2014 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
October 5-8, 2014, San Diego, CA, USA
Detection Methods for a Low-Cost Accelerometer-
Based Approach for Driver Drowsiness Detection
Samuel Lawoyin Xin Liu
Department of Biomedical School of Transportation
Engineering Science and Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth Harbin Institute of
University Technology
Richmond, USA. Harbin, China
e-mail: lawoyins@vcu.edu e-mail: xinliu@hit.edu.cn
Abstract—Thousands of accidents and fatalities occur each
year due to drowsy and fatigued drivers who choose to operate
motor vehicles despite their reduced level of alertness. Actively
monitoring Steering Wheel Movements (SWM) has been an
important and well documented method for the detection of
drowsy driving. Despite the efficacy of the SWM method, it has
yet to be widely deployed widely on motor vehicles as a practical
means for individual early detection due to the cost prohibitive
nature of current methods as well as complexity of installation
and implementation. Due to these limitations, potentially
lifesaving methods based on SWM monitoring have not been
widely implemented. This paper assesses the efficacy of a
proposed low-cost accelerometer-based method of SWM
monitoring by extracting various SWM parameters and using the
extracted data to train machine learning algorithms.
Experimental results suggest that the use of adequately trained
Support Vector Machines with Accelerometer-based SWM can
be a valuable tool in the detection of drowsy driving and the
reduction in death and injuries.
Keywords—drowsiness; drowsy driving; accidents; road
safety; highway safety
I. INTRODUCTION
It has been estimated by the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA) that drowsy and fatigued
drivers are responsible for about 1,200 deaths and 76,000
injuries each year [1]. Sleep deprived drivers who choose to
operate motor vehicles contribute to drowsy driving [2]. Other
drivers were initially alert but due to prolonged driving, their
awareness deteriorated with time [3]. Research has shown that
prolonging wakefulness is just as dangerous to driver safety as
alcohol intoxication [4]. Fourteen point five percent 14.5% of
respondents polled in Ontario Canada admitted to having
fallen asleep or nodded off while driving [5].
Clinicians have used several methods such as the
Maintenance of Wakefulness Test (MWT) for detecting
unintentional sleep onset and drowsiness [6]. The MWT and
other similar tests are valid predictors of unintentional sleep
onset, however they cannot be ported onto the roads and
highways where the fatalities are occurring. Consequently, it
is necessary to have a cost-effective and unobtrusive method
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Ding-Yu Fei Ou Bai
Department of Biomedical Department of Biomedical
Engineering Engineering
Virginia Commonwealth Virginia Commonwealth
University University
Richmond, USA. Richmond, USA.
e-mail: fei@vcu.edu e-mail: obai@vcu.edu
for monitoring drowsiness that is practical for daily commuter
use.
Researchers have proposed many methods for the
detection of drowsy and fatigued driving. One proposed
method is by monitoring Steering Wheel Movements (SWM).
Research has determined that SWM is both an effective and
unobtrusive method for the detection of driver drowsiness
[7,8]. Researchers have consistently reported a correlation
between a driver’s frequency of steering adjustments and their
level of drowsiness [9, 10]. Not only does the regularity of
SWM input decrease in drowsy drivers, but when SWM inputs
do occur they are large and sudden [8,11]. Researchers also
observed that SWM inputs in fatigued drivers have fewer
micro-corrections and more macro-corrections, with sleeping
drivers making no corrections [12,13,14]. It has been
demonstrated that the majority of sampled drivers show an
increasing trend towards faster and larger steering corrections
as they become drowsy [8].
Electroencephalography (EEG) involves recording signals
from the human scalp and translating them into states of
cognition. Being able to detect signals directly from the brain
is the most important physiological indicator of the central
nervous system activation and alertness [15]. Having prior
knowledge of the characteristics of EEG signals and what they
represent in terms of drowsiness, it is possible to monitor a
driver and interpret the EEG data into a conclusive state of
alertness. The human brain gives off a series of EEG
frequencies including theta waves, and alpha waves [16].
Theta waves indicate slow sleep. Alpha wave activity (8-13
Hz) actually increases during periods of drowsiness while
theta waves (4-8 Hz) increase as during sleepy episodes.
Another indicator of drowsiness that has been used by
researchers are eyelid closures. Eyelid closures are a physical
change that can be used as an indicator of the onset of
drowsiness. Not only is eyelid closure seen as an important
indicator of drowsiness, but the duration of the closure
suggests the degree of fatigue. Closures lasting for more than
half a second are especially strong indicators of sleepiness
[17]. The percent of eyelid closure (PERCLOS) over a time
interval has also been used as a method to detect drowsiness
[18].
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 The method proposed in this paper utilized an
accelerometer attached to the surface of a steering wheel. The
accelerometer was used as a 360° rotation sensor which
monitored the angle of rotation of the steering wheel as a
means to implement the SWM based algorithms for drowsy
driver detection. 4 participants were recruited and asked to
perform simulated driving tasks. SWM data were retrieved
from the accelerometer along with other traditional measures
of drowsiness including EOG and EEG for a prolonged period
of time and then the results were compared to assess the
efficacy of the accelerometer-based SWM method for the
detection of drowsy driving.
The necessity for a practical and inexpensive means of
drowsy driving monitoring is very high especially in light of
the consistently high annual figures on drowsy driving
fatalities. Despite these numbers, the fatalities continue to
occur year after year in part because there is no cost effective
and easy method to implement this drowsy driving
technology. The proposed method provides a simple and cost-
effective means to deploy the well-documented method of
drowsy driving detection based on SWM. Additionally, it can
be implemented on new vehicles or retrofitted on older
vehicles which continue to be manufactured with no drowsy
driving detection mechanisms.
II. MATERIAL AND METHOD
A. Driving Tasks
Four participants were recruited to perform driving tasks in
a vehicle simulator setting. A steering wheel and automatic
transmission pedals were provided to the participants. The
participants were instructed to maintain a straight course of
travel in the center of the road without exiting the road as
indicated by white markings on either side of the road. It was
impossible for participants to maintain a straight course on the
road center without making road exit events unless constant
routine SWM inputs were made to maintain the course.
Participants were asked to perform 45 minutes of driving 4
times for a total driving period of 180 minutes.
Fig. 1. Driving tasks required lane maintenance
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B. Physiological Data Recording
During the driving tasks, the participants EEG signals were
recorded from the Oz and the Fz channels of the International
10 20 EEG mapping, where Oz and Fz are commonly used for
drowsiness and fatigue studies [19]. Electrodes were
referenced to linked earlobes. The participants Horizontal
EOG (HEOG) were recorded to track their horizontal eye
speed and movements as they scanned the centerline and the
solid lane markings they were required to remain within.. The
biosensors used for EEG and EOG monitoring were AgCl
electrodes. The EEG electrodes were held in their proper
locations with an electrode cap. A high definition camera was
used to monitor the driver’s eyes for eye closure events which
were used in supplement to validate EOG data for PERCLOS
analysis.
C. Accelerometer-based SWM monitoring
For SWM monitoring, the angle of rotation of the steering
wheel was measured using an MPU-6050 digital
accelerometer (InvenSense, San Jose, California) as a 360°
rotation sensor. Right turns from neutral gave positive values
while left turns from neutral gave negative values. A neutral
steering wheel gave a 0° reading.
The full method for accelerometer-based SWM detection
is described in a previous article [20]. The most important
equation however relates the static acceleration due to gravity
measured across the accelerometer’s x-axis ( ) with that
measured across the y-axis ( ) according to:
(1)
where was the SWM angle being estimated.
The significance of the accelerometer-based method was
its ability to non-intrusively monitor driver drowsiness in a
cost-effective and easy to implement manner. The two
unanswered questions remaining from the prior study were
how effective the method would be in the presence of low
frequency noise which would defeat a low pass filter, and how
effective the method would be when it is actively used for
drowsiness detection. This current paper addresses the second
question by investigating the efficacy of the method for
accurate drowsiness detection when fused with physiological
training data and when used independently.
The accelerometer-based method for SWM detection as
described in the prior study does not by itself interpret
drowsiness data. The current study demonstrates an
assessment of how the data from the accelerometer-based
approach can be correlated to individual levels of driver
drowsiness.
D. Training Support Vector Machine (SVM) models
All physiological data, SWM data, and other metrics
measured over the total driving period of 180 minutes were
collected once per minute yielding 180 data points for each of
the 9 measures. The first 15 minutes of the first 2 driving tasks
were considered periods of alert driving, while the last 15
minutes of the final 2 driving tasks were considered to be
periods of increased drowsiness.
1) Training SVM models using all 9 measured predictors:
All recorded features were initially used to train the SVM
model to determine how much accuracy could be achieved
through the fusion of 9 physical, behavioral, and physiological
measures of drowsiness. Machine learning was performed to
generate a model for detecting drowsy driving. The training
predictors included accelerometer-based SWM data: the SWM
average amplitude of turns, SWM zero crossings, SWM
number of sudden turns, and the standard deviation of SWM.
Non-SWM based predictors were the theta power of EEG at
Fz, the alpha power at Oz, the number of eye blinks per
minute, the average horizontal eye speed via HEOG, and the
perclos80 value per minute. In detail, the physiological
predictors of drowsiness used were:
a) Theta power at Fz: The theta power collected at
location Fz of the International 10 20 system was used as one
of the predictors of drowsiness. Increased theta power
suggests that the driver is approaching a sleepy or drowsy
episode.
b) Alpha power at Oz: Alpha power was collected from
the occipital region at location Oz of the International 10 20
system. An increased alpha power in EEG indicates that the
driver is at the initial periods of reduced alertness. Increased
alpha activities have been shown by researchers to indicate
increased sleepiness [21]. Alpha rhythms are known to be
increased during the transition from alertness to drowsiness
and are attenuated during alert periods [22]. Increased alpha
activities are a sign that mental relaxation has begun to settle
in, and hypovigillance could occur at this stage. A driver who
continues in this relaxed stage could eventually fall into a fully
drowsy state.
c) The number of eyeblinks per minute: Another
predictor of drowsiness used was the number of eyeblinks
observed per minute. There is a positive relationship between
drowsiness and eye blinks [23,24]. Eye blinks increase as
drivers become more drowsy. Eyeblink frequency is
especially high right before driving accidents occur [24].
Eyeblinking could also be considered as a behavioral predictor
of drowsiness.
d) The average horizontal eye speed via HEOG: As
drivers become more drowsy, it is expected that their eye
speed of scanning the road will change with time [25]. The
average eye speed per minute was used as a predictor of
drowsiness.
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e) PERCLOS 80: PERCLOS indicates the number of
times per period of time that the eyes are closed. PERCLOS
values are especially high right before accidents occur [24]. In
this case, the period of time measured was one minute. P80
was used which indicates that the eyes had to be closed at least
80% to be included in the analysis.
2) Training SVM models using only accelerometer-based
SWM predictors: After the data was classified using the 9
measured predictors, a model based solely upon
accelerometer-based SWM measurements was generated and
then the accuracy of the model was assessed. The four
measures of drowsiness based solely upon SWM measures
were:
a) The number of sudden SWM turns exceeding 8.3°s-1:
During driving tasks, drowsy participants make large and
sudden rotations of the steering wheel with increasing
frequency. The threshold used to qualify large and sudden
turns were those above 8.3°s-1.The number of turns which
were found in excess of 8.3°s-1 were recorded each minute.
b) The number of SWM zero crossings: As drivers
become more drowsy, their driving patterns become more
erratic as they meander within their lane and also become
more prone to exiting their lane. The number of SWM zero
crossings is a way of measuring how much corrective steering
is being required by the drowsy driver as they attempt to
remain in the driving lane as opposed to normal and less
drastic lane maintenance SWM inputs characteristic of alert
drivers. Higher crossings of the 0° mark indicate reactive
inputs.
c) The standard deviation of steering wheel movements:
As drivers become drowsy, their driving patterns eventually
show signs of meandering from the lane center. This can be
observed in the increased standard deviation of the SWM
recordings.
d) The average amplitude of SWM turns: Although the
total number of SWM turn inputs decrease during periods of
drowsiness, the average amplitude of turns that do occur
increase as the SWM inputs become less frequent, but larger
in amplitude.
D. Classification of participant data into drowsiness states
After training the SVM models using participant data, the
newly generated models were then used to classify participant
drowsy driver.
1) Assessing the SVM classification of drowsiness via 9
measures: Using the models created earlier for each
participant using the 9 physical, behavioral, and physiological
measures of drowsiness, we tested the accuracy of the model
for use in determining a drivers state of drowsiness. C-support
vector classifications [26] were the models of SVM used. The
SVM kernel functions used was the Radial Basis Function
(RBF). For validation of the method, 10 fold cross validation Participant 4
was used. Accuracy = 71.67%
Sensitivity = 63.33%
2) Assessing the SVM classification of drowsiness using Specificity = 80.00%
only accelerometer-based SWM measures: In order for the
True positive True negative False positive False negative
accelerometer-based drowsiness detection method to be as
19 24 6 11
simple and non-invasive as possible, it was necessary for the
system to eventually be completely independent from
physiological measures which can be complicated and
intrusive. The SVM models generated were using to test the B. SVM Classification of drowsiness using only
accuracy of the system. accelerometer-based SWM predictors
The 4 SWM based predictor variables were used to train the The Validation of drowsiness detection using only
SVM used for classification. C-support vector classification accelerometer based SWM predictors were performed to
was the model of SVM used. Radial Basis Function (RBF) determine the models accuracy when run independent of
kernels were used for classification. clinical measures as is the case in normal commutes.

III. RESULTS

A. SVM Classification of drowsiness using 9 training

predictors
Using a combination of physiological, behavioral, and
physical classifiers, the model was fed with validation data for
detecting drowsy driving. We used c-SVC models to train the
SVM models used for classifying drowsiness based on 9
predictors.
Using 10 fold cross validation and a Radial Basis
Function, the accuracy of classified data was found to have an
accuracy as high as 100.00%. Table I shows the properties of
the classifications.

Fig. 1. Drowsy SWM (above) is more sudden and of higher amplitudes than
alert SWM (below)

TABLE I. SVM OUTCOMES USING ALL 9 PREDICTORS

Using only the 4 SWM vectors namely: (1) the number of
10 Fold Cross Validation, Radial Basis Function, c-SVC sudden SWM turns exceeding 8.3°s-1, (2) the number of SWM
Participant 1 zero crossings, (3) the standard deviation of steering wheel
Accuracy = 100.00% movements, and (4) the average amplitude of turns, the trained
Sensitivity = 100.00% SVM achieved an accuracy as high as 100.00% drowsiness
Specificity = 100.00% detection when subjected to a 10 fold cross-validation as
shown in Table II.
True positive True negative False positive False negative
Results showed a generally good record of true negative
30 30 0 0 and true positive detections.
Participant 2
Accuracy = 80.00%
Sensitivity = 76.67%
Specificity = 83.33%
TABLE II. SVM VALIDATION USING ONLY 4 SWM PREDICTORS
True positive True negative False positive False negative
23 25 5 7 10 Fold Cross Validation, Radial Basis Function, c-SVC
Participant 3 Participant 1
Accuracy = 100.00% Accuracy = 76.67%
Sensitivity = 100.00% Sensitivity = 80.00%
Specificity = 100.00% Specificity = 73.33%
True positive True negative False positive False negative True positive True negative False positive False negative

30 30 0 0 24 22 8 6

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 Participant 2 classifier was able to more accurately (71.67%) detect
Accuracy = 68.33% drowsiness in the same subject before drowsy symptoms had
Sensitivity = 63.33% begun to surface in steering behaviors.
Specificity = 73.33% In situations, such as was observed in the case of participant
True positive True negative False positive False negative
4, where a drivers steering behaviors are very similar in their
alert and drowsy states, the classifier will face increased
19 22 8 11
challenges while attempting to sort the behaviors across a fine
Participant 3 line between the 2 categories. This can be helped by training
Accuracy = 100.00% the classifier with a much larger number of data rows,
Sensitivity = 100.00% including those taken when the subject was fully drowsy and
Specificity = 100.00% not just marginally so. Certain individuals driving patterns
True positive True negative False positive False negative might also call for fine tuning of the kernel used and also the
30 30 0 0 type of SVM used.
Participant 4
This paper demonstrated that there is a cost-effective,
Accuracy = 43.33% efficacious, and accurate way to implement wide-scale drowsy
Sensitivity = 40.00% driving detection. The method is non-intrusive and does not
Specificity = 46.67% require any complex installations or modifications.
Effective detection of drowsy driving by accelerometer-
True positive True negative False positive False negative based SWM monitoring could be used to prevent the
12 14 16 18 thousands of accidents, injuries and fatalities that continue to
occur annually.
 In comparison to another known drowsiness detection
studies using SWM and machine learning, Eskandarian and
IV. CONCLUSION Sayed achieved an accuracy of 90% while training drowsy
SWM data using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) [27]. The
This paper examined the efficacy of accelerometer-based
training data was based upon the simple concept that in an
SWM monitoring as a method for drowsy driving detection.
alert state, drivers make small amplitude movements of the
The machine learning outcomes observed by feeding the
steering wheel, while in a drowsy state, steering wheel
training data of 4 drivers into a support Vector Machine
movements become less precise and larger in amplitude [28].
suggested potential of the method for the prediction of drowsy
In the future, a larger number of participants will be
driving solely by SWM data.
recruited to improve upon the results of this preliminary study.
The combination of SWM training data with physiological
and behavioral data showed promising results, however the
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