Stakeholders in the Staffing Process 239
Line Managers 239
Coworkers 239
Applicants 240
Staffing from the International Perspective 241

Module 6.2 Evaluation of Staffing Outcomes 244

Validity 244
Selection Ratios 245
Prediction Errors and Cut Scores 246
Establishing Cut Scores 247
Utility 248
Fairness 249
 Contents  xi

Module 6.3 Practical Issues in Staffing 251

A Staffing Model 251
Comprehensive Selection Systems 251
Compensatory Selection Systems 251
Combining Information 252
Statistical versus Clinical Decision-Making 252
The Hurdle System of Combining Scores 252
Combining Scores by Regression (the Compensatory
Approach) 254
Deselection 255
Number of Decisions to Be Made 256
Large Staffing Projects 256
Small Staffing Projects 257
21st-Century Staffing 258

Module 6.4 Legal Issues in Staffing Decisions 260

Charges of Employment Discrimination 260
Employment Discrimination Outside of the United States 261
Theories of Discrimination 262
Intentional Discrimination or Adverse Treatment 262
Unintentional Discrimination or Adverse Impact 262
Adverse Impact Determination 262

7 Training and Development 268

Module 7.1 Foundations of Training and Learning 269
Training, Learning, and Performance 270
Training Needs Analysis 271
The Learning Process in Training 274
Trainee Characteristics 274
Learning and Motivational Theories Applied to Training 276
Reinforcement Theory 276
Cognitive and Social Learning Theories 276
Principles of Learning 278
Practice and Overlearning 278
Whole versus Part Learning 279
Massed versus Distributed Practice 280
Learning Organizations 281

Module 7.2 Content and Methods of Training 283

Training Methods 283
On-Site Training Methods 283
Apprenticeship 283
Job Rotation 284
xii  Contents

Off-Site Training Methods 285

Distance Learning and Computer-Based Training 286
Training “Critical Thinking” 288
Transfer of Training 289

Module 7.3 Evaluating Training Programs 292

Training Evaluation 292
Training Criteria 292
Utility Analysis 294
Training Evaluation Designs 295
Equal Employment Opportunity Issues in Training 296

Module 7.4 Specialized Training Programs 299

Management and Leadership Development 299
Assessment Centers 300
360-Degree Feedback 300
Coaching 301
Informal Training 303
Sexual Harassment Awareness Training 303
Ethics Training 305
Cross-Cultural Training 306

PART 3 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

8 The Motivation to Work 310

Module 8.1 An Introduction to Motivation 311
The Central Position of Motivation in Psychology 311
A Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology 312
Metaphors for Motivation 313
Person as Machine 314
Person as Scientist 314
The Meaning and Importance of Motivation in the Workplace 316
Motivation and Performance 316
Motivation and Work–Life Balance 317
Motivation and Personality 318

Module 8.2 Classic Approaches to Work Motivation 320

Person-as-Machine Theories 320
An Internal Mechanical Theory: Maslow’s Need Theory 320
Variations on Maslow’s Theory 321
An External Mechanical Theory: Reinforcement Theory 321
 Contents  xiii

Person-as-Scientist Theories 323

Vroom’s VIE Theory 323
Equity Theory 325

Module 8.3 Modern Approaches to Work Motivation 328

Person-as-Intentional Approaches 328
Goal-Setting Theory 328
Challenges for Goal-Setting Theory 330
Levels of Explanation in Goal Setting 331
Control Theories and the Concept of Self-Regulation 331
The Concept of Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory 332
Common Themes in Modern Motivation Approaches 334
A New Motivational Topic: The Entrepreneur 334

Module 8.4 Practical Issues in Motivation 338

Can Motivation Be Measured? 338
Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation 339
Generational Differences and Work ­Motivation 340
Motivational Interventions 343
Contingent Rewards 343
Job Enrichment 344
ProMES 345

9 Attitudes, Emotions, and Work 347

Module 9.1 Work Attitudes 348
The Experience of Emotion at Work 348
Job Satisfaction: Some History 349
The Early Period of Job Satisfaction Research 349
Antecedents and Consequences of Job Satisfaction 351
The Measurement of Job Satisfaction 354
Overall versus Facet Satisfaction 354
Satisfaction Questionnaires 356
The Concept of Commitment 358
Forms of Commitment 358
Organizational Identification 360
Employee Engagement 363

Module 9.2 Moods, Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior 365

Is Everybody Happy? Does It Matter If TheyAre? 365
Satisfaction versus Mood versus Emotion 365
Dispositions and Affectivity 368
The Time Course of Emotional Experience 369
xiv  Contents

Genetics and Job Satisfaction 370

Core Self-Evaluations 371
Withdrawal Behaviors 373

Module 9.3 Special Topics Related to Attitudes and Emotions 375

Job Loss 375
Telecommuting 377
Work–Family Balance 379
Psychological Contracts 381
Job Embeddedness 382
Job Crafting 383
Work-Related Attitudes and Emotions from a Cross-Cultural
Perspective 383

10 Stress and Worker Well-Being 386

Module 10.1 The Problem of Stress 387
Studying Workplace Stress 387
What Is a Stressor? 389
Common Stressors at Work 390
Physical/Task Stressors 390
Psychological Stressors 391
Lack of Control/Predictability 391
Interpersonal Conflict 391
Incivility at Work 391
Role Stressors 392
Work–Family Conflict 392
Emotional Labor 394
Challenge and Hindrance Stressors 395
Consequences of Stress 395
Behavioral Consequences of Stress 396
Information Processing 396
Performance 396
Counterproductive Work Behavior 397
Psychological Consequences of Stress 397
Physiological Consequences of Stress 399
Work Schedules 400
Shift Work 400
Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules 401
Flextime 401
Compressed Workweek 402
Consequences of Flextime and Compressed Workweek
Schedules 402
 Contents  xv

Module 10.2 Theories of Stress 405

Demand–Control Model 405
Person–Environment Fit Model 406
Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress 408
The Type A Behavior Pattern 409
Achievement Striving and Impatience/Irritability 410
Time Urgency 410

Module 10.3 Reducing and Managing Stress 413

Primary Prevention Strategies 413
Work and Job Design 414
Cognitive Restructuring 415
Secondary Prevention Strategies 415
Stress Management Training 416
Cognitive-Behavioral Skills Training 416
Mindfulness Interventions 416
Relaxation and Biofeedback Techniques 417
Social Support 417
Tertiary Prevention Strategies 418
Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies 419

Module 10.4 Violence at Work 421

Stress and Workplace Violence 421
The “Typical” Violent Worker 422
Theories of Workplace Violence 423
Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis 423
The Justice Hypothesis 425
A Special Type of Violence: Bullying 427
What Can We Conclude about Workplace Violence? 430

11 Fairness, Justice, and Diversity in the Workplace 431

Module 11.1 Justice and Fairness 432
The Concept of Justice 432
Justice, Fairness, and Trust 434
Approaches to Organizational Justice 435
Distributive Justice 436
Procedural Justice 438
Interactional Justice 439
Justice versus Injustice 441
xvi  Contents

Module 11.2 The Practical Implications of Justice Perceptions 443

Performance Evaluation 444
Applicant Reactions to Selection ­Procedures 445
Affirmative Action 448
Culture and Affirmative Action Programs 450

Module 11.3 Diversity 452

What Does Diversity Mean? 452
The Dynamics of Diversity 453
Group and Multicultural Diversity 455
Managing Diversity from the Organizational ­Perspective 456
Diversity Training 457
Leadership and Diversity 459

12 Leadership in Organizations 461

Module 12.1 The Concept of Leadership 463
Some Conceptual Distinctions 463
Leader Emergence versus Leadership Effectiveness 464
Leader Emergence 464
The Problem of Defining Leadership ­Outcomes 465
Negative Leadership Outcomes: The Destructive Leader 466
Tyrannical 466
Derailed 466
Supportive-Disloyal 467
Abusive Supervision 467
Leader versus Manager or Supervisor 468
The Blending of Managerial and Leadership Roles 469
Leader Development versus Leadership Development 471
The Motivation to Lead 472

Module 12.2 Traditional Theories of Leadership 475

The “Great Man” Theories 475
The Trait Approach 476
The Power Approach to Leadership 477
The Behavioral Approach 477
The Ohio State University Studies 477
The University of Michigan Studies 478
The Contingency Approach 479
The Consequences of Participation: The Vroom–Yetton Model 480
 Contents  xvii

Module 12.3 New Approaches to Leadership 483

Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) 483
Transformational Leadership 485
Authentic Leadership 488
The Charismatic Leader 489

Module 12.4 Emerging Topics and Challenges in Leadership

Research 492
Leadership in a Changing Workplace 492
Knowledge-Oriented Organizations 492
Teams/Groups 492
Telecommuting 493
Temporary Workers 493
Fuzzy Job Boundaries 494
Male and Female Leaders: Are They ­Different? 494
The Demographics of Leadership 494
The Leadership Styles of Men and Women 496
Personality and Leadership 498
Leadership and Neuroscience 499
Cross-Cultural Studies of Leadership 500
Leadership in a Diverse Environment 502
Guidelines for Effective Leadership 503

13 Teams in Organizations 506

Module 13.1 Types of Teams 507
Groups and Teams: Definitions 508
Types of Teams 509
Quality Circles 509
Project Teams 510
Production Teams 511
Virtual Teams 512

Module 13.2 Input–Process–Output Model of Team Effectiveness 516

Team Inputs 517
Organizational Context 517
Team Task 517
Team Composition 517
Team Diversity 519
Team Processes 521
Norms 521
Communication and Coordination 521
xviii  Contents

Cohesion 522
Decision-Making 523
Team Outputs 525

Module 13.3 Special Issues in Teams 528

Team Appraisal and Feedback 528
ProMES 529
Team Roles 530
Team Development 531
Team Training 531
Cultural Issues in Teams 532

14 Organizational Theory, Dynamics, and Change 535

Module 14.1 Conceptual and Theoretical Foundations
of Organizations 536
Organizations and People 536
Organization as Integration 539
Theories of Organization 540
Classic Organizational Theory 540
Human Relations Theory 542
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y 542
The Growth Perspective of Argyris 542
Contingency Theories 543
Woodward 543
Lawrence and Lorsch 544
Mintzberg 544
Systems Theory 546
Katz and Kahn 546

Module 14.2 Social Dynamics of Organizations 549

Climate and Culture 549
A Brief History of Climate and Culture 550
Climate and Culture from the Multicultural Perspective 552
When Cultures Clash 552
An Application of Culture and Climate: Safety 554
Socialization and the Concept of Person–Organization (P–O) and Person–
Job (P–J) Fit 557
Organizational Socialization 557
Recruitment as Socialization 557
Orientation as Socialization 558
Positive Consequences of Socialization 559
 Contents  xix

Socialization and National Culture 560

Models of Socialization and Person–Organization Fit 561
Schneider’s Attraction–Selection–Attrition Model 562

Module 14.3 Organizational Development and Change 565

Organizational Change 565
Episodic Change 566
Continuous Change 567
Resistance to Change 569
Examples of Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives 570
Total Quality Management 571
Six Sigma Systems 571
Lean Production Manufacturing 572
Emerging Commonalities among O ­ rganizational Interventions 574

Glossary575
References593
Name Index 653
Subject Index 665
 PREFACE

Dedicated to the memory of Frank J. Landy and his many contributions to the
science, practice, and teaching of industrial and organizational psychology.

In the first five editions of this book, we pursued the premise that the world of work in the
21st century was very different from what it had been in the 20th century. That premise
is even more relevant today and worth repeating. Today’s workplace is technological and
multicultural. Work is often accomplished by teams rather than by single individuals. In
any given company or department, there is greater diversity in terms of demographic char-
acteristics, interests, and styles than in past decades. Although mental and physical abilities
remain important attributes for predicting job success, other attributes such as person-
ality, interpersonal skills, and emotional intelligence are receiving increased attention.
A satisfying life is increasingly defined as striking a balance between work and non-work.
In addition, the psychological stability of work may be at an all-time low. Mergers, acqui-
sitions, downsizing, outsourcing, the challenges to financial and housing markets, and
rapidly changing technologies have all made the idea of lifelong employment at one com-
pany, or even in one occupation, an elusive dream. This text ties together all of these
themes in a way that explores the rich and intriguing nature of the modern workplace.
An important thing to keep in mind in studying I-O psychology is that work is complex
and cannot be reduced to a set of equations or principles. In the real world, all of the com-
ponents of work, the work environment, and, most importantly, the people who populate
the workplace interact in complicated ways. For example, in considering organizational
and individual effectiveness, we cannot think of hiring strategies in a vacuum. Hiring is
pre- ceded by recruiting and screening. It is followed by training and socialization. Once
the individual joins the organization, there are issues of satisfaction, performance, rewards,
and motivation. The way the organization is designed, both psychologically and physically,
can limit or enhance productive efforts and worker emotions. This textbook necessarily
treats these topics one at a time, but no topic covered in the text can really stand alone.
In the real world, the topics are related, and we will show these relationships in the text.

Objectives for the Sixth Edition

The first five editions of this text were warmly received by both instructors and students,
not only in the United States but internationally as well. The objectives for this sixth edi-
tion are to retain the accessibility of the first five editions, incorporate the latest research
findings, and provide organizational applications of the principles of I-O psychology.

Accessibility A continuing goal of this book is to package information in a way that

makes it accessible to students and instructors. The sixth edition retains the 14-chapter
format, which we believe provides a comfortable way to present the substance of I-O
psychology. We have also retained the four-color design, which brings I-O psychology to

xx
 Preface  xxi

life, especially with the use of color photographs. The art program also engages students
with New Yorker and Dilbert cartoons, carefully chosen to emphasize the point at hand.

Cutting-Edge Topics As has been the custom in earlier editions, this edition provides
the most important citations for topics rather than all relevant citations. This edition
presents many new topics, including green behaviors, job embeddedness, job crafting,
incivility at work, mindfulness interventions, and abusive supervision. There is new
or expanded coverage of many topics including the contributions of I-O psychology to
society, integrity tests, forced distribution rating systems, personality-based human
capital resources, training critical thinking skills, workplace coaching, sexual harassment
awareness training, generational differences in the workplace, employee engagement,
telecommuting, organizational justice, applicant reactions to selection procedures, diversity
training, leader-member exchange theory, charismatic leadership, team training, and
organizational climate.

Structure of the Book: Parts, Chapters, and Modules

Because the field of industrial and organizational psychology is so broad, the text is broken
into three parts. Part I, “Fundamentals,” addresses the basics of the field by examining what
I-O psychologists do and where they do it, as well as the methods we use to accomplish
research and application. Part II, “Industrial Psychology,” considers topics in personnel
psychology such as individual differences, assessment, job performance, job analysis, per-
formance evaluation, staffing, and training. Part III, “Organizational Psychology,” exam-
ines organizational topics such as motivation, work attitudes, stress and workplace health,
fair- ness, leadership, work teams, and organizational change.
Within each chapter, concepts and topics have been further divided into stand-alone
modules, which offer a great deal of flexibility for learning and instruction. A module con-
sists of material that is relatively homogeneous within a particular chapter. As examples,
one module might deal with the historical development of a concept, the second with mod
ern approaches, the third with applications of the concept, and the fourth with related
concepts. Some chapters have as few as three modules, whereas others have four or five
modules, depending on how much material is covered by the chapter. Each module ends
with a sum mary of the main points and a list of glossary terms.
Every module can be considered valuable in one way or another. Nevertheless, covering
every module may not be compatible with every course syllabus. Thus, each module has
been designed as a stand-alone unit, permitting the instructor to cover or skip any particu-
lar module. As an example, an instructor might cover the first three modules in a chapter
but choose to skip the final module on “Specialized Topics.” This modular approach gives
instructors maximum flexibility. In addition to covering or deleting a module within a
chapter, or changing the order of modules within a chapter, an instructor can assign mod-
ules across chapters, in essence creating a new “chapter.” For example, an instructor might
assign a module on statistics from Chapter 2, a module on job analysis from Chapter 4, and
a module on assessment from Chapter 3 to create a “validity” chapter. Although we believe
that the modules within a chapter complement one another, instructors might prefer a
different order of modules.
As you read through the book, you will notice that a given topic may appear in several
different chapters. That is not a mistake or oversight. The fact is that some topics have rel-
evance in many different chapters, and to mention them only once presents too simplistic
a view of work dynamics. As an example, competencies are higher-order forms of ability,
personality, interests, and attitudes. Competency modeling is an enhanced form of job
analysis. Competencies can be learned, and there are both leader competencies and team
xxii  Preface

competencies. This means that you will see the term “competency” in several chapters.
Even though you will see the term often, it will be treated from a different perspective each
time it appears. You will see similar treatments of issues related to work/family balance.
This balance is important in the attitudes that an individual holds toward work and organi-
zations. Balance is also important in addressing work stress and work design. So “balance”
will appear in multiple chapters. We hope that this method of treatment provides a richer
understanding of the effects of work on people and people on work.

Supplements for Students and Instructors

Work in the 21st Century offers several supplements to enhance learning processes and
teaching activities. The supplements are available on the text’s website: www.wiley.com/
go/conte/workinthe21stcentury6e

Website for Instructors The instructor side of the Work in the 21st Century website
contains all the material instructors need for course design, and it is a convenient way to
access the Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, Internet resources for each
chapter, and supplementary material.

Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual includes learning objectives, chapter

outlines, glossary terms, and suggestions for class discussions and activities.

PowerPoint Slides This package of 30–50 slides per chapter includes lecture outlines in
addition to figures and tables from the text. The slides can be used as is or customized to
match your course design and goals.

Test Bank This array of 30–50 multiple-choice items per chapter covers all the important
concepts with factual and applied questions as well as questions of a more conceptual
nature to facili-tate critical thinking.

Website for Students

The student side of the Work in the 21st Century website at www.wiley.com/go/conte/
workinthe21stcentury6e contains the Student Study Guide and Workbook as well as links
to a variety of Internet resources for further exploration.

Student Study Guide and Workbook

Available on the student side of the website, this study guide is a valuable tool for max-
imizing students’ understanding of material and preparation for exams. The guide was
developed in close conjunction with the textbook and facilitates the instructor’s course
design by providing students with the same learning objectives, chapter outlines, and glos-
sary terms as the Instructor’s Manual. In addition, it includes practice exam questions and
exercises for each chapter. The workbook exercises, based on organizational issues that
I-O psychologists are often asked to study and resolve, promote active learning, critical
thinking, and practical applications of the ideas and concepts discussed in class and in
the textbook.

Acknowledgments
Throughout our work on all six editions of this book, many colleagues have been kind
enough to send us their work in particular areas, provide helpful suggestions for particu-
lar topics, or otherwise provide support for work on this book. These colleagues include
 Preface  xxiii

Patti Ambrose, Bruce Avolio, Zeynep Aycan, Talya Bauer, Laura Borgogni, Wally Borman,
André Büssing, Dan Cable, Paula Caligiuri, Gian Vittorio Caprara, Gary Carter, Wayne
Cascio, Diane Catanzaro, Donna Chrobot-Mason, Jan Cleveland, Cary Cooper, Filip de
Fruyt, Peter Dorfman, Fritz Drasgow, Dov Eden, Mark Ehrhart, Miriam Erez, Jim Farr,
Harold Goldstein, the late Irv Goldstein, Randy Gordon, Mark Griffin, Art Gutman, the late
Richard Hackman, Lee Hakel, Kylie Harper, Michael Harris, Dave Harrison, Chris Hartel,
Beryl Hesketh, Scott Highhouse, David Hofmann, Geert Hofstede, Ann Howard, Susan
Jackson, Dick Jeanneret, Ruth Kanfer, Jerry Kehoe, Rich Klimoski, Laura Koppes, Steve
Kozlowski, Filip Lievens, David Lubinski, Dianne Maranto, John Mathieu, Jack Mayer,
Terry Mitchell, Susan Mohammed, David Morris, Barb Nett, Nigel Nicholson, Erik Olson,
Lauren Ostroski, Rupande Padaki, Sharon Parker, Elizabeth Poposki, Bob Pritchard, Anat
Rafaeli, Doug Reynolds, Tracey Rizzuto, Ivan Roberston, Robert Roe, Angie Rosenbaum,
Paul Sackett, Gina Sadler, Wilmar Schaufeli, Gary Schmidt, Heinz Schuler, Graham Seager,
Norbert Semmer, Jacob Seybert, Peter Smith, Karen Smola, Dirk Steiner, Robert Tett, Paul
Thayer, Kecia Thomas, Susan Vanhemmel, Peter Warr, Dieter Zapf, and Shelly Zedeck. In
addition, several colleagues went well out of their way to help us by providing reviews of
draft material, suggestions for additional research, and contacts with researchers whose
excellent work might have gone unnoticed. These colleagues include Robert Baron, Dave
Bartram, Stuart Carr, David Day, Michelle Dean, Michael Frese, the late Bob Guion, Rick
Jacobs, Tim Judge, Kurt Kraiger, David Kravitz, Kevin Murphy, Neal Schmitt, Ben Schneider,
Rolf van Dick, Bernie Weiner, Howard Weiss, and Bob Wood.
At San Diego State University (SDSU), many colleagues within and outside the psychol-
ogy department helped to provide a supportive environment in which to work. In par-
ticular, Kate Hattrup, Jon Helm, Lisa Kath, Jörg Matt, and Scott Roesch represent a very
supportive group of applied psychologists at SDSU.
Thanks are also due to those who accepted Wiley’s invitation to review previous editions
of this book. These reviewers include Tara Behrend, George Diekhoff, Jeannine Klein,
Richard Landers, Greg Loviscky, Danielle Maack, Cheryl Stenmark, and Sang Eun Woo.
Our team at Wiley was led by executive editor Veronica Visentin who provided expert
guidance on the revision of the sixth edition. Judy Howarth and Ethan Lipson helped
greatly with overseeing and managing the project and design considerations. Freelance
permissions editor Ruth Pepper expertly handled any and all issues that arose with permis-
sions. Production editor Linda Christina E did a fantastic job of seeing the book through
the copyediting and proofing stages. We are also very fortunate to have had the help and
guidance of freelance developmental editor Elsa Peterson on multiple editions of this
book. We express our heartfelt thanks to these individuals and the many other members
of the team that worked on this book.

A Note from Jeff Conte

Frank Landy’s influence on me and on this book is immeasurable. He was my advisor,
mentor, textbook co-author, advocate, and friend. I feel very fortunate to have worked
so closely with Frank on this textbook for over a decade. During the course of our work
on the book, we had many interesting discussions and debates about I-O psychology,
work, life, and work/life balance. We worked very hard on this book, but we also had a
lot of fun, including many belly laughs that were often brought on by an outrageous but
accurate remark by Frank. I miss him greatly, and I know many others in the field do, too.
Frank’s knowledge and ideas about I-O psychology live on in this book and in his many
other publications.
I would like to thank Kylie Harper for writing Frank’s author bio for this book. I
also thank Rick Jacobs, a friend and mentor who has greatly influenced my thinking
about I-O psychology and who has been very supportive throughout my career. I greatly
appreciate the support and encouragement that I have received over the years from my
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION—POSITION OF MOLLUSCA IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM—
CLASSIFICATION—ORIGIN OF LAND AND FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCA

It is the generally accepted opinion among men of science that all

life originated in the sea. Not that all parts of the sea are equally
favourable to the development of forms of life. The ocean surface,
with its entire absence of shelter or resting-place, and the deep sea,
whose abysses are always dark and cold and changeless, offer little
encouragement to plant or animal life, as an original starting-point.
True, both the surface and the depths of the sea have become
colonised by myriads of forms, Mollusca amongst them, but these
quarters are in the truest sense colonised, for the ancestors of those
who inhabit them in all probability migrated from elsewhere.
It was no doubt the littoral region and the shallow waters
immediately below it, a region of changeable currents, of light and
shade, of variation, within definite limits, of temperature and tide
effects, which became the scene of the original development of plant
life, in other words, of the food-supply which rendered possible its
colonisation by higher animals. But the littoral region, besides the
advantages of tenancy which it offers to animal life, has also its
drawbacks. The violence of the surf may beat its inhabitants in
pieces, the retreat of the tide exposes them, not merely to
innumerable enemies in the shape of predatory birds and beasts, but
also to a change in the atmospheric medium by which they are
surrounded. Hence, in all probability, have arisen the various forms
of adaptation which are calculated to bring about the ‘survival of the
fittest’; hence, to narrow our point of view to the Mollusca, the
development of hard shells, or exoskeletons, hence the sand-
burrowing, rock-boring, rock-clinging instincts of various genera and
species.[1]
What was the primitive form of molluscan life is little likely to be
ever positively known, although, on grounds of comparative
anatomy, something approaching to the archi-mollusc is often
constructed, with more or less probability, by careful observers. From
one of the oldest known geological strata, the Cambrian, nearly four
hundred species of Mollusca are known, which include
representatives of nearly all the great Orders as they exist at the
present day, and without the slightest sign of approximation to one
another. With regard to the origin of the land and fresh-water
Mollusca some definite conclusions can be arrived at, which will be
given in their proper place.
Scarcely any portion of the coast-line of the world is destitute of
molluscan life, except in regions where extreme cold forbids its
existence. Thus along the shores of Northern Asia there is no proper
littoral fauna, the constant influence of travelling ice sweeping it all
away; animal life begins at about three fathoms. But in every coast
region not positively hostile to existence Mollusca make their home.
Each description of habitat has its own peculiar species, which there
flourish best, and exist precariously, if at all, elsewhere. Thus the
sandy waste of estuaries, the loose and shingly beaches, the slimy
mud-flats beset with mangroves, the low stretches of jagged rock,
and even the precipitous cliffs, from whose base the sea never
recedes, have all their own special inhabitants. The same is true of
the deep sea, and of the ocean surface. And when we come to
examine the land and fresh-water Mollusca, it is found not merely
that some Mollusca are terrestrial and others fluviatile, but that
certain species haunt the hills and others the valleys, some the
recesses of woods and others the open meadow sides, some prefer
the limestone rocks, others the sandy or clayey districts, some live
only in still or gently moving waters, while others are never found
except where the current is rapid and powerful.
It is within the tropics that the Mollusca become most numerous,
and assume their finest and quaintest forms. A tropical beach,
especially where there is a good tide-fall and considerable variety of
station, abounds in molluscan life to an extent which must literally be
seen to be believed. The beach at Panama, to select an instance
familiar to the present writer, is astonishingly rich in species, which
probably amount in all to several hundreds. This is due to the
immense variety of habitat. On the rocks at high-water mark, and
even above them, occur Truncatella, Melampus, Littorina, and
Siphonaria; where a mangrove-swamp replaces the rock, on the
branches overhead are huge Littorina, while three species of
Cerithidea crawl on the mud, and Cyrena and Arca burrow into it.
Lower down, in the rock pools at half-tide mark are Cerithium,
Purpura, Omphalius, Anachis (2 sp.), Nassa, and several Crepidula.
At low-water mark of ordinary tides, under stones half buried in clean
sand, are Coecum and Vitrinella; under the blocks which rest on
solid rock are Cypraea (4 or 5 sp.), Cantharus, more Anachis,
Columbella (3 sp. including the graceful C. harpiformis), and
Nitidella. Where the blocks of rock are rather muddy, Conus lurks,
and with it Turritella and Latirus. Where the rocks form a flat-topped
platform 2 or 3 feet high, with here and there a deep crack, huge
Chitons 3 inches long conceal themselves, with two species of
Turbo, Purpura, and Clavella. At extreme low-water mark of spring
tides, on the isolated rocks are Monoceros, Leucozonia, and
Vermetus, in them are Pholas and a burrowing Mytilus, under them
are more Conus, Dolium, and huge frilled Murices. Patches of clean
gravelly sand here produce Strombus; on the operculum of the great
Str. galea is sure to be a Crepidula, exactly fitting its breadth. On the
liquid mud-flats to the north glide about Marginella, Nassa, and
Truncaria, in the clean sandstretch to the west Olivella ploughs about
by hundreds with several species of Natica, and Tellina and Donax
bury themselves deep, while farther down are Artemis, Chione, and,
where mud begins to mix with the sand, Mytilus and more Arca.
Each of these species has its own habitat, often circumscribed to a
few square feet at the most, and it would be utterly useless to seek
for it anywhere except in its own special domain.
Equally abundant are the land Mollusca of the tropics. Prof. C. B.
Adams relates that within the limits of a single parish in Jamaica,
named Manchester, which measures no more than four miles long
and one mile broad, he obtained no fewer than one hundred species.
Mr. J. S. Gibbons, in a description of the Mollusca he obtained near
St. Ann’s, Curaçao, gives a lively picture of their abundance in an
exceptionally favoured locality:—[2]
 “Near the outskirts of the town a waste piece of ground supplied
me with occupation for all the time I had to spare. Neither grass nor
water was to be seen, the only vegetation consisting of a few stunted
cacti and still fewer acacia bushes. This, however, was so rich in
shells that of several species enough specimens could have been
collected in a few yards to supply, I should suppose, all the shell
cabinets in the world.... The stones, plants, and ground were
covered with Strophia uva L., Tudora megacheila, P. and M., was in
equal abundance, suspended by its silk-like thread from acacia
boughs, or strewed thickly on the ground underneath. A Bulimulus
(B. multilineatus var. sisalensis) abounded on the smaller boughs,
while under masses of coral Macroceramus inermis Gundl., Pupa
parraiana d’Orb, and P. pellucida Pfr., were abundant. In the loose
soil Cylindrella Raveni Bland, Cistula Raveni Bland, and a curious
Cionella were so numerous that a spade would have been the best
instrument with which to collect them. I wasted a good deal of
valuable time in separating them from the soil, when by simply taking
away a few handfuls of mould, I might have obtained a larger
number of specimens. A species of Stenogyra and a Succinea
complete a list, all of which might have been gathered from almost
any square yard of ground on the hillside.”

Position of Mollusca in the Animal Kingdom.—Up to very

recent times it was usual to regard the Mollusca as one of the four
subdivisions of a great family known as Malacozoa, the subdivisions
being (1) Mollusca, (2) Tunicata, (3) Brachiopoda, (4) Polyzoa or
Bryozoa. This classification is still retained in the leading modern
manual on the subject.[3] The progress, however, of investigation
leads to the belief that the Mollusca are not so closely related to
these other groups as such a classification would seem to imply. The
Tunicata, for instance, appear, from the whole course of their
development, to occupy a position near to the Vertebrata. The
relations of the Brachiopoda and Polyzoa will be more particularly
referred to in that part of this History which deals especially with
those groups. The position of the Mollusca is, in many respects, one
of considerable isolation. Any attempt, therefore, definitely to relate
them to one group or another, is, in all probability, to go further than
the present state of our knowledge warrants. Especially to be
deprecated are systems of classification which confidently derive the
Mollusca in general from this or that group. The first undisputed
traces of animal life, which appear in the Cambrian epoch, exhibit
the same phyletic distinctions as now exist. Sponges, Echinoderms,
Mollusca, and Worms, formed already, in those immeasurably
remote ages, groups apparently as generally distinct from one
another as they are at the present time. It would seem that any
theory of development, which confidently teaches the derivation of
any one of these groups from any other, is, in the present state of the
evidence before us, hazardous in the extreme.
Some indications of relationship, which must not be pushed too
far, may be drawn from a consideration of embryonic resemblance.
An especial characteristic of the Mollusca is the possession of a
particular form of larva, which occurs in one of the stages of
development, known as the trochosphere (see p. 130). This form of
larva is shared with two orders of Annelida, the Chaetopoda and the
Gephyrea armata, and, in all probability, with the Polyzoa as well. It
may also be significant that the adult form in Rotifera bears a close
resemblance to the trochosphere larva in those groups.
Basis of Classification.—The Mollusca are divided into four
great Orders—Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, Scaphopoda, and
Pelecypoda.[4] Each name, it will be noticed, bears reference to the
‘foot,’ i.e. to the organ of motion which corresponds in function to the
foot in the Vertebrata.
In the Cephalopoda the feet, or, as they are more frequently
termed, the ‘arms,’ are arranged symmetrically round the head or
mouth. The common forms of ‘cuttle-fish’ (Octopus, Loligo) are
familiar examples of Cephalopods.
The Gasteropoda crawl on the flat under-surface or ‘sole’ of the
foot. Snails, slugs, sea-hares, whelks, periwinkles, and coats-of-mail
or chitons are examples of this Order.
The Scaphopoda possess a long tubular shell open at both ends;
with their small and elongated foot they are supposed to dig into the
mud in which they live. The common Dentalium or tusk-shell of our
coasts is a representative of this Order.

Fig. 1.—Examples of the four Orders: A,

Cephalopoda; B, Gasteropoda; C,
Scaphopoda, and D, Pelecypoda.
A, Ommastrephes sagittatus Lam.,
Naples: a, a, arms surrounding the
mouth; f, funnel; t, t, the two ‘tentacular’
arms, × ⅖ . B, Buccinum undatum L.,
Britain: f, foot; pr, proboscis. × ½. C,
Dentalium entalis L., Norway: f, foot. D,
Cardium oblongum Chem., Naples: f,
foot; s, efferent or anal siphon; s’,
efferent or branchial siphon, × ½.
The Pelecypoda[5] are enclosed in a bivalve shell fastened by a
muscular hinge, the adjacent part of the valves being generally more
or less toothed; the foot is as a rule roughly comparable to the shape
of an axe-head.
To these four Orders is frequently added a fifth, the Pteropoda,
whose exact position is at present not absolutely settled. The
Pteropoda[6] are ‘pelagic,’ i.e. they live in the open waters of the
ocean, rising to the surface at night, and sinking into cooler water by
day. They are provided with a pair of wing-like appendages or ‘feet,’
on each side of the head, by means of which they are enabled to
swim. Some authorities regard the Pteropoda as a subdivision of
Gasteropoda, others as forming a separate Order, of equivalent
value to the other four. The question will be further discussed below
(see chap. xv.), but for the present it will be sufficient to state that the
weight of evidence appears to show that the Pteropoda are modified
Gasteropoda, with special adaptations to pelagic life, and are
therefore not entitled to rank as a separate Order.
Some writers conveniently group together the first three of these
Orders, the Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, and Scaphopoda, under the
title Glossophora,[7] or Mollusca furnished with a radula or ribbon-
shaped ‘tongue,’ set with rows of teeth and situated in something of
the nature of a head, as distinguished from the Aglossa (or
Lipocephala),[8] i.e. those Mollusca which have no radula and no
head. To the latter belong only the fourth Order, the Pelecypoda.
This view postulates, for the primitive ancestral Mollusc, a body with
a more or less developed head, and possibly the rudiments of an
apparatus for grinding or triturating food. This form, it is held, either
developed or degenerated. In the former case, in consequence of
the more active mode of life upon which it may be supposed to have
entered, it gave rise to all the more highly organised forms which are
grouped under the three great Orders. When, on the other hand, the
ancestral form associated itself with an inactive or sedentary life, it
was, we may believe, modified accordingly, and either lost by
atrophy or failed to acquire those special points of organisation
which characterise the highly-developed form. Hence the
Pelecypoda, or bivalves, whose characteristic is the absence of any
definite cephalic region or masticatory apparatus. It is a remarkable
fact in support of this theory of the origin of the Aglossa that certain
of their larvae are known to possess traces of higher organisation,
e.g. an external mouth and eyes, the former of which becomes
covered by the mantle lobes, while the latter disappear long before
the adult stage is reached.
Thus we have

Classification of Gasteropoda.—The Gasteropoda are

numerically very largely in excess of the two other Orders of the
Glossophora, far more complicated as regards classification, and
contain a large proportion of those examples of the Mollusca which
are most familiar to the ordinary observer. It will therefore be
convenient to postpone for the present a fuller discussion of the
subdivisions of the Cephalopoda and Scaphopoda, as well as of the
Aglossa, returning to them again in special chapters (chaps. xiii. and
xvi.), and to devote a few introductory words to the classification and
relations of the Gasteropoda.
The Gasteropoda are divided into four Classes, Amphineura,
Prosobranchiata, Opisthobranchiata, and Pulmonata.
Fig. 2.—An example of the
Polyplacophora: Chiton
spinosus Brug.

Fig. 3.—An example of the

Aplacophora, Neomenia
carinata Tullb.: a, anus; gr,
ventral groove; m, mouth.
 (1) The Amphineura[9] are bilaterally symmetrical Mollusca, i.e.
with organs either single and central, or paired and disposed on
either side of the longer axis of the animal. The shell, when present,
is never spiral, but consists of eight overlapping plates, kept together
by an elliptical girdle. The Amphineura are divided into (a)
Polyplacophora,[10] or Chitons, and (b) Aplacophora (Chaetoderma
and Neomenia).
(2) The Prosobranchiata[11] are so named from the fact that the
breathing organ (branchia or ctenidium[12]) is as a rule situated in
front of the heart, the auricle at the same time being in front of the
ventricle. They are asymmetrical, almost always furnished with a
shell, which is at some time spiral, and with an operculum. The
sexes are separate. They are either marine animals, or can be
shown to be more or less directly derived from genera which are
marine. They are divided into (a) Diotocardia[13] (Haliotis, Fissurella,
Trochus, Nerita, Patella), which have, or whose immediate ancestors
are believed to have had, two auricles to the heart, two sets of
breathing organs, two kidneys, but no proboscis, penis, or siphon,
and (b) Monotocardia,[14] in which the heart has only one auricle, the
true breathing organ is single, and there is a single kidney. To this
division belong the great majority of marine univalve Mollusca, e.g.
Cypraea, Buccinum, Murex, Littorina, Ianthina, all the land and fresh-
water operculates (Cyclostoma, Melania, Paludina, etc.), as well as
the Heteropoda, which are a group of Prosobranchiata which have
betaken themselves to a pelagic life.
 Fig. 4.—Example of a Heteropod, Carinaria
mediterranea Lam., Naples: a, anus; br,
branchia; f, foot; i, intestine; m, mouth; p, penis;
s, sucker; sh, shell; t, tentacles. × ½. The animal
swims foot uppermost.

(3) In the Opisthobranchiata[5] the breathing organs (when

present) are behind the heart, and the auricle of the heart is
consequently behind the ventricle. They are asymmetrical marine
animals; usually, but by no means always, without a shell, scarcely
ever with an operculum in the adult state. The sexes are united in
the same individual. The Opisthobranchiata fall into two divisions: (a)
Tectibranchiata, in which the breathing organ is more or less covered
by the mantle, and a shell is usually present, which is sometimes
rudimentary, e.g. Bulla, Aplysia, Umbrella, and the whole group of
Pteropoda; (b) Nudibranchiata, or sea slugs, which have no shell
and no true ctenidia, but breathe either by the skin, or by ‘cerata’ or
papilliform organs prominently developed on the back: e.g. Doris,
Aeolis, Dendronotus.
Fig. 5.—A, A Tectibranchiate Opisthobranch, Umbrella
mediterranea Lam., Naples: a, anus; br, branchia; f,
foot; m, mouth; rh, rhinophores; sh, shell.
B, A Pteropod, Hyalaea tridentata Forsk., Naples: sh,
shell; l, l, swimming lobes of foot.
C, A Nudibranchiate Opisthobranch, Aeolis peregrina,
Naples: f, foot; c, cerata.

Fig. 6.—Examples of—A, Pulmonata Basommatophora, the

common Limnaea peregra Müll.: e, e, eyes; t, t,
tentacles. B, Pulmonata Stylommatophora, Helix
hortensis Müll.: e, e, eyes; t, t, tentacles; p. o,
pulmonary orifice (the position of the pulmonary orifice
in Limnaea will be seen by reference to Fig. 101).
 (4) The Pulmonata[15] are asymmetrical air-breathing non-marine
Mollusca, generally, but not always, furnished with a shell. The sexes
are always united in the same individual, and the operculum is
always wanting, except in Amphibola. They are conveniently divided
into Stylommatophora,[16] in which the eyes are at the tip of the
upper tentacles, which are retractile (Helix, Limax, Bulimus, and all
true land slugs and snails), and Basommatophora, in which the eyes
are at the base of the tentacles, which are not retractile (Limnaea,
Planorbis, Physa, and all the Auriculidae).
Thus we have
Gasteropoda Amphineura Polyplacophora
Aplacophora
Prosobranchiata Diotocardia
Monotocardia (incl. Heteropoda)
Opisthobranchiata Tectibranchiata (incl. Pteropoda)
Nudibranchiata[17]
Pulmonata Stylommatophora
Basommatophora
The relation of the four great Orders to one another will be better
discussed when we come to deal with each Order separately. The
problem of the origin and mutual relationship of the various forms of
molluscan life is of extreme subtlety, and its solution can only be
approached after a comprehensive survey of many complicated
anatomical details. But there is one branch of the Mollusca—the land
and fresh-water genera—whose origin is, comparatively speaking, of
recent date, and whose relationships are therefore less likely to have
suffered complete obliteration.
Origin of the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca.—The ultimate
derivation of the whole of the land and fresh-water molluscan fauna
must, as has already been remarked, be looked for in the sea. In
certain cases the process of conversion, if it may be so termed, from
a marine to a non-marine genus, is still in progress, and can be
definitely observed; in others the conversion is complete, but the
modification of form has been so slight, or the date of its occurrence
so recent, that the connexion is unmistakable, or at least highly
probable; in others again, the modification has been so great, or the
date of its occurrence so remote, that the actual line of derivation is
obscured or at best only conjectural.

Fig. 7.—A, the common cockle (Cardium edule

L.). B, Adacna plicata Eichw., Caspian
Sea. C, Didacna trigonoides Pall., Caspian
Sea.
This passage from a marine to a non-marine life—in other words,
this direct derivation of non-marine from marine genera—is
illustrated by the faunal phenomena of an inland brackish-water sea
like the Caspian, which is known to have been originally in
connexion with the Mediterranean, and therefore originally supported
a marine fauna. The Mollusca of the Caspian, although without
exception brackish- or fresh-water species, are in their general facies
distinctly marine. Of the 26 univalve species which inhabit it 19
belong to 4 peculiar genera (Micromelania, Caspia, Clessinia,
Nematurella), all of which are modified forms of the marine
Rissoidae. The characteristic bivalves belong to the genera Adacna,
Didacna, and Monodacna, all of which can be shown to be derived
from the common Cardium edule. We have here a case where
complete isolation from the sea, combined no doubt with a gradual
freshening of the water, has resulted in the development of a number
of new genera. The singularly marine facies of several of the fresh-
water genera now inhabiting Lake Tanganyika, has given rise to the
belief, among some authorities, that that lake was at one time an
inlet of the Indian Ocean. In the upper waters of the Baltic, marine
and fresh-water Mollusca flourish side by side. So complete is the
intermixture, that an observer who had lived on no other shores
would probably be unable to separate the one set of species from
the other.[18] Thus between Dagö and Papen-Wiek[19] Mytilus edulis,
Cardium edule, Tellina balthica, Mya arenaria, Littorina rudis, and
Hydrobia balthica are the only true marine species; with these live
Unio, Cyclas, Neritina, Limnaea, and Bithynia. The marine species
and Neritina live down to 15–20 fath., the rest only down to 3 fath.
Under stones close to the shore of the Skärgård at Stockholm[20] are
found young Cardium and Tellina, and at 3 to 6 fath. Limnaea
peregra, and Physa fontinalis. Near Gothland Limnaea is found in
the open sea at 8–12 fath., and with it occur Cardium and Tellina. At
the Frisches Haff[21] Mya arenaria is the only marine species, and
lives in company with 6 sp. Limnaea, 1 Physa, 9 Planorbis, 1
Ancylus, 4 Valvata, 2 Sphaerium. Were the Sound to become
closed, and the waters of the Baltic perfectly fresh, it would be
inevitable that Mya arenaria, and such other marine species as
continued to live under their changed conditions, should in course of
time submit to modifications similar in kind to those experienced by
the quondam marine species of the Caspian.
It seems probable, however, that the origin, at least in a great
part, of the land and fresh-water Mollusca need not be accounted for
by such involuntary changes of environment as the enclosure of
arms of the sea, or the possible drying up of inland lakes. These
cases may be taken as illustrations of the much more gradual
processes of nature by which the land and fresh-water fauna must
have been developed. The ancestry of that fauna must be looked for,
as far as the Gasteropoda are concerned, in the littoral and estuarine
species; for the Pelecypoda, in the estuarine alone. The effect of the
recess of the tide, in the one case, and the effect of the reduced
percentage of salt, in the other, has tended to produce a gradual
adaptation to new surroundings, an adaptation which becomes more
and more perfect. It may be safely asserted that no marine species
could pass into a land or fresh-water species except after a period,
more or less prolonged, of littoral or estuarine existence. Thus we
find no land or fresh-water species exhibiting relationships with such
deep-sea genera as the Volutidae, Cancellariidae, Terebridae, or
even with genera trenching on the lowest part of the littoral zone,
such as the Haliotidae, Conidae, Olividae, Capulidae. The signs of
connexion are rather with the Neritidae, Cerithiidae, and above all
the Littorinidae, which are accustomed to live for hours, and in the
case of Littorina for days or even weeks, without being moistened by
the tide. Similarly the fresh-water Pelecypoda exhibit relationships,
not with genera exclusively marine, but with genera known to inhabit
estuaries, such as the Mytilidae, Corbulidae, Cardiidae.
It would be natural to expect that we should find this process of
conversion still going on, and that we should be able to detect
particular species or groups of species in process of emigration from
sea to land, or from sea to fresh water. Such species will be
intermediate between a marine and a land or fresh-water species,
and difficult to classify distinctly as one or the other. Cases of
Mollusca occupying this intermediate position occur all over the
world. They inhabit brackish swamps, damp places at high-water
mark, and rocks only at intervals visited by the tide. Such are
Potamides, Assiminea, Siphonaria, Melampus, Hydrobia,
Truncatella, among the univalves, and many species of Cyrena and
Arca among the bivalves.

Origin of the Fresh-water Fauna

(a) Pelecypoda.—Estuarine species, which have become

accustomed to a certain admixture of fresh water, have gradually
ascended the streams or been cut off from the sea, and have at last
become habituated to water which is perfectly fresh.
 Fig. 8.—A, The common Mytilus edulis
L., a marine genus and species.
B, Dreissensia, a fresh-water
genus, closely allied to Mytilus.

Fig. 9.—A, Arca navicella Reeve, Philippines, a marine

species. B, Arca (Scaphula) pinna Bens., R.
Tenasserim, a fresh-water species which lives
many miles above the tide-way.
Thus Dreissensia (rivers and canals throughout N. Europe and N.
America) and Mytilopsis (rivers of America) are scarcely modified
Mytili (Fig. 8); Scaphula is a modified Arca, and lives in the Ganges,
the Jumna, and the Tenasserim at a distance of 1600 miles from the
sea (Fig. 9). Pholas rivicola is found imbedded in floating wood on
the R. Pantai many miles from its mouth. Cyrena, Corbicula, and
probably Sphaerium and Pisidium are derived, in different degrees of
removal, from the exclusively marine Veneridae; Potamomya (rivers
of S. America), and Himella (R. Amazon) are forms of Corbula. The
Caspian genera derived from Cardium (Adacna, Didacna,
Monodacna), have already been referred to. Nausitora is a form of
Teredo, which lives in fresh water in Bengal. Rangia, Fischeria, and
Galatea probably share the derivation of the Cyrenidae, while in
Iphigenia we have one of the Donacidae which has not yet mounted
rivers, but is confined to a strictly estuarine life. The familiar
Scrobicularia piperata of our own estuaries is a Tellina, which lives
by preference in brackish water.

Fig. 10.—Trigonia pectinata

Lam., Sydney, N.S.W.

The great family of the Unionidae is regarded by Neumayr[22] as

derived from Trigonia, the points of similarity being the development
of a nacreous shell, the presence of a strong epidermis, and the
arrangement of the muscular scars. It is remarkable, too, that on
many Uniones of Pliocene times there is found shell ornamentation
of such a type as occurs elsewhere among the Pelecypoda only on
Trigonia.
 The genera of fresh-water Pelecypoda are comparatively few in
number, and their origin is far more clearly discernible than that of
any other group. This is perhaps due to the fact that the essential
changes of structure required to convert a marine into a fresh-water
bivalve are but slight. Both animals “breathe water,” and both obtain
their nutriment from matter contained in water. Similar remarks apply
to fresh-water operculate Gasteropoda. But the passage from a
marine to an aerial life involves much profounder changes of
environment, which have to be met by correspondingly important
changes in the organism. This may be in part the reason why the
ancestry of all Pulmonata, whether land or fresh-water, is so difficult
to trace.

Fig. 11.—A, Cominella, a

marine genus, which lives
between tide marks, and
from which is probably
derived B, Clea, a genus
occurring only in fresh
water.
 Fig. 12.—A, Cerithium columna Sowb. (marine). B,
Potamides microptera Kien. (brackish water). C, Io
spinosa Lea, one of the Pleuroceridae (fresh water).
(b) Gasteropoda.—(1) Operculate. Canidia and Clea are closely
allied, with but little modification, to the marine Cominella[23] (Fig.
11), as is also Nassodonta to Nassa. They occur (in fresh water) in
the rivers of India, Indo-China, Java, and Borneo, associated with
essentially fresh-water species. Potamides, with its various sub-
genera (Telescopium, Pyrazus, Pirenella, Cerithidea, etc.), all of
which inhabit swamps and mud-flats just above high-water mark in
all warm countries, are derived from Cerithium (Fig. 12); Assiminea,
Hydrobia, and perhaps Truncatella, from Rissoa. It is a remarkable
fact that in Geomelania (with its sub-genera Chittya and Blandiella)
we have a form of Truncatella which has entirely deserted the
neighbourhood of the sea, and lives in woody mountainous localities
in certain of the West Indies. Cremnoconchus, a remarkable shell
occurring only on wet cliffs in the ghâts of southern India, is a
modified Littorina. Neritina and Nerita form a very interesting case in
illustration of the whole process. Nerita is a purely marine genus,
occurring on rocks in the littoral zone; one species, however, (N.
lineata, Chem.) ascends rivers as far as 25 miles from their mouth,
and others haunt marshes of brackish water. Neritina is the fresh-
water form, some species of which are found in brackish swamps or
even creeping on wet mud between tide marks, while the great