Professional Documents
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المرشد العربي في النقد النصي للعهد الجديد
المرشد العربي في النقد النصي للعهد الجديد
com
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3
Ibid. P. 18 "Writing bows the back,
thrusts the ribs into one’s stomach, and
fosters a general debility of the body"
4 1
Alfred E. Housman, The Application Paul D. Wegner, A Student's Guide To
Of Thought To Textual Criticism P. 67 The Textual Criticism Of The Bible P.
5
P. Kyle McCarter, Textual Criticism: 37
2
Recovering The Text Of The Hebrew Bruce M. Metzger, The Text Of The
Bible P.18 " textual criticism is the New Testament P.18
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’
’
’
’
’
Biblia BHS
Hebraica Stuttgartensia
UBS
United Bible Socity
science and art that seeks to determine
the most reliable wording of a text "
6
Metzger, Text of the New
8
Ibid. p.24 " It can, in fact, actually lead Testament, pp. 211–212 "is like teaching
to increased confidence in the reliability another how to become a poet".
7
of the biblical texts" Paul D. Wegner, A Student's Guide
9
Bruce K. Waltke, Old Testament To The Textual Criticism Of The Bible
Textual Criticism P. 157 P. 38
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’
’
Multivalence
Variant
Readings
–
’
11
Wegner, A Student's Guide To The ’
Textual Criticism Of The Bible P. 254
"It is crucial to remind people that most
variants are insignificant and that no
doctrine hinges on a variant text"
12
Eldon Jay Epp, Issues In New
10
Testament Textual Crititcism Sir Frederic Kenyon, The Story Of
13
Bart Ehrman, The Orthodox The Bible P.113 "is to strengthen the proof
Corruption Of Scripture of the authenticity of the Scriptures, and
14
Helmut Koester, The Text Of The our conviction that we have in our
Synoptic Gospels In The Second hands, in substantial integrity, the
Century P. 37 veritable Word of God"
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19 Moving
Stream
Living
Text
’
15
Birdsall, The New Testament Text
16
the original autographs or very close to Parker, Living Text Of The Gospels
17
it" Paul D. Wegner, A Student's Guide
19
Ibid. P.39 " While the writers of New To The Textual Criticism Of The Bible
Testament Scriptures were still alive it P. 39
18
is unlikely that people could have Ibid. P.39 "While questions as to the
changed their writings without their original text surface in some places, a
authors pointing out such discrepancies " substantial amount of the New
20
Metzger, Text Of The New Testament text remains unquestioned
Testament P. 246 and most likely represents the text of
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’
’
’
’ 21
Ibid. P.246 "Although in very many
cases the textual critic is able to
’ ascertain without residual doubt which
reading must have stood in the original,
there are not a few other cases where he
can come only to a tentative decision
based on an equivocal balancing of
probabilities"
22
Wegner, A Student's Guide To The
Textual Criticism Of The Bible P. 40
23
Ibid. p. 40 "The plethora of New
Testament manuscripts is a great
benefit when trying to determine the
original reading of the New Testament,
24
Eldon Epp & Gordon Fee, Studies in for it is easier to sift through and
the Theory and Method of the New evaluate the various extant readings
Testament Textual Criticism than to emend texts with no evidence"
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Paleography
Ostraca
Stone
Pictograph
Code Of
Hamurabi
–
Egyptian hieroglyphs
25
Black & Dockery, Interpreting the
26
Arthur G. Patzia, The Making Of New Testament: Essays on Methods
The New Testament P. 112 and Issues P. 63
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Clay
Leather
Dead Sea Scrolls
parchment
Nuzi
Ebla
Qumran
– 27
Wiseman, Books in The Ancient
Essenes Near East and The Old Testament 1: 37
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Pliny
Biblos
Papyrus
Iliad
Reed
28
Pliny, Natural History (13.21-27)
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Manuscripts
UBS ’’ manu
Siglum scriptum
’’
Nag
Hammadi Library
Chester Beaty
P45, P46,
P47
Martin Bodmer James
McConkey Robinson
P66,
P72, P74, P75
P52
John
30 29
Kurt Aland, The Text Of The New J. M. Robinson’s The Nag Hammadi
Testament P. 96-102 Library
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Ryland
’P52
Parchment
’
Paper
Papyrus
P
31
Arthur G. Patzia, The Making Of
The New Testament "Its discovery in
Egypt shows that the Gospel of John had
Palimpsest circulated in this area by the first half of
’’ the second century A.D. This is quite
amazing when one considers that the
Gospel was written in Ephesus near the
end of the first century A.D."
١٠
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Chalk
Vellum
Pergamum
Eumenes
Parchment
Pergamum
32
Metzger, Manuscripts Of The Greek
Bible P.18-19
33
Jacob Harold Greenlee, Scribes, Scrolls
and Scripture P. 9-10
34
Jack Finegan, Encoutering New
35
Pliny, Natural History 13.21 Testament Manuscripts P.25
١١
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١٢
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Recto –
–
–
Verso Form
Rolls
Opisthograph
’’
Biblos
–
Jar
١٣
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’ Biblos
’’
’
Biblia
Codex
Codex
Caudex
’’
Quires
’’
40
Kurt & Barbara Alands, Text Of ’Quaternio
The New Testament P.7٥ " yet
apparently from the very beginning ’
Christians did not use the Scroll format
for their writings but rather the Codex "
41 39
Harry Gamble, Pauline Corpus and F. F. Bruce, The Canon Of Scripture
Early Christian Book P. 271-280 P. 214
١٤
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’
’
’
Gentiles ’
’’
’skenopoios 42
Kurt & Barbara Aland, The Text of
’ the New Testament P.76 " the Codex
form may possibly be explained by
economic factors "
44 43
Peter Katz, The Early Christians: Metzger, Text Of The New
Use Of Codices Instead Of Rolls P. 63- Testament P. 14 " According to Skeat, the
65 saving in the cost of papyrus when one
45
Donfried, Pual as "skenopoios" P. 254- used the format of codex instead of roll
256 was about 44%. "
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Uncial
’GODISNOWHERE’
’God is Capital Letters
’nowhere’
’ Majuscule Uncial
’God is
’now here’
’
Uncial
’’
46
Black, New Testament Textual
Criticism P. 21 "You may recall the
story of the atheist who wrote on the
chalkboard, “GODISNOWHERE,” Scriptio
intending to mean, “God is nowhere.” He Continua
was quickly corrected by a little girl.
“You mean,” she said, “God is now
here!”"
١٦
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Sight
Cursive
Nomina
Sacra
Minuscule
minusculus
47
Kurt & Barbara Alands, Text Of
The New Testament P. 128
١٧
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–
ιχθυς ichthyc
Punctuation
marks, period,
comma
kephalaia
markings
INRI
’
’ Breahing & Accent
48
Metzger, Manuscripts Of The Aristophanes
Greek Bible P. 12
49
Ibid, P. 41 " The chapters in the
several Pauline Epistles are numbered
continuously as though the Epistles
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Verses
Robert
Stephanus Estienne
William Whittingham
Numes
Chapter Divisions
Stephen
Langton
were regarded as comprising one book
"
50
Bruce M. Metzger, The Text Of The
New Testament, p. 22
51
D. Ewert, From Ancient Tablets to
Modern Translations P. 138
53 52
Ibid., P. 41-42 Metzger, Manuscripts Of The Greek
54
Ibid., P. 43-46 Bible P. 41
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’
’
’
Autogaphs
’
’
’
autographs
60
Metzger, The Text Of The New
Testament P. 14 " the speed of
autographs
production sometimes outran accuracy
of execution"
61
Ibid., P.266 " Their early loss is not
surprising, for during persecutions the
toll taken by imperial edicts aiming to
destroy all copies of the sacred books of
Christians must have been heavy "
62
Westcott, A general Survey Of The
History Of The New Testament P.408
"The Original Edict which enjoined that
'the Churches should be razed and the
Scriptures consumed by fire' is
unhappily lost"
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65
Ibid., P. ٣٠
Finegan, Encountering The New
Testament Manuscripts P. 39 "a
manuscript was measured by the
number of stichoi it contained and
scribes were probably paid "
66 63
Metzger, The Text Of The New Metzger, The Text Of The New
Testament P. 26 "in A.D. 301 by Testament, P. 29 " As travelers rejoice
Emperor Diocletian set the wages of to see their home country, so also is the
scribes at the rale of 25 denarii for 100 end of a book to those who toil [in
lines in writing of the first quality and writing]"
٢٢
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Sources
Greek
Manuscripts
Ancient
Translations
Patristic
Citations
Greek
Manuscripts
–Papyri
–Uncials
–Minuscules
Lectionaries
20 denarii for the same number of lines
in writing of the second quality"
67
Ibid., P.26 " According to the
computation of Rendel Harris, the cost
of producing one complete Bible, such as
Codex Sinaiticus, would have come to
about 30,000 denarii "
٢٣
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٢٤
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P45
P47 –
––
–
P45
Bodmer
P46
P66
–
–––
–––
72
Metzger, The Text Of The New
–
Testament P. 54 " The Pastoral Epistles
wer e probably never included in the
codex, for there does not appear to be
room for them on the leaves missing at
the end (Since it is a single-quire codex,
71
the number of leaves lacking at both Ibid., P. 54 "The manuscript is dated
ends can be computed more or less by the editor in the first half of the third
accurately.)" century"
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Codex Claromontanus
––––
–
Bilingual
81
Metzger, The Text Of The New
Testament P. 26
٣١
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f13
Minuscules
Lectionaries
’
’
f1
83 82
Morton Scott Enslin, Christian Metzger, Manuscripts Of The Greek
Beginnings P.496 Bible P.54
٣٢
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Coptic
Version
UBS3
Ancient
Versions
Aigyptos
’’
87 84
Bruce M. Metzger, The early Casper R. Gregory, Canon and Text
versions of the New Testament P. 106 " of the New Testament P. 384-393
85
the arabic ( )ﻗ ﺒﻂwhich in turn is a Metzger, The Text of the New
shortend form of the Greek αιγυπτιος Testament P.33
86
'Egyptian' as the Arab conquerors called Metzger, Manuscripts of the Greek
the Christian inhabitants of the land " Bible P.54
٣٣
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Sahidic
Latin Dialect
Version
Vitus Bohairic
Latina Dialect
Bodmer III
Fayumic
Dialect
88
Elinor Mullett Husselman, The
Gospel Of John in Fayumic Coptic
٣٤
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’
’
Vercellensis=ita
Vercelli
Bodiensis=itk
Bodiensis
Veronensis=itb
Verona
89
Sir Frederic George Kenyon, Our
Bible and Ancient Manuscripts P.171 "
Hence it is that three different families
or groups can be traced the African, the
European, and the Italian "
Latin 90
Metzger, The Text Of The New
Vulgate Testament P.102" Its form of text agrees
very closely with the quotations mad e
by St. Cyprian of Carthage "
91
Ibid., P.102 "According to E. A. Lowe, k
92
Ibid., P.102 "represents the type of show s paleographical marks of having
text that Jerome used as the basis of the bee n copied from a second-century
Vulgate" papyrus. "
٣٥
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Sixtus
Sixtus
Sixto-Clement
–
Syriac
Version
93
Henry Barclay, An Introduction to
94
Josephus, Antiquities Of The Jews the Old Testament P.85
٣٦
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Sero-
Hexaplaic Peshitta
Mediolanensis
Diatessron
95
F. F. Bruce, The Books and Parchments
P.193
96
Paul E. Kahle, The Cairo Geniza
P.273
97
Metzger, The Early Versions Of The
98
Ibid., P.194-195 New Testament P.48-51
٣٧
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Cyrrhus
Philoxenus Aeons
Old Syriac
Sinaitic
Curetonian
101 99
Metzger, The Early Versions Of J. Harold Greenlee, An Introduction
The New Testament P.36-39 to the New Testament Textual
102
Kenyon, The Text Of The Greek Criticism P.48-49
100
Bible P.165-166 Eusebius, Ecclesiatical History 4.29
٣٨
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Patristic Harklean
Cititions
Paul
Of Tella
’
’ Palestinian
103
Black & Dockery, Interpreting the
New Testament: Essays on Methods
and Issues (48). "Early Christian writers
frequently quoted the New Testament
in their writings and sermons, often at
length, and many wrote commentaries
on it."
104
Westcott, The Bible in the Church
P.83-84
٣٩
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105
Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual
Criticism of the New Testament P.199
٤٠
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Apostolic Fathers
Clement
Of Rome
Barnaba
108
Geisler & Nix, A general
introduction to the Bible. P.422-424
109
Ignatius Epp & Fee, Studies in the theory and
method of New Testament textual
criticism (4). " Most often the Fathers
cited the NT from memory, so one can
not always be sure that their memory
reflects the actual wording of their
Greek text"
٤٢
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٤٥
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’
Against ’
Heresies
Gaul
Pedagogus
Stromata
Codex
Bezae
Tertullian
Clement Of
Alexandria
112
Alexander Souter, The Text and
111
Canon Of The New Testament P. 74- Alexander Souter, The Text and
75 Canon Of The New Testament P.73-74
٤٦
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٤٧
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itk
Cyprian
٤٨
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٤٩
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John Chrysostom
Cappadocian Fathers
Ecclesiastical Text
Ambrose Of Milan
Ecclesiastical
Text
117
Kenyon, Handbook Of The Textual
Criticism Of The New Testament P. 366
118
Alexander Souter, The Text and
Canon Of The New Testament P.77
٥٠
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Augustine Of Hippo itgitd
Boenerianus
City Of ’’
’’God
Confessions
ite ’
’
Jerome
itrith
ita
Primary witness
Vulgate’’
٥١
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’
’
’
’
119
120
Charles Leach, Our Bible: How We
Got It? P. 35-36 " Look at those books.
Sir David
You remember the question about the Dalrymple
New Testament and the Fathers? That
question roused my curiosity, and as I
possessed all the existing works of the
Fathers of the second and third centuries,
I commenced to search, and up to this
’
time I have found the entire New
Testament, except eleven verses "cf.
Geisler & Nix (4٣0)
121
Bruce Metzger, The Text Of The
New Testament Its Transmission,
Corruption, and Restoration P. 126
"Indeed, so extensive are these citations
that if all other sources for our
119
knowledge of the text of the New Black, New Testament textual
Testament were destroyed, they would criticism : A concise guide (17). "Their
be sufficient alone for the reconstruction citations can establish how the text
of practically the entire New appeared in particular places and during
Testament" particular periods in church history."
٥٢
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’
Transmission
’
’
122
Black, New Testament textual
criticism : A concise guide P.17 " In fact,
it has been said that if all the New
P32, P46, P52, Testament manuscripts were destroyed,
P52P64, P66 the text of the New Testament could
still be restored from the quotations
made by the church fathers"
123
Black & Dockery, Interpreting the
New Testament: Essays on Methods
and Issues (48). " The sheer volume of
the information available to the New
Testament textual critic makes it
practically certain that the original text
has been preserved somewhere among
the surviving witnesses"
٥٣
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’
autographs
’
’
’ autographs
125
Bruce Metzger, Manuscripts Of The
Greek Bible: An Introduction To The
Greek Paleography P.21 " In the early
years of the Christian Church,
marked by rapid expansion and
consequent in-creased demand by
individuals and by congregations for
copies of the Scriptures, the speedy
multiplication of copies, even by
124
nonprofessional scribes, sometimes took Paul D. Wegner, A Student Guide
precedence over strict accuracy of To The Textual Criticism Of The Bible
detail" P. 79
٥٤
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’’
’
’
126
Philip Comfort, Encountering The
Manuscripts P.255 "Any one among the
Twelve could have testified against any
falsification. And there was also a group
of 72 other disciples (Luke 10:1) who
could do the same. Furthermore,
according to 1 Corinthians 15:6, Jesus had
at least five hundred followers by the
time he had finished his ministry, and
the next few decades—until the turn of these people witnessed Jesus in
the century and even beyond" resurrection. Most of these people were
127
Irenaeus Against Heresies Chap. still alive (Paul said) in AD 57/58 (the
XXII. "And he remained among them up date of composition for 1 Corinthians); it
to the times of Trajan". stands to reason that several lived for
٥٥
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’
’
’
’
’
autographs
’
129
Ibid., P.445 " Although there were
many early copies of the autographs,
they are not all of the same quality, for
128
as soon as a manuscript was copied Norman Geisler, A general
misprints began to creep into the text " Introduction To The Bible P.445 " Those
130
Gordon Fee, Studies in the theory and manuscripts were written under the
method of the New Testament Textual direction of the Holy Spirit and were
Criticism P.9 inerrant "
٥٦
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’
’
’
Hexapla
’
’
’
131
Westcott, A General Survey Of The
Septuagint History Of The New Testament P.411-
425
132
Geisler & Nix, A general
Introduction To The Bible P.446 " Many
of these copies were made hastily, as the
scribes were in danger of persecution if
’ apprehended, and quite often they were
copied “unprofessionally,” or in an
amateur fashion, by members of a given
church"
133
Ibid., P.446 " During this period of
persecution of the church on the local
level, the church in Alexandria began to
do pioneer work in the comparison and
publication of the texts"
٥٧
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’
’
’
’
134
Geisler & Nix, From God to Us:
How We Got Our Bible P.162
"Alexandria was also a center of
’ Christianity during the early centuries
of the church, a position it retained until
the rise of Islam in the seventh century"
136 135
Comfort, Encountering the Ibid., P.447 " It also witnessed a
manuscripts : An introduction to New conscious, though often elementary,
Testament paleography & textual selection and editorial revision of the
criticism P.260 " I must state that I have text materials"
personally examined every word of all
the New Testament manuscripts dated
before AD 300. In some of these
manuscripts, I have seen the
uncontrolled wildness described by
others. In other manuscripts, I have
observed control. And most of the other
manuscripts fall in between these two
extremes"
137
Ibid., P.263 " What we do know, from
the manuscript evidence, is that several
٥٨
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’
P4, P64, P75
’
Local Texts
’
’
of the earliest Christian scribes were
well-trained scribes who applied their
training to making reliable texts, both of
the Old Testament and the New
Testament"
138
Ibid., P.263 " We know that they were
’ conscientious to make a reliable text in
the process of transcription (as can been
140
Kenyon, The Chester Beatty Biblical seen in manuscripts like P4+64+67 and
Papyri P.15 "No striking or fundamental P75), and we know that others worked to
variation is shown either in the Old or rid the manuscript of textual
the New Testament. There are no corruption."
139
important omissions or additions of Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual
passages, and no variations which affect Commentary On The Greek New
vital facts or doctrines." Testament XVIII
٥٩
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’’
’’
’’ Transposition
’
P46’
B
D
’’
א
ψA
141
Comfort, Encountering the
manuscripts : An introduction to New
Testament paleography & textual
criticism P.323 "In this case, the preferred
word order is found in the first reading,
supported by superior documentation
and normative Pauline usage Paul
typically refers to “Christ Jesus” when
speaking of his exalted state in glory,
and to “Jesus Christ” when speaking of
his earthly ministry or when speaking of
“our Lord Jesus Christ.”"
142
A scribal error in which two letters
or two or more words are accidentally
reversed
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Jerome
Alcuin
’
’ ’
Vulgate
’
’
146 143
Paul D. Wegner, A student's guide to Norman Geisler, From God To Us:
textual criticism of the Bible : Its How We Got Our Bible P.164
144
history, methods & results P.209 Eldon Epp, Textual Criticism P.427
145
"Jerome’s comparison of manuscripts to Paul D. Wegner, A student's guide to
determine the best reading of the text textual criticism of the Bible : Its
was textual criticism" history, methods & results P.208
٦١
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’
’
’
’
’
147
Philip Comfort, Encountering The
Manuscripts P.218
148
Harold Greenlee, An Introduction to
150
Philip Comfort, Encountering The New Testament Textual Criticism P.62
149
Manuscripts P. 94 Gordon Fee, Studies In The Theory
151
Norman Geisler, From God To Us: and ethod of the New Testament
How We Got Our Bible P.198 Textual Criticism P.9 "The major causes
152
Wegner, A student's guide to textual for this were the demise of the
criticism of the Bible : Its history, patriarchate in Alexandria and the
methods & results P.286 subsequent rise and spread of Islam"
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’
’
Byzantine
Text
’
’
Majority
154
Metzger, A Textual Criticism On Text
The Greek New Testament XXI
155 153
Norman Geisler, From God To Us: Philip Comfort, Encountering The
How We Got Our Bible P.165 Manuscripts P.279
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’
Textus Receptus
’
’
Francisco
Ximenez ’
Complutensian
160
Polyglot Leirvik, Human conscience and
Muslim-Christian relations: modern
Egyptian thinkers on al-ḍamīr P.74 "It
became generally used by the thirteenth
century, not only in Egypt, but also in
Syria (Thompson 1955, 10)."
161
Eberhard Nestle, Introduction to the
textual criticism of the Greek New
Testament " Most of the Coptic
manuscripts are accompanied by an
Arabic version"
162
Wegner, A student's guide to
textual criticism of the Bible : Its
history, methods & results P.83 "Thus the
163
Jack Finegan, Encountering New transmission process has been shaped by
Testament Manuscripts: A Working external circumstances, such as wars,
Introduction To The Textual Criticism persecution, the rise of Islam and the
P.56 politics of the Byzantine Empire"
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Desiderius Erasmus
Textus Receptus
Basil
Tyndale
Received Text Complutensian
Critical Text Polyglot
164
Alexander Souter, The Text and
167
Bruce Metzger, The Text Of The Canon Of The New Testament P.87
165
New Testament P.99-100 Jack Finegan, Encountering New
168
David Alan Black, New Testament Testament Manuscripts: A Working
Textual Criticism: A Concise Guide Introduction To The Textual Criticism
P.24 P.57
169 166
Ibid., P.24 Ibid., P.57
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Robert
Estienne
Geneva
King James
Critical
Apparatus
Theodore
Beza
Complutensian
Polyglot
Verse Divisions
172
Geisler & Nix, A General
170
Introduction To The Bible P.451 Geisler & Nix, A General
173
Bruce Metzger, The Text Of The Introduction To The Bible P.451
171
New Testament P.103-104 Samuel Tregelles, An Account Of
174
Norman Geisler, From God To Us: The Printed Text Of The Greek New
How We ot Our Bible P.167 Testament P.30-33
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coptic-books.blogspot.com
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Critical
Apparatus
D
Claromonatus
Montfortianus=61 Brian
Walton
’
’
London Polyglot
180
Bauckham, Scripture Tradition and
Alexandrinus=A
Reason: A study in the Criteria of
Christian Doctrine P.62 "the existence of
178
variants does not prove the corruption Alford, Greek Text: An Exegetical
of the originals: the only security and Critical Commentary 1:I XXIII
179
against the uncertainty which the Jack Finegan, Encountering New
variants allegedly occasioned would be, Testament Manuscripts: A Working
he said, ‘to make one Copy a standard Introduction To The Textual Criticism
for all’" P.59
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John Fell
Vaticanus=B
A, B, Coptic
D, D2, E, E2, E3, K Gothic
28,
33, 59, 69, 71 John Mill
181
Dungan, A History Of The Synoptic
Problem: The Canon, The Text, The
183
Robertson, An Introduction to the Composition and The Interpretation Of
Textual Criticism of the New The Gospels P.192
182
Testament P.24 Ibid., P.192
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’
’
’
’
Asiatic
African
A
188
Elliot, Manuscripts and the Text of
190
Black, Interpreting the New he New Testament: An Introduction for
Testament Essays on methods and issues English Reader P.80
189
P.53 Finegan, Encountering New
191
Wegner, A Student's Guide to Testament Manuscripts: A Working
Textual Criticism of the Bible P.212 Introduction To The Textual Criticism
192
Epp & Fee, Studies in the theory an P.61 " the difficult is to be preferred to
method of the New Testament P.148 the easy reading "
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1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
…..
Johann Jakob
Wettstein
Apparatus
A, B, C, D, E, …
195
Norman Geisler, From God To Us:
How We ot Our Bible P.168
196
Robertson, An Introduction to the
Textual Criticism of the New
Testament P.26
197 193
Ehrman, The Text Of The New Feedman, The Anchor Yale Bible
Testament In Contemporary Research Dictionary 6:428
194
P.26 Philip Comfort, Encountering The
198
Ibid., P.26 Manuscripts P.293
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Johann Jakob
Griesbach
Johann Salomo Semler
’ recension
’
200
recesions
Critical Canons
199
Finegan, Encountering New
200
Ibid., P.61 Testament Manuscripts: A Working
201
Elliot, Manuscripts and the Text of Introduction To The Textual Criticism
the New Testament P.81 P.61
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Johann
Leonhard Hug
203
Epp & Fee, Studies in the Theory and
202
Method of the New Testament Textual Black, Interpreting the New
Criticism P.155 Testament Essays on Methods P.79
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Karl
Lachmann Critical Editons
Textus Receptus
204
Samuel Tregelles, An Account Of
206
Finegan, Encountering New The Printed Text Of The Greek New
Testament Manuscripts: A Working Testament P.90
205
Introduction To The Textual Criticism Finegan, Encountering New
P.63 Testament Manuscripts: A Working
207
Philip Comfort, Encountering The Introduction To The Textual Criticism
Manuscripts P.293 P.127
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Henry
Samuel Alford
Prideaux Tregelles
Prolegomena
’ 208
Epp, Textual Criticism 6:428
209
Philip Comfort, Encountering The
Manuscripts P.99
211 210
Philip Comfort, Encountering The Bruce, Transmission and
Manuscripts P.99 Translation Of The Bible P.53
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’
Konstantin Von
Tischendorf
Sinaiticus=א
א
A→Z
Γ, Δ, Θ,
......
’
’ 212
McDowell, Josh McDowell's
handbook on apologetics " We possess so
many mss, and we are aided by so many
versions, that we are never left to the
need to conjecture as the means of
Ephraemi removing errata"
Rescriptus=C 213
Finegan, Encountering New
Testament Manuscripts: A Working
214
Philip Comfort, Encountering The Introduction To The Textual Criticism
Manuscripts P.99 P.50
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Palimpsest
’
’
Natural
Text
Alexandrian Text
Western
Text
Byzantine Text
B. Westcott & F. Hort
216
Finegan, Encountering New
Testament Manuscripts: A Working
215
Introduction To The Textual Criticism Elliot, Manuscripts and the Text of
P.64 the New Testament P.83
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’
’
John W. ’
Burgon
Nestle Aland
UBS
’
220
Westcott, Introduction to the New
Testament in the Original Greek " so
217
that the amount of what can in any Philip Comfort, Encountering The
sense be called substantial variation is Manuscripts P. 100
218
but a small fraction of the whole Westcott, Introduction to the New
residuary variation, and can hardly Testament in the Original Greek " This
form more than a thousandth part of the Edition is an attempt to present exactly
entire text " the Original Words of the New
221
Geisler, Answering Islam: The Testament, so far as they can now be
crescent in light of the Cross P.239 determined from surviving Documents"
222 219
Josh McDowell, Answers to the Philip Comfort, Encountering The
tough Questions. Manuscripts P.291
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Lachmann
Tregelles
Tischendorf
UBS2 Alford
Stockmeyer
Westcott
RV
Lightfoot
Gregory- Ellicot
Aland Weiss
Bernhard
Weiss
Casper
Rene Gregory
229
Norman Geisler, From God To Us:
How We ot Our Bible P.170
230
Elliot, Manuscripts and the New
Testament P.19
231
Finegan, Encountering New
Testament Manuscripts P.66
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Alexander
Souter Vaticanus=B
Ederhard
Nestle
Erwin Nestle
234
Epp & Fee, Studies in the Theory and
Method P.26
235 232
Geisler & Nix, A General Robertson, An Introduction of the
Introduction to the Bible P.428 textual criticism P.221
236 233
Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Black, Interpreting the New
Dictionary 6:430 Testament Essays P.54
٨٣
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237
Elwell, Encountering the New
Testament: A Historical and Theological
Survey P.29
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Scribal
Errors
’
Accidental’
Intentional
Accidental
Errors
Unintentional Scriptio ’’
Changes Continua
240
Black, New Testament Textual
Criticism P.16
241
Geisler & Nix, A general
238
introduction to the Bible P.467 " what at Wegner, Student's Guide To Textual
first seems to be a grave hindrance to Criticism Of The Bible P.44
239
the reconstruction of the biblical text Emanuel Tov, Textual Vriticism Of
actually becomes extremely beneficial" The Hebrew Bible P.208-209
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’
’’εχομεν
εχωμεν
’ ’
’
Mood
’
they were copying from one manuscript
to another"
243
Ibid., P.137 " The fact that they were
copying the New Testament did not
’
exempt them from the frailties of their
humanity, primitive writing materials,
242
difficult script and uncomfortable Patzia, The Making Of The New
settings for their work " Testament P.137 "Unintentional errors
244
Metzger, The Text Of The New account for about 95 percent of the
Testament P.194 variants that are found in the New
245
Black & Bockery, Interpreting the Testament. This simply means that the
New Testament P.47 copyists made natural mistakes when
٨٦
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٨٧
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P65’’
Homophony
ν Itacism
’’ηπιοι
ο’’
ν ω’’
ετενηθημεν
Dittography
εχομεν
’’
εχωμεν
’’
και
εποινςεν τοις δωδεκα
’’
Haplography
Metathesis
νηπιοι
246
Black, New Testament Textual
Criticism P.59
٨٨
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ιωαννου
μενοιδα P75P66’’
αν ιωνα
Homoioarkton &
Homoioteleuton
Fusion
Parablepsis
οιςαλλ
’’
τον
’πατεπαεχει αλλοις
’ ’’
’’
Fission
’’οιδαμεν
٨٩
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Transposition
’
P46’
’’
Intentional Changes
Purposeful
Alterations
’
’
’ ’
247
impression that a linguistic or Comfort, Encountering the
theological error had crept into the text" Manuscripts: An Introduction to the
250
F. F. Bruce, The New Testament New Testament Paleography P.321
248
Documents: Are They Reliable? " The Wegner, A Student's Guide to
intentional changes that we have seen— Textual Criticism of the Bible P.44
249
and the others that are part of the Greek Ibid., P.16 "These changes were no
text—should not lead us to despair of doubt made in good faith under the
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’
Revising Spelling
ηλθαν Or Grammar
’’
ηλθον
’’
’
Clearing Up
Difficlties
’
’
the reliability of the New Testament
text "
251
’ Patzia, The Making of the New
Testament Criticism P.68 " Thus scribes
’ from a different era, or even
geographical area, often corrected
something that was unfamiliar to them,
252
Kurt & Barbara Aland, The Text Of that was no longer in use or that lacked
The New Testament P.285 clarity "
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’’
’’
τονεις αυτου’’
Harmonization
’’
’
’ ’
’ ’
’’
’’’’
253
Metzger, Text of the New Theological
Testament P.201 "The Comma probably Changes
originated as a piece of allegorical
exegesis of the witness and may have
been written as a marginal gloss in a
Latin manuscript of I Jn, whence it was
taken into the text of the Old Latin
Bible during the fifth century"
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’
’’’
’
’’
’’
’
’ ’
’
Trinitarian formula in the text is
rather unlikely "
258
Scrivener, Plain Introduction, P. 40 "
260
Augustine, Contra Maximinum it is surely safer and more candid to
Arianum, 22 "By the word spirit we admit that Cyprian read the Johannine
consider God the Father to be signified, comma in his New Testament
concerning the worship of whom the manuscript "than to resort to the
Lord spoke, when He said, God is a spirit. explanation of Facundus "
259
By the word blood the Son is signified, Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D.
because the Word was made flesh. And Ehrman, The Text of the New
by the word water we understand the Testament, 4th edition P.146 " It should,
Holy Spirit. For when Jesus spoke however, be noted that Henk Jan de
concerning the water which He was Jongc, a specialist in Erasmian studies,
about to give the thirsty, the evangelist could find no explicit evidence that
says, This He spake concerning the supports this frequently made assertion
Spirit whom those that believed in Him concerning a specific promise made by
would receive" Erasmus"
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Conflation
P75
’’
’’
f13
’
’
Insertion Of Oral
Traditions
P75P66
261
Comfort, Encountering the
Manuscripts: An Introduction to the
New Testament Paleography P.321
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filling
’
’ f13
Lectoral
Expansions
Doxology
Insertion Of
Ecclesiastical
Practices
’
’
’
’
L
P74P45
Narrative gap
filling E
scribal gap-
٩٦
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P74P33
Chistologoical ’
Changes ’
’’
’’
f13
Reliability Of The New
Testament
’
’ Euphemistic
Changes
milder term for a more unpleasant or
offensive one, but sometimes changes
were made simply to smooth out the
grammar or help the text to sound
better "
263 262
Patzia, The Making of the New Wegner, A student's guide to
Testament: Origin, Collection, text and textual criticism of the Bible : Its
Canon P.137 " most copyists were careful history, methods & results " A
and accurate " euphemism is the substitution of a
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’ ’
’
⅛⅞
’
’ ’
’ ’
1/1000 ’
’
264
Ibid., " There was, for example, no
systematic conspiracy to remove
references to the blood of Jesus from the
text or to insert the doctrine of the
Trinity wherever it may have been
266
F. Hort, The New Testament in the possible "
265
Original Greek, Introduction, p. 2 "the Ibid., " Again, it bears repeating that
proportion of words virtually accepted no significant doctrine of the New
on all hands as raised above doubt is Testament hinges on a variant. …. One
very great, not less, on a rough can safely—but cautiously—affirm that
computation, than seven eighths of the we have a text which at all significant
whole. The remaining eighth therefore, points gives us what the authors wrote "
formed in great part by changes of order
and other comparative trivialities,
constitutes the whole area of criticism"
267
Ibid., Introduction P.2 " the amount
of what can in any sense be called
substantial variation can hardly form
more than a thousandth part of the
entire text "
٩٨
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’
’
19/20
’
’
’ ’
271
’
Ezra Abbott, The authorship of the
Fourth Gospel, and other critical essays
p. 208 "Of the one hundred and fifty ’
thousand various readings, more or less,
of the text of the Greek New
Testament, we may, as Mr. Norton has
remarked, dismiss nineteen-twentieths 19/20
from consideration at once, as being
obviously of such a character, or
supported by so little authority, that no
268
critic would regard them as having any Kurt and Barbara Aland, The Text
claim to reception. Of The New Testament, trans. Erroll F.
This leaves, we will say, seven thousand Rhodes, p. 291 " every reading ever
five hundred. But of these, again, it will occurring in the New Testament
appear, on examination, that nineteen textual tradition is stubbornly
out of twenty are of no sort of preserved "
269
consequence as affecting the sense; they Ibid., P. 289 " in every instance of
relate to questions of orthography, or textual variation it is possible to
grammatical construction, or the order determine the form of the original text "
270
of words, or such other matters as have Jack Finegan, Encountering New
been mentioned above, in speaking of Testament Manuscripts, p.55 " It has
unimportant variations" been determined that copyists of the
biblical material exercised great care in
transcribing manuscript texts "
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’
’
’
’ #’
’
’# ’
’#’
272
Schaff, Philip, Companion to the
273
A.T. Robertson, An Introduction to Greek Testament and English Version,
the Textual Criticism of the New Rev. ed. P. 177 "Only about 400 of the
Testament, p13 "It is not meant that 100,000 or 150,000 variations
there are nearly two hundred thousand materially affect the sense. Of these,
places in the New Testament where again, not more than about fifty are
various readings occur ; but only that really important for some reason or
there are nearly two hundred thousand other; and even of these fifty not one
various readings all told ; and in many affects an article of faith or a precept of
cases the documents so differ among duty which is not abundantly sustained
themselves that many are counted on a by other and undoubted passages, or by
single word" the whole tenor of Scripture teaching"
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Majority ’
Text
Textus Receptus
’
critical
text
274
Naorman Geisler,
’ www.normangeisler.net/percent-
accuracy-nt.html "Consider the
’ following message:
Y#U HAVE WON TEN MILLION.
DOLLARS. Notice that even with the
error in the text, 100% of the message
comes through.
Consider also this message with two
lines and two errors.
Y#U HAVE WON TEN MILLION
DOLLARS
YO# HAVE WON TEN MILLION
DOLLARS
Here we are even more sure of the
message with two errors in it. In fact,
the more errors like this, the more sure
275
Daniel B. Wallace, one is of the message since every new
http://bible.org/article/majority-text- line brings a confirmation of every
and-original-text-are-they-identical letter except one. The NT has about
"The Majority Text differs from the 5700 manuscripts. which provides
Textus Receptus in almost 2,000 hundreds, in some cases even thousands
places. So the agreement is better than of confirmations, of every line in the
99 percent. But the Majority Text NT".
differs from the modern critical text in
only about 6,500 places. In other words
the two texts agree almost 98 percent of
the time"
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’ ’
’
’
’
276
Bart D. Ehrman, Misquoting Jesus,
p.55 "In fact, most of the changes found in
early Christian manuscripts have
nothing to do with theology or ideology.
Far and away the most changes are the
result of mistakes pure and simple-slips
of the pen, accidental omissions,
inadvertent additions, misspelled words,
blunders of one sort of another"
277
Sir Frederick Kenyon, Our Bible And
The Ancient Manuscripts, 4th ed.,
revised, 288 "The interval between the
dates of original composition and the
earliest extant evidence becomes so
small as to be in fact negligible, and the
last foundation for any doubt that the
Scriptures have come down
278
Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient substantially as they were written has
Manuscripts, p. 23 " it is practically now been removed. Both the
certain that the true reading of every authenticity and the general integrity of
doubtful passage is preserved in some the books of the New Testament may be
one or other of these ancient authorities " regarded as finally established"
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Local
Texts
Greco-
Roman
279
Patzia, The making of the New
’
Testament : Origin, collection, text &
canon P.131
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text-type
’
Alexandrian
Byzantine
Western
Caesarean
Local Texts
280
Eldon J. Epp, Gordon D. Fee, Studies
in the Theory and Method of New
Testament Textual Criticism P. 287
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’
’
Byzantium
Constantinople
koine
Byzantine
282
Ibid., P. 64 " was polished
281
stylistically, edited ecclesiastically, and Aland and Aland, Text of the New
expanded devotionally ". Testament, p. 66
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received text
King
James Version
Classification
and Genealogical
Relationships
standardized
text
Text-
Types
Alexandrian
Western
Byzantine
Textus
Receptus
Caesarean
285
Metzger, Text of the New
Testament, p. 170 " the prevailing
ecclesiastical form of the New
Testament throughout the Greek-
286
Black & Dockery, Interpreting the speaking world, and eventually
New Testament: Essays on Methods constituted the basis of the Textus
and Issues P.50 Receptus".
١٠٧
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Primary
Neutral
Alexandrian Text-Type
Pro-
Alexandrian
P66P46
P75
Bא
Secondary
P75P46
Alexandrian
Later
Alexandrian ’
LC ’
33W
1739892
287
Ibid., " Thus it appears to represent
the result of a carefully controlled and
supervised process of copying and
transmission".
١٠٨
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smoothing out
grammar
harmonization
conflation
’
’
Origin Of ’
Families ’
289
Ibid., "Thus it is the largest and latest
of the three major text-types and, in
view of the obvious secondary character
of many of its distinctive readings,29 also
the least valuable for recovering the
291
Thomas, How to choose a Bible original text".
290
version : An introductory guide to Ibid., " MSS must be weighed rather
English translations P.58 than counted ".
١١٠
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Alexandrian
Western Text-Type
Caesarean
Gaul
Western
١١١
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Byzantine Text-Type
’
’
Sturz
distinctly
Byzantine
Peshitta
292
Ibid., " It is a longer text, and its
length, at least in part, results from an
effort to include as many readings as
possible from the other families ".
١١٢
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SLKH
39842
Witnesses
Peshitta
Gothic Byzantine Text-Type
Chrysostom
EA
PMKHGF
9382046Q VUS
920808469429 W
2048 δγυ
ωψ
Alexandrian Text-Type
Peshitta
P75P66 Gothic
Chrysostom
א
CB
TL SPLH
W
Ξ δZX
ψ Peshitta
8133200162059 Gothic
579376215164 Chrysostom
1241892850718
1739 293
Black, New Testament textual
Sahidic criticism : A concise guide P.63
١١٣
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1048981336 Bohairic
229817391175323
Didymus
P47
Aא
6102070169PC P74P50P46
100625424194 א
184116111175 BA
234420401852 076048ψC
2351 10481336096
1175326
Western Text-Type P64
Aא
P37P25 MIHCB
א 088081048ψP
WD 104813360220
0177 190817391175326
Old Latin BohairicSahidic
Vulgate
Sinaitic
Curetonian P72P23P20
א
Ambrosiaster BA
048ψPC
016701560142056
١١٤
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Caesarean P48P41P38P29
P45P37 066ED
W 338257255361
0188θ 913614440383
118221f1 151812451108
1278872209131 187417391611
21931582 22982138
1741246913f13
788543346230
281689983828
1071700565157 FED
16041275 91791518188G
Georgian 191218981836
Armenian
Palestinian
Cyril-
Jerusalem
ED
F
١١٥
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אB Recognition of Text
Types
Hermann Freiherr von
Soden
Jerusalem
I=Iota
ιεροσαλυμα
D Koine
K=kappa
κοινη
Burnett
Hillman Streeter
Local Texts Hesychian
H=Eta
ησυχιος
recension
Hesychius
294
Finegan, Encountering New
Alexandria
Testament Manuscripts: A Working
Introduction to Textual Criticism. P.70
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Antioch
A
Uncials
Manuscules
Antioch
Textus
Recetus Caesarea
θ
’ f13f1
Codex
Vaticanus Italy &
Codex Sinaiticus Gaul
’ D
Hans
Lietzmann Carthage
Pauline
Letters
Byzantium
295
Ibid., " Of them all, the Alexandrian
text, found in Codex Vaticanus and
Codex Sinaiticus, is the best ". Lucian of
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P75
Wilhelm
B Bousset
’
’
P75
a B
revised text A
P75
B pre-recensional
proto-
’’ Alexandrian
common ancestor
P75
P75
297
Ibid., " The discovery of P75 showed
that the text of Codex B existed already
in the second century ". Carlo M. Martini
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’ ’A’
A
antecedents
’
Method in Grouping
New Testament P42P68P84
Manuscripts
family
’
standardization
procedures were in existence already in
the late first or early second century for
the transmission of Christian texts, such
as the codex form, the nomina sacra codex
techniques, and the possible presence of
scriptoria".
302
Ibid., "These standardization nomina sacra
procedures permit us to claim that our
very earliest NT papyri had
antecedents or ancestors as much as a ’scriptoria
century earlier than their own time".
303 301
Ernest Cadman Colwell, Studies in Ibid., "Several hints, found in the NT
methodology in textual criticism of the (and in other Christian) papyri
New Testament P. 1-25 themselves, suggest that standardization
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family
Kenyon genealogically
archetype’’
’Alpha’
koine f1
tribe
’Beta’
family
text-type
’Delta’
tribe
’Gamma’
Codex
Koridethi
text-type
tribe
text-type
304
Frederic G. Kenyon, The Text of the
Greek Bible P. 197
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Method in
Establishing
Quantitative
Relationships between
Text-Types of New
Testament
Manuscripts
multiple readings
305
Ernest Cadman Colwell, Studies in
methodology in textual criticism of the
New Testament P. 26-62
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Principles Of Textual
Criticism
External
Evidence
Criteria
-
Alexandrian Text Michael
’Holmes
’
307 306
Black, New Testament textual Holmes, “Textual Criticism,” in
criticism : A concise guide P.32 DPL, p. 929
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harmonistic tendencies
-
Byzantine Text
-
Western Text
D
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’
’
Chronological
Evidence
canons
’
’
309
Gordon D. Fee, “The Textual ’
Criticism of the New Testament " it is
308
noteworthy that for most scholars over Epp & Fee, Studies in the theory and
90 percent of all the variants of the NT method of New Testament textual
text are resolved, because in most cases criticism P.14" knowing the age or
the variant that best explains the origin geographical distribution of early
of the others is also supported by the witnesses in no way guarantees finding
earliest and best witnesses". the original text ".
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’
Genealogical Evidence
Geographical
Evidenvce
’
’
’
Gaul
’
310
Metzger, A textual commentary on
the Greek New Testament (4th rev. ed.)
(xxiv) " In general, earlier manuscripts
are more likely to be free from those
errors that arise from repeated copying
".
312 311
Ibid., " Mere numbers of witnesses Ibid., "The concurrence of witnesses,
supporting a given variant reading do for example, from Antioch, Alexandria,
not necessarily prove the superiority of and Gaul in support of a given variant
that reading ". is, other things being equal, more
313
Black, New Testament textual significant than the testimony of
criticism : A concise guide P.32 witnesses representing but one locality".
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’
P46
Internal
Evidence
’
’
Transcriptional
Evidence
transcriptional
probability
314
Ibid., " the greater number of text
types in support of a reading, the greater
probability of its originality ". ’
315
Ibid., " the reading that best explains
the origin of the other readings is
probably original ".
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317
Geisler & Nix, A general
introduction to the Bible. Includes
indexes. P.476 " The premise is that a
scribe is more likely to add for
clarification than to delete material
from the text".
318 316
Epp & Fee, Studies in the theory and Metzger, A textual commentary on
method of New Testament textual the Greek New Testament (4th rev. ed.)
criticism P.14 "the shorter reading is (xxiv). " Here “more difficult” means
often the original one, because the scribes “more difficult to the scribe,” who would
tended to add to the text ". be tempted to make an emendation ".
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’
- ’
-
- ’
’
-
’
’ Intrinsic
Evidence
’
’
321
Black, New Testament textual
criticism : A concise guide P.33 "Words or
319
phrases that are clearly out of harmony Ibid., " There was a scribal tendency
with an author’s writing habits or to harmonize divergent accounts of a
diction are generally suspect if a given event recorded in Scripture ".
320
variant is involved ". Black, New Testament textual
322
Ibid., " Prefer the reading that best fits criticism : A concise guide P.33 "The
the context and/or the author’s theology tendency of scribes was to make parallel
". texts conform with each other ".
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’
’ -
’
-
-
Gleason Archer
-
’
323
Greenlee, Introduction, p. 119
324
Metzger, The Text of the New
Testament, p. 211
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’
The Debate
over Method
’
Eclectic’
’
’
326
Black, New Testament textual
criticism : A concise guide P.33 " If in the
end you are still undecided, you should
pay special attention to external
evidence, as it is less subjective and
more reliable ". ’
327
Epp & Fee, Studies in the theory and
method of New Testament textual
criticism P.16
328
Ibid., " the original text of the NT is
to be chosen variant by variant, using
all the principles of critical judgment
325
without regarding one MS or text-type". Archer, pp. 57-60
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’
’
UBS
relative
degree of certainty RSV= Revised
Standard Version
NEB= New English
Bible
{A} Rigorous ’’
{B} Eclecticism
{C}
{D} 329
Ibid., " Despite a few notable
exceptions, most of the differences that
330
Metzger, A textual commentary on remain among critical texts result from
the Greek New Testament (4th rev. ed.) a varying degree of weight given the
(xxiv). external evidence".
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’ ’
’
’
’’
’’
’ ’
’
’
’ ’
’
’
332
Metzger, A Textual Commentary
331
on the Greek New Testament, P.619 Patzia, A. G. The making of the New
"added by copyists who assimilated the Testament : Origin, collection, text &
text to Pauline usage ". canon P.147
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Methodologies of
Textual Criticism
Contemporary
Methodological
Approaches
cross-
pollination
genealogical
stemmatic
stemma
genealogical links
’
333
Black & Dockery, Interpreting the
New Testament: Essays on Methods
and Issues P.54
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334
Metzger, Manuscripts, 54
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Hodges -Farstad UBS4
’’
’
’ ’
’
Majority Text ’
Method
335
Elliott, Keeping Up P.43
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’
Radical Eclecticism reasoned
eclecticism
Reasoned Eclecticism
Reasoned
Conservatism
Radical
Conservatism
Eclectic’’
336
Black & Dockery, Interpreting the
New Testament: Essays on Methods
337
Black, New Testament textual and Issues P.55 "The history of
criticism : A concise guide P.36 "The term transmission has been radically
“eclectic” means that the scholar tends dislocated; examples include the
to view each textual variant on its own destruction of MSS and entire libraries
merits instead of blindly following one during times of persecution and the
manuscript or group of manuscripts" Muslim conquests ".
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’’
Conservative
Radical Eclecticsm
Kilpatrick
Elliott
’’
Reasoned
Eclecticism
B.
K. M. Metzger
Aland
text-
type
338
Black, New Testament textual
criticism : A concise guide P.36 " The
term “conservative” is used here to
refer to a generally high view of the
Nestle-
traditional Byzantine text type and/or
the Textus Receptus ".
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Aland
Reasoned United Bible Societies
Conservatism
H. A. Sturz
conflation
a ’’
new Textus Receptus
340
Black, New Testament textual
339
criticism : A concise guide P.37 Black, New Testament textual
"However, unlike Reasoned Eclecticism, criticism : A concise guide P.36 "This
which tends to follow the Alexandrian approach has occasionally been
text, Reasoned Conservatism insists criticized for producing a new “Textus
that no single text type can be preferred Receptus”—a canonized form of the
over all others, and instead emphasizes New Testament text ".
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Radical
Conservatism
Z. Hodges
A. Farstad
New King James
Version
William
Tyndale
341
Black, New Testament textual
criticism : A concise guide P.37 "Scholars
who hold to this view prefer the reading
of the majority of manuscripts, which the geographical distribution of the text
are, of course, mainly Byzantine". types".
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342
Black, New Testament textual
criticism : A concise guide P.37 "At the
very least, it must be conceded that (1)
no single text type is infallible or to be
preferred because of its supposed
superior authority; (2) each reading must
be examined on its own merits; and (3)
readings that best explain other
variants merit our preference".
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