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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

K. Elizabeth Soluri (College of Marin) received her B.A.

from New York University and her M.A. and Ph.D. from
the University of California, Berkeley. She has conducted
anthropological field and laboratory research across the
United States, including work in Valley Forge National
Historical Park, Hawaii, and the central California coast.
Elizabeth is especially interested in pedagogy and issues
of student learning, and her dissertation research focused
on redesigning, implementing, and evaluating effective
teaching methods for undergraduate anthropology courses,
particularly biological anthropology. Elizabeth has taught
anthropology courses at several 2-year and 4-year institu-
tions throughout the San Francisco Bay area.

Sabrina C. Agarwal (University of California, Berkeley) is

an Associate Professor of Anthropology at the ­University of
California, Berkeley. She received her B.A. and M.Sc. from
the University of Toronto and her Ph.D. from the same
­institution, working in both the Department of A
­ nthropology
and the Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute of Mount
Sinai Hospital, Toronto. Her research interests are focused
broadly upon the age, sex, and gender-related changes in
bone quantity and quality, particularly the application of life
course approaches to the study of bone maintenance and fra-
gility and its application to dialogues of social identity and
embodiment in bioarchaeology. Sabrina has authored several
related scholarly articles and edited volumes, most recently
the volume (with Bonnie Glencross) Social Bioarchaeology
(Wiley-Blackwell). She is interested in the philosophies of
teaching, and she is actively involved in the pedagogical
training of current and future college instructors.

vii
PREFACE
FOR INSTRUCTORS
Active, Engaging, Flexible
The introductory laboratory in biological anthropology can
be an inspiring place. It is exciting to see students interact
with materials and concepts that may be entirely novel and
unfamiliar to them. Of course, it is a challenging place too,
a place with many students who enrolled without foresee-
ing the scientific content and detail of the course. This was
the case when we taught introductory biological anthropol-
ogy at the University of California, Berkeley, and decided
to redesign the laboratory portion of the course in 2005. In
doing so we had three overarching goals: (1) we wanted to
emphasize active student engagement as a way to strengthen
learning and long-term retention of course content, (2) we
wanted to help students from diverse backgrounds and with
varying degrees of experience in anthropology learn the
key information about human biology and evolution, and
(3) we wanted the lab manual to be simple for instructors
to implement in their classes, whether it is used in pieces or
as a whole.
We decided to attack this task, both with creativity and
with a research and empirical approach emphasizing constant
reassessment and improvement. We began simply by creating
weekly lab exercises that corresponded with the topics cov-
ered in the course and were based on principles of learning
from current pedagogy and cognition literature. Then, we
spent the next several years trying these lab assignments in
classrooms, tweaking them, and testing them again. We also
collected empirical data about student engagement, initial
learning, and long-term retention of knowledge from the lab
component of the course. The data formed the basis for one
of the author’s (Soluri) doctoral dissertation, which explicitly
examined effective pedagogical methods in biological anthro-
pology instruction. With proof of concept at the initial imple-
mentation at UC Berkeley, the exercises, questions, and text
were then expanded, tested, and refined in additional class-
room environments, including community college courses
in the San Francisco Bay area. We wanted to make sure our
approach would work with as broad an audience as possible.
As a result, we feel this manual has developed into something
unique among biological anthropology laboratory manuals.
1. The manual addresses a wide range of topics ­relevant
to introductory biological anthropology courses,
viii
i­ ncluding genetics and evolutionary theory, skeletal
biology and ­forensic anthropology, primatology, and
­paleoanthropology. We provide a balanced approach to
the topics that gives students a well-rounded founda-
tion in the discipline. We also present concepts, such as
modern human variation, that are central to biological
anthropology but are often not emphasized in ­laboratory
texts. In doing this, we help students build the most com-
prehensive biological anthropology skill set possible. Each
of the lab exercises has been designed with real students
in mind, and their effectiveness has been tested and fine-
tuned over many semesters in real classrooms at various
institutions.
2. The authors’ concern with employing effective ped-
agogy has resulted in a distinctive text that explicitly
emphasizes a student-centered learning experience. The
manual applies active learning pedagogy, which empha-
sizes the importance of students’ hands-on involvement
in learning. It is ideal for laboratory contexts where the
goal is to foster the development of key skills, as well as
content knowledge.
3. The text is exceptional in its further emphasis on coopera-
tive pedagogy, which highlights the importance of student
teamwork to complete learning tasks. This approach helps
students develop the critical thinking and communica-
tion skills that aid them in the biological anthropology
classroom and beyond. We have designed the manual’s
exercises and discussions with cooperative pedagogy in
mind, and we encourage instructors to have students
work in groups when completing the classroom tasks.
4. We have given additional attention to designing a text
that is appropriate for a variety of learning environments
and types of learners. Therefore, the exercise format is
varied throughout the text, offering a range of activities
that target particular learning styles. This variation helps
each student to connect with the material, no matter
what their learning background. It also allows instruc-
tors to choose particular activities suitable for the unique
student makeup of each class.
5. Although the units and labs are arranged in the order
in which the topics are often covered in classrooms, we
have designed them to be modular. Units and labs can be
taught in any order that suits the instructor’s needs.

6. In addition to its topical breadth, the manual is unusual
because of the varied professional experience of its
authors. Dr. Soluri’s research has focused on the pedagog-
ical aspects of teaching biological anthropology, and she
has experience teaching biological anthropology lecture
and laboratory courses at large 4-year institutions and
community colleges in the United States. Dr. ­Agarwal’s
research has focused on bioarchaeology and skeletal
analysis, and she has experience teaching biological
anthropology lecture and laboratory courses at large and
small 4-year institutions in the United States and Canada.
Together, their collective research and teaching experi-
ence results in a well-rounded text that is appropriate for
a wide range of college and university classrooms.
Organization and Pedagogy
Four flexible units. Our text covers a range of biological
anthropology topics in sixteen chapters, or labs. The labs are
equally distributed into four units, or parts. The first unit (Labs
1–4) focuses on genetics and evolutionary theory. It places
­biological anthropology in the context of anthropology and
science more generally, and it provides information about
what evolution is and how it works. The second unit (Labs
5–8) focuses on modern humans. It gives an introduction to
the major bones of the human skeleton and teaches some of
the skills and methods used by forensic anthropologists. This
unit also examines issues of modern human variation and
adaptation. The third unit (Labs 9–12) focuses on primatology.
It reviews issues of biological classification and highlights sim-
ilarities and differences in primate anatomy and behavior. The
final unit (Labs 13–16) focuses on paleoanthropology. It traces
our fossil history from the first primates to modern humans.
As noted earlier, although the units and labs are arranged
in the order in which the topics are often covered in class-
rooms, we have designed them to be modular, and they can
be taught in any order. For courses that have fewer class
meetings, labs can be combined or eliminated as neces-
sary. For courses that have more class meetings, labs can be
divided across multiple class days. Each lab can be treated as
a separate entity, allowing the instructor maximum flexibil-
ity in scheduling and lesson planning.
Chapter organization. Within each lab, there are four pri-
mary subsections. The first is the text section, providing a
written overview of the content for the lab. It can be assigned
as reading that reviews course information or introduces it
for the first time. The text sections are written in a simple and
Preface ix
easy-to-follow format, and they are supported with diagrams,
images, and realistic examples to better elucidate points. At
the end of the text section of certain labs, we present more
advanced concepts that instructors might want to make
optional; this material is called out with the heading Explor-
ing Further. The second section is a list of concept review
questions. These questions target foundational knowledge
and are designed to reinforce the learning of basic factual
content. They are a good review of the reading portion of the
chapter, and they can be assigned as homework to be com-
pleted before class or as pre-lab questions to be completed at
the start of class. The third section includes a set of five to ten
lab exercises (depending on the type of content covered and
length of the exercises). Instructors can choose to assign all
of the exercises in a lab or only a sample, depending on their
classroom needs. The exercises emphasize active and coop-
erative pedagogy and are designed to target higher levels of
learning, such as comprehension and analysis. Instructors
with access to casts and skeletal elements can easily integrate
their own teaching collection with the manual exercises.
Instructors who do not have access to casts, or who have gaps
in their teaching collection, can direct their students to the
images provided in the lab appendices. The final section con-
sists of a list of ­critical thinking questions and tasks. This
material often targets the highest levels of learning, such as
synthesis and evaluation. It provides students with a review
of lab content and a chance to think critically about that con-
tent. Instructors can assign this material as follow-up ques-
tions completed alongside in-class exercises or outside the
classroom. Instructors can also use critical thinking ques-
tions and concept review questions as exam questions.
Art and photo program. Biological anthropology is a
visual discipline and we have tried to illustrate this text in the
best possible manner. Every chapter has multiple large and
detailed figures and photographs. In most cases, to help stu-
dents understand the general size of what we picture, we have
included scales based on direct measurements of specimens
or measurements provided in scientific literature. We strive
for accuracy in our drawings and represent many draw-
ings of bones and fossils with an almost three-dimensional
appearance. The text has been laid out in a step-by-step man-
ner with use of white space and a double-column design that
promotes easy scanning of pages. We provide a map and geo-
logical time line on the inside front and back covers.
Tear-out worksheets. All worksheets are designed to be
torn out and submitted by students with plenty of room for
x Preface
answers. Space for student identification is on every page to
aid in grading. Some instructors might also like their stu-
dents to use the three-hole punch version of this manual.
This lets students easily retain worksheets in a binder as they
are returned.
Instructor Supplements
(wwnorton.com/instructors)
Instructor’s solutions manual and chapter guidelines.
The entire lab manual is supplemented by special instructor
material that gives instructors the information they need to
implement the manual in their courses. It presents guide-
lines for the exercises, including information about mate-
rials needed and the approximate length of time suggested
for each activity. It also provides instructors with answers to
all concept review questions, exercises, and critical thinking
questions.
Image set. Every image, table, and chart from the book is
available for download.
LMS coursepacks. Special LMS coursepacks contain
­versions of selected labs designed to work in your LMS.
These facilitate on-line submission of exercises for distance
and blended learning students (note that students must have
the lab manual for access to images). The coursepack also
contains the introductory Concept Review quiz for each
chapter, and access to Norton’s animation and video resource
for biological ­anthropology.
Low-priced versions and bundle discounts. This man-
ual is available in a discounted three-hole punch version, as
well as an inexpensive electronic version for your distance
­learning students. Discounted bundle prices are also avail-
able to keep costs reasonable for students. Please contact
your W. W. ­Norton representative for more information.
FOR STUDENTS
This book is designed to engage you in an exploration of
human biology and evolution. The evolution of our spe-
cies is a vast and complex topic that is studied by biological
anthropologists around the world who seek to understand
who we are as a species, how we came to be this way, and
where we may be headed from here. Biological anthropol-
ogists tackle these issues using a range of research ques-
tions and methods, and we will investigate these different
forms of analysis throughout the text. Each lab in the book
includes text that introduces important content informa-
tion, questions that can be used to test your comprehen-
sion of the material, exercises that ask you to think and
act like an anthropologist, and critical thinking questions
that ask you to combine all of this knowledge in complex
and new ways. There is no set order to the labs, and your
instructor may choose to present the labs in any order.
No matter where you start or finish, the labs will combine
to provide a broad picture of the human species and our
evolutionary history.
To facilitate your learning, we engage you as active partic-
ipants. You will complete tasks, answer questions, and think
critically about the information presented. You will get the
chance to practice some of the comparative and analytical
skills used by biological anthropologists, and you will likely
begin seeing yourself in a whole new light because of it. We
provide you with up-to-date information about major topics
in biological anthropology, so that you are gaining the most
accurate and current knowledge possible. We also describe
issues and examples that are interesting and relevant to your
real life. We supply you with high quality photos and draw-
ings of skeletons, fossils, and living animals to illustrate key
points and anatomical features throughout the text. Your
instructor may then give you access to additional materials,
such as skeletal elements and fossil casts, to supplement what
you see and learn in the book.
By the end of this book and course, you will be thinking
and applying analytical skills like a biological anthropologist.
You will have learned more about yourself, your place in the
world, and your evolutionary history, and you will be armed
with this knowledge as you continue life in and outside of
anthropology classrooms.

We extend our gratitude to the many people who supported
us and generously provided their assistance throughout
the process of planning, writing, and publishing this book.
Among them, Elizabeth would especially like to thank her
friends and family who supported her during the develop-
ment of this project, especially the Soluri, Camp, Schneider,
and Hayes/Matsunaga families. Elizabeth extends a special
thank you to her husband Tsim, who participated in count-
less conversations about the book, sharing his ideas and
lending his unfailing support every step of the way. Sabrina
would like to especially thank Rosemary Joyce, L ­aurie
Wilkie, Ruth Tringham, and Meg Conkey for sharing all
their teaching and learning wisdom while formulating ideas
for this project. Sabrina also thanks her husband Peter, for
his support and encouragement over the years in seeing this
book to its fruition.
We greatly appreciate the help and guidance we received
from everyone at W. W. Norton & Company. We thank Jack
Repcheck for initially approaching us with this opportunity
and bolstering us through the early stages of the project.
His enthusiasm for the book was contagious and helped get
things off the ground. Eric Svendsen took on the project after
Jack, and he has expertly steered us through the majority of
the writing and publication process. His patience and guid-
ance was instrumental, particularly his insights and assis-
tance during the review, revision, and production processes.
We are also indebted to the exceptional editing of Carla
Talmadge and Connie Parks, who applied their keen eye
to the project from start to finish. We thank Sunny Hwang
for her outstanding suggestions for portions of the text and
activities, which kept us thinking and exploring new ideas.
Rachel Goodman’s excellent organization helped keep the
process streamlined and efficient. This text is supported by
an excellent media and supplement package, and we thank
Tacy Quinn and Marina Rozova for their careful work in
this area. Numerous people helped compile the wonderful
images and figures, including Trish Marx, Nelson Colon,
and Lynn Gadson. Ben Reynolds, Sofia Buono, and Fran
Daniele carefully oversaw the production process. ­Ashley
Lipps contributed her time and expertise in taking beauti-
ful photographs of much of the skeletal material featured in
this text. Tiffiny Tung and Melanie Miller generously shared
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
photographs for inclusion in the text. We extend additional
thanks to Alison Galloway, Adrienne Zihlman, and Richard
Baldwin (Department of Anthropology at the University
of ­California, Santa Cruz) and Chris Conroy (Museum of
­Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley) for
providing access to skeletal material for photographic pur-
poses. Clark Larsen encouraged us and offered valuable
advice based on his experience. The project would not have
been possible without the outstanding support of the entire
W. W. Norton & Company team.
A book of this nature is based on our years of teaching this
material in 2- and 4-year institutions in the United States and
Canada. We thank all of our undergraduate students—past,
present, and future—for inspiring and challenging us. We
also thank the numerous graduate students and faculty who
have taught with us and shared their classroom experiences
and suggestions. In particular, we thank the graduate student
instructors at the University of California, Berkeley, who
helped us test some of the activities published here: ­Patrick
Beauchesne, Chihhua Chiang, Teresa Dujnic Bulger, Julie
Hui, Kari Jones, Ashley Lipps, Andrew Roddick, Arpita Roy,
Matthew Russell, and Julie Wesp. Some activities and questions
included here were initially produced with the support of a
Pedagogy Improvement Grant from the Graduate Student
Teaching and Resource Center of the Graduate Division at the
University of California, Berkeley, for which we are especially
grateful. We also thank the following colleagues for the various
forms of pedagogical support and insights they provided:
Martin Covington, Terrence Deacon, Bonnie Glencross,
Sandra Hollimon, Michelle Hughes Markovics, Rosemary
­
Joyce, Jessica Park, Nicole Slovak, Laurie Taylor, Linda von
Hoene, and Barbara Wheeler. We also extend our special
thanks to the graduate student teaching assistants, Debra
Martin, and Peter Gray at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas,
for their test run of the lab manual. Their detailed feedback
and ideas were instrumental in shaping the final product.
This book benefited from the feedback and suggestions
provided by many reviewers, and we appreciate the time and
thought they put into this process.
K. Elizabeth Soluri
Sabrina C. Agarwal
xi
xii Acknowledgments
REVIEWERS
Lise Mifsud, Cuesta College
Tracy Evans, Fullerton College
Marta Alfonso-Durruty, Kansas State University
Alejandra Estrin Dashe, Metropolitan State University
Peter Warnock, Missouri Valley College
Erin Blankenship-Sefczek, Ohio State University
Joshua Sadvari, Ohio State University
Timothy Sefczek, Ohio State University
Arion Melidonis, Oxnard College
Susan Cachel, Rutgers University
Renee Garcia, Saddleback College
Mario Robertson, Santa Ana College
Phyllisa Eisentraut, Santa Barbara City College
Barbara Wheeler, Santa Rosa Junior College
Nancy Cordell, South Puget Sound Community College
Arthur Charles Durband, Texas Tech University
Robert Paine, Texas Tech University
Nasser Malit, The State University of New York
at Potsdam
Martin Muller, The University of New Mexico
Charles P. Egeland, The University of North Carolina
at Greensboro
Jessica Cade, University of California, Riverside
Sandra Wheeler, University of Central Florida
Lana Williams, University of Central Florida
Michael Pietrusewsky, University of Hawaii
Alan J. Redd, University of Kansas
David Begun, University of Toronto
Jen Shaffer, University of Maryland
Mary S. Willis, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Peter Gray, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Debra Martin, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Cari Lange, Ventura College
Lucas Premo, Washington State University
Robert Renger, Ventura College
Laboratory Manual and Workbook for Biological
Anthropology: Engaging with Human Evolution
 Million
years ago Eon Era Period Period Epoch Period Epoch
0 0 0 0
Cenozoic Holocene
Phanerozoic

2.6 0.01
Mesozoic Pliocene
200
5.3

400 Paleozoic 100 Cretaceous 10 0.4

145 Miocene
600

QUATERNARY
Jurassic
800 200 Pleistocene
208 20 0.8
900 Triassic
245 23
1,000
Permian
286 Oligocene

TERTIARY
1,200 300
Carbon-

Pennsylvanian 30 1.2
iferous

320
Mississippian
34
Proterozoic

1,400 360
Devonian
1,600 1,600 400 408 40 2.6
Silurian
440
1,800 Eocene
Ordovician
2,000 500 510 50
Cambrian
2,200 545
56
PRECAMBRIAN

2,400 60 Paleocene
2,500
2,600 66

2,800

3,000
Archean

3,200

3,400

3,600

3,800
3,900
4,000 Geological Timescale
Earth’s history is divided into eons, eras, periods, and
Hadean

4,200 epochs, all of which are assigned numerical ages. As this

scale approaches modern time, the divisions become more
4,400 detailed numerically. Anthropologists and other scientists
use these time periods to understand and contextualize
4,600 evolutionary changes over time.
 PART ONE

GENETICS AND
EVOLUTIONARY
THEORY

The genetic code for an organism is

stored in its DNA. This DNA is coiled with
proteins to form chromosomes. Humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 LAB 1: BIOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
WHAT TOPICS ARE COVERED IN THIS LAB?
• An introduction to the discipline of anthropology
• A discussion of the four fields of anthropology
• A closer consideration of the field of biological
anthropology
• A review of science and the scientific method
• An overview of the role of scientific inquiry in
biological anthropology research

LAB 2: GENETICS
WHAT TOPICS ARE COVERED IN THIS LAB?
• An introduction to the cell parts related to
processes of evolution and inheritance
• A look at the importance of cell division for
evolution
• A review of DNA replication and protein synthesis

LAB 3: INHERITANCE
WHAT TOPICS ARE COVERED IN THIS LAB?
• An overview of Gregor Mendel’s research with
pea plants
• A consideration of the relationship between
dominant and recessive alleles
• A review of genotypes and phenotypes
• An introduction to the production and
interpretation of Punnett squares and
pedigree diagrams
• A discussion of Mendelian and non-Mendelian
traits
• An examination of the ABO blood group in
humans to illuminate complex relationships of
dominance and recessiveness in real life

LAB 4: FORCES OF EVOLUTION

David Marchal/Visuals Unlimited, Inc.

WHAT TOPICS ARE COVERED IN THIS LAB?

• An introduction to the concept of evolution
• A discussion of the role of genetic
recombination in evolution
• A review of the primary forces of evolution
(mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and
gene flow)
• A consideration of how to determine
when evolution is happening, using the
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
3
 ImageBROKER/Superstock

EAAF/AFP/Getty Images
1
Biological anthropologists address a wide range
of research topics related to humans and our
evolutionary history. This research often includes
time in the laboratory and time in the field.

LAB
Lab Learning Objectives

Biological Anthropology
By the end of this lab, students
should be able to:

• describe the discipline of

anthropology in general, and
compare the four fields of
and the Scientific Method
anthropology.

• discuss the similarities and

differences between the subfields
of biological anthropology.
• explain the scientific method and
define “scientific theory.”
• discuss how biological
anthropologists draw on science
and scientific techniques in
their work.
I n Germany, a group of researchers examines modern and ancient
human DNA to understand human population movements in the past.
Meanwhile, researchers in Ethiopia excavate the fossil remains of some of
our relatives who went extinct roughly 4 million years ago. In California,
a researcher analyzes 7,000-year-old bones for evidence of changes in
bone density related to both biological sex and gender differences during
life. At the same time, researchers in Borneo observe orangutans using
probing tools to fish for the insects they eat. What do all of these people
have in common? They are all conducting biological anthropology
research. What does it mean to be a biological anthropologist? What
topics do biological anthropologists study? In this lab, we explore answers
to these questions.

5
6 LAB 1 | Biological Anthropology and the Scientific Method

anthropology the
study of people
INTRODUCTION of a study subject interrelate and impact one
another is often called a holistic approach.
context the time, We begin this lab with an overview of the dis- With a holistic approach, emphasis is placed on
space, environment, cipline of anthropology. We discuss the four seeing the whole picture because anthropology
historical
fields of anthropology, and we pay particu- recognizes that numerous factors and contex-
circumstances,
and cultural lar attention to how biological anthropology tual issues contribute to what it means to be
practices within relates to the other fields of anthropology. We human.
which a subject outline the subfields of biological anthropology The second fundamental idea in anthropol-
of anthropological
investigation is
and consider how they overlap and vary. We ogy is the use of a comparative approach. The
situated also explore science more generally, discussing comparative approach can take many forms,
the scientific method and its role in scientific and anthropological comparisons can be the
holistic approach research. We conclude by examining how bio- focus of a research project or only a component
research approach
that emphasizes the
logical anthropologists employ the scientific of a research project. For example, anthropol-
importance of all method in their work. ogists often compare different cultural groups,
aspects of the study or the same cultural group in different time
subject and requires
periods, or people in one region to people in
a consideration of
context to gain an WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? another region, or humans to other species. No
understanding of matter what anthropologists study, they recog-
the broader picture Anthropology, in the most general sense, refers nize the importance of considering similarities
comparative
to the study of people. This can take a variety of and differences through comparisons.
approach research forms, including the study of people in the pres- Anthropology is unique because it takes into
approach that ent and people in the past. There are two ideas account how people are shaped by their biologi-
emphasizes the cal and their cultural context, and it explores and
that are fundamental to all anthropological
importance of
comparisons across work. The first idea is the importance of context. compares people in all time periods and regions.
cultures, times, This includes issues of time, space, unique his- Other social sciences, such as psychology and
places, species, etc. torical and environmental circumstances, and sociology, have minor components of both of
various culturally specific practices. Context is these fundamental aspects of anthropology.
cultural
anthropology important to all anthropological work because While many social scientists consider the role
the study of the it shapes what we study. People do not live in of biology and/or culture in human life, most of
cultural life of living a vacuum. Instead, they are inseparable from these disciplines do not emphasize a compara-
people, including
their cultural
the context in which they live. For example, if tive approach. They study people in the present
practices, beliefs, an anthropologist were to fully understand you, or people in particular areas of the world. In con-
economics, politics, they would have to consider your age, where trast, anthropological work considers context
gender roles, etc.; you live, your gender, your life experience, your and employs a broad, comparative perspective.
also called social
anthropology
cultural practices, your family, your place in the
broader biological world, and many other fac-
tors specific and unique to you. Where you live Four Fields of
determines the environmental resources avail- Anthropology
able to you, your food, and possibly your cul-
tural practices. Your cultural practices impact There are generally four fields of anthropology
the way you view the world and your place in (FIGURE 1.1). These four fields are united by the
it. Your biology, such as your sex or age, may consideration of culture and an emphasis on
impact your place in your culture, and your life the comparative approach, but they vary based
experiences often tell the story of all of these on what questions they ask and what materials
factors. It would be impossible to understand they study. One field of anthropology is called
you without understanding as much as pos- ­cultural anthropology (often called social
sible about these other contextual issues. This anthropology in Europe). Cultural anthropolo-
emphasis on context and how different aspects gists study cultural practices, beliefs, economics,
 Four Fields of Anthropology 7

Humanities Institute/Ohio State

Horacio Villalobos/Corbis
John T. Fowler/Alamy
Bettmann/Corbis

University
A B C D

FIGURE 1.1 The Four Fields of Anthropology

All four fields of anthropology emphasize the importance of context and apply a comparative
approach, but they differ in the specific aspects of humanity that they study. Cultural anthropol-
ogists (A) study the cultural life of living people. Archaeologists (B) study the cultural life of past
people by examining their material remains. Linguistic anthropologists (C) study how people make
and use language. Biological anthropologists (D) study human evolution, and their methods of
analysis may be applied to help criminal investigations.

politics, gender roles, etc.; they traditionally
studied non-Western groups, although this is
not always the case in the field today. Cultural
anthropologists study living (or recently living)
peoples. These anthropologists make observa-
tions, conduct interviews, and examine things
made by the people being studied (their mate-
rial culture). For example, a cultural anthropol-
ogist might study the seasonal rituals practiced
by a particular Native American group. The
anthropologist would observe the rituals and
the times surrounding the rituals to understand
the broader cultural context of the practices.
The anthropologist might interview the people
involved in the ritual and the people who observe
the ritual, and the anthropologist might examine
the clothing and materials used in the ritual.
A second field of anthropology is linguistic
anthropology. Linguistic anthropologists study
how people make and use language. Again, lin-
guistic anthropologists tend to research living
(or recently living) peoples, and they tradition-
ally studied non-Western populations. Like cul-
tural anthropologists, linguistic anthropologists
use observations and interviews to collect data
about language production and use. They can
also use written documents, where available,
and recordings of people speaking the language
under study. For example, a linguistic anthro-
pologist might study how language is used dif-
ferently by men and women in an indigenous
group in New Guinea. The anthropologist would
observe people talking with people of their same
gender and people not of their same gender.
The anthropologist might also interview people
about who taught them their language, how they
talk to their children of different genders, and
how they talk to different people in their com-
munity. The anthropologist might also listen to
recordings of songs made by earlier researchers
studying the same group to see if there are dif-
ferences in men’s and women’s singing.
A third field of anthropology is archaeology.
In Europe, archaeology is sometimes treated as
a discipline separate from anthropology. In the
United States, however, archaeology is consid-
ered a subdiscipline of anthropology, and it is
sometimes called anthropological archaeology
to highlight this categorization. Archaeologists,
like cultural anthropologists, study cultural
practices, economics, gender roles, and ritu-
als. However, archaeologists focus on people
and cultures in the past. Sometimes they study
the distant past, tens of thousands of years linguistic
anthropology the
ago. Sometimes they study the recent past, study of how people
maybe only a few decades ago. Archaeologists make and use
study both Western and non-Western peoples language
around the world. Unlike cultural and linguistic
archaeology the
anthropology, archaeology primarily examines study of the cultural
the material remains left by people to under- life of past people,
stand their practices and way of life. Material as seen through
their material
remains are things that are made or modified by
remains such as
people and later recovered by an archaeologist. architecture, bones,
They include things like remnants of houses and tools
8 LAB 1 | Biological Anthropology and the Scientific Method
and ritual buildings, human bones and burials,
tools, animal bones and charred plant parts,
ceramic vessels, personal ornaments, statues,
clothing, and sometimes historical documents.
If archaeologists were studying what Maya peo-
ple ate in a community in Mexico 1,000 years
ago, they would probably try to recover and
examine animal and plant remains from meals,
ceramic vessels that held food and beverages,
areas of the community that were used for food
storage or preparation, and any documents that
might help them understand food use.
The fourth field of anthropology is called
­biological anthropology. Biological anthropol-
ogy is traditionally called physical anthropology,
with the term “physical” reflecting a traditional
biological
focus on the physical measurement of modern
anthropology the humans. Current trends in the field emphasize
study of human methods and theories from biology, such as the
evolution, including growing incorporation of DNA analysis. Thus,
human biology, our
close living and
while both names are acceptable and continue
extinct relatives, and to be used today, we will use “biological anthro-
current similarities pology” to reflect anthropologists’ increasing
and differences
use of biological techniques.
within our species;
also called physical Biological anthropology is the study of human
anthropology evolution, including our biology, our close
primate relatives, our fossil ancestry, and our
biocultural approach
research approach
current similarities and differences. ­Biological
that recognizes the anthropologists study people today and in the
close relationship past. They also study nonhuman species, specif-
between human ically our living primate relatives and our extinct
biology and
culture and
fossil relatives. They examine a wide range of
attempts to study material, including fossils, living primates,
these two forces skeletons, and DNA. For example, a biological
simultaneously
anthropologist studying the primate capacity for
human biology the language might examine genes that contribute
study of human to language production and comprehension.
genetics, variations That same anthropologist could also examine
within our species,
the bones of the skeleton related to language
and how our
species is impacted production and/or try to train living primates to
by evolutionary produce or understand some form of language.
processes The theme that unifies biological anthropology
forensic
research is an emphasis on evolution.
anthropology the One of the things that makes biological
application of anthropology research unusual among the sci-
knowledge and
ences is its emphasis on a biocultural approach.
methods of skeletal
analysis to assist in This approach recognizes that human biology
legal investigations and culture are closely intertwined and need to
be examined and understood simultaneously.
Thus, biological anthropologists consider how
stone tool use (culture) impacted past diet and
dietary adaptations (biology) or how mating
preferences (culture) impact current popula-
tion isolation and human variation (biology).
The Subfields
of Biological
Anthropology
Within biological anthropology, there are sev-
eral subfields. Each subfield emphasizes differ-
ent aspects of human evolution and our place in
the world. One subfield can be generally referred
to as human biology. This is a broad subfield
that includes research on human genetics, the
impact of evolutionary processes on our spe-
cies, and variation among humans today. This
subfield draws heavily on theories and meth-
ods from biology. For example, a researcher in
human biology might study the evolution of a
particular trait, such as adult lactose tolerance.
This researcher could explore the impact of dif-
ferent evolutionary processes in shaping this
adaptation. He could also consider genetic evi-
dence for the trait, as well as why this trait might
vary in human populations today. Another
example of human biology research would be
a study of energy demands and nutrition in
different human populations. The researcher
could observe and interview people in different
groups to identify what people eat, how regu-
larly they eat, how they spend their time, and
how much energy is required for their lifestyle.
The researcher would likely take into account
differences in age, gender, and social status that
may impact energy demands and nutrition.
Forensic anthropology is an applied area of
biological anthropology that has gained popu-
lar attention through the television programs
Bones and CSI. Forensic anthropology is related
to human biology because it applies methods of
skeletal analysis from biology and anatomy to
real-world problems. Forensic anthropologists
analyze human skeletons as part of legal investi-
gations. When a criminal investigation uncovers
 The Subfields of Biological Anthropology 9

various social situations, such as sharing food, primatology

having sex, and fighting. This type of informa- the study of
living primates,
tion could then be used to help us understand particularly their
human behavior in similar situations today and similarities and
in the past. differences and why
The final subfield of biological anthropology these similarities
LukaTDB/Shutterstock

and differences
is called paleoanthropology. Paleoanthropol- might exist
ogy is the study of the anatomy and behavior
of humans and our biological relatives in the paleoanthropology
the study of the
past (FIGURE 1.4). This subfield uses methods
anatomy and
of excavation that are similar to those used behavior of humans
FIGURE 1.2 Forensic Anthropology by archaeologists, and there is often overlap and our extinct
Forensic anthropologists apply methods in the evidence used in paleoanthropology relatives
of human skeletal analysis to aid criminal and archaeology. However, archaeologists
investigations. They help identify victims and
tend to focus on the modern human species,
describe circumstances surrounding death,
using clues in human skeletal remains. and paleoanthropologists often focus on our
ancient extinct relatives, such as Neanderthals.
a victim that is primarily skeletal, with little soft Paleoanthropologists often deal with the more
tissue remaining, investigators call on a forensic distant past, even as far back as several million
anthropologist for assistance (­FIGURE 1.2). In years ago. Paleoanthropologists also focus on
some cases, forensic anthropologists are asked the analysis of fossilized skeletal remains and
to help with investigations of war crimes, nat- sometimes tools and other artifacts that have
ural disasters, and other instances that involve been well preserved across long periods. For
the identification of numerous victims. These example, a paleoanthropologist might study
anthropologists are experts on the human skel- when we first diverged from other primates.
eton and use various methods and techniques
to help identify victims and to suggest the cir-
cumstances surrounding the victims’ deaths.
Another subfield of biological anthropol-
ogy is called primatology. Primatology is the
study of living primates (FIGURE 1.3). Primatol-
ogists study similarities and differences across
primate species, and they try to understand
how, why, and when various primate traits
evolved. Because humans are primates, this
work is used to help understand our broader
biological context and evolutionary history.
Primatologists draw on biological theories and
methods, such as DNA analysis and observa-
tions of animals in the wild. Primatologists
may also design laboratory experiments to test
things such as the ability of primates to per-
Bettmann/Corbis

form certain problem-solving tasks or learn

language. A primatologist might study chim-
panzee social interactions in the wild. In doing
this, the researcher would stay near a group
FIGURE 1.3 Primatology
of chimpanzees for an extended time, observ- Some biological anthropologists, such as Jane Goodall, specialize in
ing and documenting chimpanzee behavior in primatology.
10 LAB 1 | Biological Anthropology and the Scientific Method

scientific method a
cycle of scientific bring together researchers such as geologists
practices that and paleoecologists who study ancient envi-
helps scientists ronments. These interdisciplinary ­partnerships
to gain knowledge
allow paleoanthropologists to gain a more com-
Des Bartlett/Science Source
and sparks further
scientific inquiries plete picture of the past they study.

Science and the

FIGURE 1.4 Paleoanthropology
Paleoanthropologists examine fossilized
remains for information about the anatomy and
behavior of our extinct relatives.
The paleoanthropologist would collect fossil
remains from the relevant time period and ana-
lyze their anatomical traits and features to iden-
tify the extinct species’ relationship to humans
and other primates. She might explore what
kinds of food our early primate relatives ate by
examining fossil teeth and comparing them to
modern primate teeth. Work along these lines
allows us to trace the evolution of particular
human traits, as well as larger evolutionary
trends in our history. Paleoanthropologists usu-
ally work as part of interdisciplinary teams that
Scientific Method
Science is a way of learning about the world.
There are many ways of thinking about the
world, but science is different because it relies
on observations and tests to accumulate knowl-
edge about aspects of the natural world. These
observations and tests must be repeatable and
verifiable by other scientists, and scientists in all
scientific disciplines use the scientific method
to make their observations.
The scientific method is a cycle of s­ cientific
practices that helps scientists gain knowl-
edge and sparks further scientific inquiries
(­FIGURE 1.5). There are four key stages to this
cycle. The first stage is observation. A scientist
can make observations directly, or they can use
observations made by other scientists as part of
previous research. For example, a researcher may

Observation
Savanna baboons live in larger social
groups than other baboon species.

Interpretation
Hypothesis
Yes, there were more predation injuries
Savanna baboons that live in large groups have
and deaths in the baboons that
greater protection from predators than other
live in small groups as compared to the
types of baboons that live in small groups.
baboons living in larger groups.

Data Collection and Testing

Record the number of predator attacks
and resulting injuries and deaths in the
different baboon group types.

FIGURE 1.5 The Scientific Method

When conducting research, scientists follow the scientific method. They use previous research
and/or new observations to develop hypotheses. They then collect data to test their hypotheses.
They use their data to evaluate the hypotheses and make interpretations. These interpretations
then serve as the starting point for further research, and the cycle begins again.

Shah, Anup/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
FIGURE 1.6 Savanna Baboons
Savanna baboons often form larger social groups than baboons that live in forests.
notice that savanna baboons live in larger social
groups than other baboon species (FIGURE 1.6).
The second stage of the cycle is generating
the hypothesis. The hypothesis is based on the
researcher’s observations, and it is a testable
explanation of those observations. There can be
more than one hypothesis, but the researcher
will have to handle them carefully in the next
stages of the scientific method to make sure
adequate data are collected and evaluated for
each hypothesis. To generate a hypothesis,
the researcher suggests a testable explanation
for their observation. Specifically, it should be
written as a statement that if untrue may be
disproved (or falsified) by evidence obtained
in data collection. For example, following the
savanna baboon observation from above, a
researcher hypothesizes that savanna baboons
that live in large groups have greater protection
from predators than other types of baboons that
live in small groups. This hypothesis is testable
because the researcher can observe the two
types of baboons living in different group sizes
and collect relevant data about their predation
risk and rates of survival.
The third stage of the scientific method is
data collection. During this stage, the hypoth-
esis is actually tested. Data (or evidence) are
collected through experiment or further obser-
vations. What type of data are gathered and
how the data are collected will depend on the
hypothesis being tested. In our baboon exam-
ple, the researcher must collect data about the
Science and the Scientific Method 11
number of predator attacks, type of predator
attacks, and rates of injury and death in the dif-
ferent baboon group social situations. This kind
of data collection is different from traditional
experiments that are conducted in laboratories.
Laboratory experiments can often be strictly
controlled, and the scientist can target partic-
ular variables that will be manipulated or kept
in check. This makes it possible to identify what
causes certain results relatively clearly. It also
makes it easy to repeat and verify these exper-
iments and their outcomes. In contrast in the
natural world, scientists cannot fully control the
research situation, and they often have to work
around various environmental barriers, such
as bad weather, limited daylight, and skittish
research subjects. Even without rigid controls
over the study environment, scientists working
in these conditions still follow the basic prin-
ciples of repeatability and verifiability. They
closely document each factor that may impact
their results, so researchers in the future can
repeat the work as closely as possible to test for
similar outcomes.
The final stage of the scientific method is
interpretation. The collected data are used to
evaluate the hypothesis. Did the hypothesis ade-
quately explain the early observation? Is there
sufficient evidence to support the hypothesis,
or should the hypothesis be rejected? In our
savanna baboon example, did the researcher
find more predation injuries and deaths among
the baboons that live in small groups compared
Another random document with
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Sicily ever since. Thus, upon the celerity and ability which, acting
entirely upon his own resources, he might display in getting an army
together and likewise a fleet, would entirely depend the possibility of
a descent upon Libyan or Numidian soil. Should she therefore marry
him, that invasion would not take place.
Having argued these points out in her own mind, Elissa put
entirely on one side any hopes that she might have for the moment
entertained of once more seeing her father, and determined to carry
out the line of action she had marked out for herself upon the night of
leaving the burning city of Abydos. Then seeking her couch, she
slept peacefully.
Upon the following morn Marcus Æmilius informed her that his
three ships were to remain in Tarentum for a short time to re-fit and
re-provision, and further, until he himself could obtain direct
instructions from Rome as to his own movements. He added that he
was sending, in addition to messengers by land to Rome, a direct
report of all that had taken place to Scipio himself. This report would
leave that same night by a swift and celebrated blockade-runner, a
quadrireme that had been captured from the Carthaginians during
the siege of Syracuse. This quadrireme he intended to send first of
all to Syracuse, and, if Scipio were not there, then on to Libybæum,
and Panormus. He would be surely found in the vicinity of one of the
three ports, and in all probability at Syracuse, the most adjacent of
the three.
Upon hearing this, while regretting the delay which she feared
might perchance prove fatal, or result in herself being sent, not to
Scipio, but to Rome, Elissa determined upon writing to the consul.
But first she demanded urgently of Æmilius to send her to Scipio
upon the blockade-runner. This was, however, a responsibility which
the young envoy felt he could not bring upon himself to incur; for was
she not, he urged, entrusted to his safeguard and keeping, with all
honour and comfort, and that with a squadron for her protection? But
should he place her upon the blockade-runner, which was manned
by a mixed and ruffianly crew of Etruscan and Sicilian sailors, little
better indeed than pirates, who could tell what might be her lot, or if
she would ever be heard of again? These men were ever ready to
sell themselves to the highest bidder, and they were very highly paid
for the great risks that they ran; but who could tell, if they had such a
valuable prize as the daughter of Hannibal upon their vessel, to what
uses they might not turn the possession of her person?
Upon these grounds Marcus felt himself bound to refuse to accede
to her request. Therefore Elissa wrote to Scipio as follows:—

“From Elissa, daughter of Hannibal Barca, to Publius

Cornelius Scipio.
“In the name of the great god Melcareth, and in the name of
the sweet goddess of love Tanais, greeting. My lord Scipio, I
write unto thee in Greek, even as thou didst unto me, for thy
letter was duly delivered unto me in the camp at Abydos by
Marcus Æmilius, through the intermediary of that very
Cleandra unto whom Caius Lælius did send greetings.
“Thy servant Elissa was at that time in great tribulation of
mind and body owing to the brutalities and wanton excesses
of the Macedonian king, Philip, into whose hands the mighty
gods, doubtless for the lowering of her pride, had surrendered
her, helpless as the fly within the web of the spider, or the
gazelle beneath the paw of the lion. Then was it that, with the
nobility of soul that thy servant hath ever recognised in thee
since first we did meet at the court of King Syphax, thou didst
with thy letter procure calm for a troubled mind, and pave the
bridge of escape over the waters of despair. Know then this,
oh Scipio, I have carefully considered thy letter in all its
bearings, and am convinced equally by the compassionate
affection and the wisdom of thy words. Therefore is it that,
braving the probable anger of my father Hannibal, and trusting
to the mercy of the almighty gods to rightly guide my
footsteps, I am willing to do thy will and become thy wife, and
am even now arrived as far as the city of Tarentum upon my
way to meet thee. One condition alone do I impose upon thee,
my lord Scipio, namely, that should I become thy wife before
the expiration of six full moons from this, the day of my writing
this letter, thou wilt not proceed further with thy preparations
for the invasion of Carthaginian soil, and wilt do thine utmost
to further the interests of peace between thy country and
mine. Should ought occur to prevent my placing my hand in
thine before the expiration of the soon advancing winter
season, I do absolve thee from any condition whatever.
Further, neither will this my writing, nor these my words be of
any avail. For then it will be too late, and thou must perforce
put thine army in motion. In such case must we both
recognise that the gods themselves have willed matters thus,
and that the time will be past both for thee and for me to think
of joining our lives, whether with a view merely to our own
mutual and personal happiness, or to the welfare of our
respective nations. Yet would I gladly come to thee now,
Scipio, ay, even by the very despatch vessel that beareth thee
this my letter. Yet hath Marcus Æmilius not deemed it wise to
allow my departure, and in all things have I hitherto found him
a man of rectitude and honour. Much would I write to thee, oh
Scipio, of all that hath happened to me since that day, now
long gone by, when I, no more then actually than thy slave by
right of capture, did embrace thee and call thee brother upon
bidding thee farewell. Alas! that the gods did not then point
out to me the right path, else had I never left thee, and never
submitted to the horror of the embraces of a Philip, a monarch
unworthy of the name of king. Yet then was Maharbal still
living, and I pledged; but now have I heard in Tarentum, even
as thou didst write to me thyself, that both he and Chœras,
and all the other leaders of the Numidians, fell with most of
their men at Salapia, being caught without their horses, which
were camped without the walls. Thus am I absolved from that
ancient allegiance. Such is the will of the gods, and the fate of
warriors and women. Even I, Elissa, since bidding thee last
farewell, have been present in many bloody conflicts as of old;
but now have I cast my sword and other arms into the waters,
and renounced warfare for ever. Therefore, should it be the
decree of Melcareth and of Tanais that we should eventually
be joined as one, thou needest not fear in future, oh Scipio,
for any such passages of arms beneath thy roof as when I did
cast my javelines upon thee without the walls of the New
Town, or strike down the men under Lælius in the palace
garden. Nay, the only darts that thou wilt have to fear will be
those from a woman’s usual weapon, the tongue. And even
they shall only be delivered when thou dost absent thyself too
long from thine Elissa’s side. Now, fare thee well, and may the
gods preserve thee until we meet, and may that be soon!
Commend me, I pray thee, to Caius Lælius; I was right loth to
leave him in the ship before Syracuse without bidding him
farewell, especially as he was lying wounded. But his is a
noble heart like thine, Scipio, and he knew I could not do
otherwise to get away. His flag-captain, who did espouse
Cleandra, was afterward slain. Cleandra now doth love
Æmilius, and would wed him, even when I wed thee. With this
object in view, she beggeth me to crave the forgiveness of
Lælius, that he will not enforce against her the rights against
runaway slaves. And this, I know, he will not do, both for thy
sake and for mine, for it was on my account only that
Cleandra did escape with me. Moreover, she was ever most
tender and watchful to him until then. And am not I, for that
matter, thy runaway slave likewise? Farewell again, Scipio. I
pray the gods may now lead our feet together into the paths of
peace.
“(Sealed) Elissa.”
 CHAPTER III.
A TERRIBLE SEA FIGHT.

Elissa did not have so long to wait as she expected for a reply to
her letter to Scipio, for the blockade-runner found him at Syracuse.
Owing to her speed, the favourable breezes, and to clever
seamanship, the quadrireme, having avoided all Carthaginian
cruisers on the way, was back again and lying safely in the harbour
of Tarentum within ten days of her departure. Her captain brought
back with him a letter for Elissa, and definite instructions to Æmilius,
who was instructed to come to Syracuse at once, while keeping well
out to sea to avoid the rival fleets off Locri.
To Elissa Scipio responded with his usual delicacy of feeling, the
joy and anticipation of probably soon meeting being so plainly
evident that even Elissa’s heart, which she had thought at rest, beat
considerably faster than for long past as she read his words. To all
that she proposed he had agreed, whether as regards the cessation
of the preparations for the invasion of Africa, or the immunity of
Cleandra from the consequences of her evasion of Caius. This he
promised personally for his friend in his absence at the siege of
Locri, on the south-east corner of the Bruttian peninsula, which was
being besieged by forces of his both by land and sea.
Had Scipio but received Elissa’s letter some time previously he
would not have sent his troops to commence the siege of that city, so
he said; but now the national honour was engaged on both sides,
and there was no going back for one or for the other.
In conclusion, Scipio laughed at her fears lest they should not be
wed in six months’ time, and therefore not at all; for he said the
merry wine-god Bacchus had appeared to him in a vision, and had
distinctly told him that he should be joined to her in marriage by a
hoary-headed priest with a snow-white beard down to the knees.
Further, that after the nuptials there would be much consumption of
wine. He reminded her that never yet had a heaven-sent vision of his
failed to come true. He therefore bid Elissa be of good cheer, for, as
he had told her years previously, they might yet rule the world
together after all, and then would come the era of perpetual peace
and universal happiness.
When Elissa read this letter the tears came to her eyes, but they
were tears of joy. For she devoutly believed in Scipio’s visions, and
looked forward with unbounded delight to that era of perpetual peace
which, after so many terrible years of misery, she should so soon
help to inaugurate.
In the meanwhile the Carthaginian garrison of the town of Locri,
aided by the Bruttian inhabitants, were making a most vigorous
resistance, for they had the fate of the inhabitants of Tarentum
before their eyes. They knew well that the Romans, who never once
on Italian soil were able to defeat Hannibal in the field, upon
recapture spared not from universal death or slavery the inhabitants
of any of the cities, of no matter what nationality, which had from
fear, self-interest, or compulsion, yielded to his arms.
In addition to Tarentum which, being near at hand, was the most
lively example, the inhabitants of Locri had doubtless heard of the
massacre, torture, and slavery of the inhabitants of Capua by Appius
Claudius, and of the frightful scenes in Syracuse, which had been
previously an ally of Rome for fifty years, upon its capture by Marcus
Marcellus. Thus the wretched Locrini knew that there was nothing to
expect save death for all the men and old women, and dishonour for
all the young women, should the city fall.
And as it happened, once more by treachery from within, the city
of Locri did fall, and fall upon the very day that Marcus Æmilius, with
his three ships, was sailing due southwards from Tarentum past the
Bruttian headlands, keeping, according to Scipio’s instructions, well
out to sea. At the very time that the three ships were, after having
passed the Lacinian Promontory at a considerable distance, steering
still due southwards, some of the most horrible atrocities and
cruelties that the world has ever known were being enacted in the
streets and the interiors of the houses of Locri.
On that particular day it would have been far better for the
Romans on the three ships if they had kept closer into the land and
coasted close down the shore, for suddenly, although well out to sea,
the three Roman vessels found themselves surrounded by a mass of
fishing vessels, small boats, luggers, and even by several small war
pinnaces. All of these were crowded with miserable fugitives, laden
with all kinds of articles of furniture, weighing the boats down to the
water’s edge. Old men with white hair, women with babies in their
arms, young marriageable girls, these were the chief occupants of
the boats. There was a small number of able-bodied rowers also.
These poor wretches had evidently not waited for the actual fall of
the town, but had started to fly as soon as the ramparts were first
stormed, having got their boats all ready in advance. They were all
steering northwards for the city of Croton, lying behind the Lacinian
Promontory, then in the occupation of Hannibal, and were taking the
shortest cut across the arc of the very considerable bay which lies
behind a headland a few miles to the north of Locri.
Seeing the three war vessels in the offing, the flying Locrini
thought, from the direction in which they were coming, that they were
three Carthaginian warships coming from Croton; therefore they all
rushed in a confused mass towards them for safety. This mistake of
theirs was the more excusable inasmuch that, for fear of being
discerned from the Lacinian Promontory on passing, the three
Roman vessels were flying Carthaginian colours.
It was not until the first of the boats had actually met them, and
when the whole sea in front was so encumbered that progress was
almost impossible, that it dawned upon Æmilius and his captains
what it all meant. And then at a considerable distance, in fact, from
just behind the headland lying to the north of Locri, they could see
some ten or twelve Roman war vessels advancing, with a steady
sweep of the oars, in a line, pursuing these poor wretches. Their
progress was slow, for they stopped to rifle all the boats they
overtook, and themselves put out boats full of armed men, for that
purpose. All the old men, the sailors, and the elderly women were
ruthlessly cut down and slaughtered, while the babies were torn from
their mothers, and thrown into the water. The young women,
however, were seized, thrown violently down into the bottom of the
boats, and then conveyed to the war vessels, where their hands and
feet were lashed with roughly-tied ropes. There they were left in a
struggling mass, writhing and screaming on the decks, while the
work of capture and murder proceeded as before. The whole air was
full of the screams of the dying, the water full of drowning people and
sinking boats; but the cries of the women whose babies were torn
from them and thrown into the water were the worst and most
agonising of all.
Before Marcus Æmilius had time to change the Carthaginian
colours on the masts for Roman ones, which it was necessary to do
lest they should be shortly attacked by their own advancing war-
ships, the unhappy creatures in the boats were closing upon them on
all sides, and swarming up the sides of the ships, or clinging to the
oars in all directions.
Now, sighting a fleet of twenty Carthaginian vessels just appearing
in their rear from behind the Lacinian Promontory, the Romans knew
that they must be taken unless they could extricate themselves in
time from the swarming wretches whose boats were not only
delaying them, but whose numbers, if they gained the decks, would
sink them.
Therefore, with every kind of implement, from spear, sword, or
axe, down to capstan-bar, or belaying-pin, were the Romans now
bound, in absolute self-defence, to strike down mercilessly the
miserable, unarmed creatures who were clinging to the oars and
climbing up the sides. In many cases the women threw their babies
on board the ships first, then themselves climbed up after them, and
for a time, at least, a considerable number were continually gaining
the decks, only to be cut down and thrust overboard again. The
water was red with blood, and the oars clogged with the long hair of
dead and living which had got twisted and entangled round them.
And of all this terrible sight were Elissa and Cleandra the horrified
and unwilling spectators.
At length the people in the remaining boats seemed to realise the
situation. Leaving the three ships clear, they commenced to row well
outside of them to the right and the left. Then turning their prows to
the eastward, the three Roman ships charged with all their oars the
now attenuated line of boats on that side, and thus by smashing
some up, and passing clean over others, they gained the open
waters. Rowing with all their might, and steering at first due
eastward, it seemed for a time as if they would clear the left flank of
the advancing line of Carthaginian ships, many of which were now
hampered with the fugitive boats as they had been themselves. And
the greater number stopped to take on board the survivors. But there
were five ships on the extreme Carthaginian left which had
particularly fast rowers, and it was impossible to clear them. Turning
their heads south once more, the Romans tried to join the squadron
of twelve which had come in pursuit of the boats. But these, now
being full of female captives and other spoils, were in full retreat for
the harbour of Locri, outside which lay the main body of the Roman
fleet under command of Caius Lælius.
Caius had, as usual upon such occasions, himself landed with a
storming party, and knew nothing of this affair, especially as the
fugitives had got well away to the north before being discovered. At
length, seeing that three of the Carthaginian vessels only were
gaining upon them, while the other two were now a long way astern,
Marcus Æmilius determined to fight. He signalled to his other two
ships to slacken speed, then to turn round, halt, and lay upon their
oars.
“Get ready to lower the crows,” he cried, “and let the boarders be
ready standing by them.”
The “crows,” long and wide gangways with an iron spike at the
higher end, were fixed to the foremasts, round which they revolved
on an iron ring at the bottom, the spike end being near the mast-
head, to which they were held by pulleys. Men now stood holding the
ends of these pulleys ready to let go. The three Carthaginian ships
were coming near at hand—two quinquiremes and one gigantic
hexireme—the latter being the one that Æmilius determined to
charge himself. Before the shock of the contact Marcus perceived
the two ladies standing on the poop. Doffing his helmet, he kissed
both their hands in turn.
“Fair lady Elissa, if I cannot bear thee to a loving and expectant
husband in the Consul Scipio, there is one thing I can do—I can fight
and die like a man. That is what it must come to; there are five ships
of your countrymen to three of mine. If we conquer the first three, the
two others will come with fresh men, and both, I see, are hexiremes.
They will crush us! Maybe one of our three ships may escape; it will
not be mine, for I shall not retreat unless we can defeat in time our
three present opponents, and so can all escape together. Ladies,
take ye this Carthaginian flag, and should matters be critical, then
hold it aloft over your bodies—it may prove your salvation.” Then he
added, “Farewell, beloved Cleandra, one last embrace!”
Cleandra sprung into his arms, her face white and pale, but
determined. Elissa, who had been in many fights, had never looked
more noble than did now Cleandra, who had never yet been present
in the actual warfare of hand-to-hand combat.
“Fight, my noble Marcus!” she cried. “Fight nobly and fight well,
and in this battle, for thy sake, I will fight, too; and if thou diest I will
die, since, save for the lady Elissa’s sake, I am, through my love for
thee, a very Roman even as thou art.”
She clung to him one moment only, their lips met, then without
another word she released him and waved him forward. Stooping,
she herself picked up a battle-axe, all bloody as it was with the gore
of recent victims.
Then there was a fearful crash. All the six ships were in violent
collision at once. The two women both lost their feet, but jumping up
again, saw the crows falling with a smashing blow clear over the
bulwarks of the Carthaginian ships, the iron beaks fixing themselves
in the decks, and thus binding the hostile vessels together side by
side.
In a second, taking the Carthaginians by surprise in their rush, the
Roman boarders sprung along the crows and fell upon the foemen
on their own decks.
Æmilius had disappeared in the throng, and long the battle raged,
unevenly at first, and then entirely in favour of the Romans, who
slaughtered unmercifully. When nearly all the Carthaginian marines
were slain, suddenly the Romans, by order, rushed back to their
ships, along the crows or over the sides. Æmilius re-appeared upon
his own deck, apparently unwounded save for a small stream of
blood trickling down his cheek.
“Raise the crows swiftly!” he shouted, “and backwater with all the
oars.” For he saw that there was a fair chance of escape, and with
honour, the other two Carthaginian ships being still some way off. He
might even yet carry Elissa home in safety to the Consul Scipio. And
there would have been a chance of escape for the whole three ships
had it not so happened that, by mischance, the rope of the crow
upon his own ship had run out of the block or pulley, and was lying
useless on the deck. The crow could not be raised.
“Escape!” he cried to those on the two other ships, “escape at
once, and tell Scipio that I did my duty.” For he saw that they had
their crows raised, and could get away easily; in fact, they were
already at some distance, and moving astern.
But they were men of mettle, and would not escape to leave their
comrades behind. Even as the two fresh Carthaginian hexiremes
closed up, one on each side of the ship of Æmilius, which was still
locked with the hexireme first engaged, the two outside Roman ships
returned and closed in upon their outer sides. Down fell the crows
once more, the spikes penetrating the decks, and once more the
battle was raging on all sides, and it raged with fury. At length,
Æmilius, quite tired out, was beaten to his knees by a heavy sword
blow, which, falling on the junction of neck and shoulder, went
through the leather armour-flaps lying between helmet and cuirass.
Like a tigress Cleandra sprung to his side, and, with a terrible blow
with her war axe, clove his assailant’s skull in twain before he could
repeat the blow. A Carthaginian soldier behind the fallen man now
pierced her in turn with a spear, full in the bosom. She fell upon
Æmilius, her life-blood mingling with his own, while a Roman struck
down the Carthaginian who had pierced Cleandra.
At length, it was becoming evident that the Romans were
overmatched by these two ships full of fresh men. Moreover, the
oarsmen of the first hexireme had now left their banks of oars, and
arming themselves with the arms of dead comrades or of foemen,
were joining in the fray.
Elissa stood on the end of the poop looking on. The Carthaginian
flag was lying on the taffrail, and, unaware of what she was doing,
she was leaning against it, clasping it with one hand. While she was
standing thus, there came surging forward from one of the other
ships, upon the bloody deck of that whereon she stood herself, an
enormous man, a regular giant. He was smiting with a double-edged
sword to right and left, and clearing as he went a lane before him.
The affrighted and wearied-out Romans still alive upon Elissa’s ship
fled before him, and crossing the Carthaginian ships, sprung to their
outer vessels, and attempted to cast loose the crows again. One,
and one ship only succeeded in so doing, and now the battle was
ending, indeed ended. At that moment the giant arrived, with his
bloody sword raised, before Hannibal’s daughter herself. He saw the
Carthaginian flag, and it caught his attention before he recognised
the woman’s face. Then he knew her again.
“Elissa! Art not thou Elissa? By the great gods, ’tis Elissa herself!”
But she had recognised him for several moments past, despite his
scarred cheek and grizzling hair. Thinking him dead, she had been
watching him spell-bound, fancying that she saw a spirit.
“Ay, Maharbal, I am Elissa, even Hannibal’s daughter. And thou,
art thou indeed Maharbal in the flesh? I heard that thou wast slain at
Salapia.”
“And what dost thou on this Roman ship, Elissa? As for me, thou
seest I was but half slain, since I have just slain half of these
Romans in revenge.”
“I was on my way from Philip of Macedon, from whom these
Romans did rescue me; and I was about to marry Cornelius Scipio,
and thus bring about a peace between Carthage and Rome.” She
looked him calmly in the face as she replied thus.
“Thou marry Scipio! By Moloch, never! That intention of thine I
have, thank the gods, now frustrated.”
Maharbal cried thus, furiously gnashing his teeth, for he had in
years gone by heard reports about his lady-love and Scipio which
had not pleased him greatly. He turned and roared out furiously to
those on the Roman vessel which was just sheering off.
“Hark, ye Roman dogs! tell ye Scipio from me that it is Maharbal,
the son of Manissa, who hath once again frustrated him—say that
the said Maharbal, who hath thrice spared the dog Scipio’s life, is by
no means disposed to accord him in addition his own intended wife;
nay, not for any Roman jackdaw, thinking himself an eagle, is Elissa,
Hannibal’s daughter. Now, go!” he added, in a voice of thunder. He
spoke clearly, and in excellent Latin, and every word of the insulting
message was understood.
As the Carthaginians were quite unable to pursue, the Roman
vessel got away in safety, bearing with it only a small living remnant
of each of the original crews of the three ships.
 When Maharbal turned back to Elissa he found her paying no
regard to him whatever; she was, he saw, down upon her knees by a
dying woman and a dying man. And the woman had her arm around
the man’s neck.
“It is Cleandra,” said Elissa sadly; “dost thou not remember her,
Maharbal? And now one of thy ruffians hath slain her. Oh, my poor
faithful, good Cleandra!” And stooping down she kissed her on the
lips.
The dying woman recognised the Numidian hero, her friend since
earliest youth.
“Maharbal!” said Cleandra, in a faint voice, “be kind to Elissa, and I
will pray the gods for thee. I shall see them soon.” She added still
more faintly, “Fare thee well, Elissa; I did ever love thee faithfully.”
Then she turned towards Æmilius, feebly placed her lips on his, gave
a shudder, and died.
A shiver passed through the form of the Roman at the very same
instant. He also was now dead.
Elissa rose, her dress all dabbled in blood.
“And yet,” she said fiercely to Maharbal, “even amid scenes like
this,” and she pointed with open hand at the dead couple lying at her
feet, “thou canst thank the gods, Maharbal, that thou hast frustrated
my intention of marrying Scipio, thereby to bring about a peace
between Carthage and Rome. Well, thank the gods if thou wilt, thou
art nought to me, thou bloody man! Begone from my sight! Begone I
say, and leave me here with my dead, whom thou and thine have
slain.” She stamped her foot.
As many a courageous and bloodthirsty man has been before, he
was utterly cowed by the righteous anger of a woman.
In such sad wise was, after many years, the meeting again of
Maharbal and Elissa. He, bold warrior as he was, slunk off to give
some orders to his men, feeling, he knew not why, that whereas a
minute ago it had been Elissa who was most terribly, irretrievably in
the wrong, now he had himself done something that he feared she
might never forgive throughout his lifetime.
Thus can a fearless and clever woman ever turn the tables upon a
man, in the most tragic as in the most trivial moments of existence.
 CHAPTER IV.
ELISSA’S MISERY.

It was not to a bed of roses that Elissa returned when she first
rejoined her father in his camp upon the Lacinian Promontory. The
world had not been using him well, and his formerly jovial temper
was considerably embittered in consequence. He hated the Romans
more than ever, and was most contented that his daughter had been
prevented from carrying out her intended union with Scipio. But he
was above everything just, and saw in her intention her wish to act
for her country’s welfare; but while at heart approving her motive, he
objected to the actual intention itself, and would have been furious
had it been successfully carried out.
With regard to Philip of Macedon he felt differently. He was proud
of his daughter, and openly praised her for her self-sacrifice in that
matter. It was not her fault if her country had not reaped all the
advantages that it might have done from her nobility of soul and self-
abnegation. Hannibal recognised them all the same.
Thus after a time, when father and daughter had, so to speak,
renewed each other’s acquaintance, confidence was restored.
Hannibal ceased to blame her even in the matter of Scipio, when he
learned at the beginning of the spring that Scipio had actually at
length passed over into Numidia and was laying siege to the city of
Utica, while Caius Lælius was devastating the coasts with his ships.
And Hannibal well knew there was now no general capable enough
on Carthaginian soil to combat the invader with any hopes of
success. All this might have been prevented if Elissa had only got
safe through to Sicily.
While Hannibal still maintained his own upon Italian soil, almost
capturing the town of Rhegium at the extreme south, and being
successful in other directions whenever he chose to issue from his
entrenchments, there ever continued to come bad news from
Numidia.
 While Scipio was over-running Numidia from end to end, avoiding
any walled towns, save only Utica, and capturing all the unwalled
cities, Utica held out nobly; and eventually, so gallant was her
resistance, that the siege was raised by Scipio after a naval battle in
which the Romans were defeated.
After the raising of the siege of Utica, the party of Hanno sent
envoys to Rome to try to make a peace, and this with Scipio’s
approval, for he had himself dictated the terms. He had been
everywhere successful except before Utica, nearly all the army of
Carthage had been destroyed, and having won quite sufficient
military glory, he was thinking how Elissa might even yet be his, if
only a peace could be quickly brought about. Great warrior as he
was, he was absolutely sated with blood, and would willingly have
given to humanity, had it been possible, a cessation from warfare.
Meanwhile Hannibal remained in Italy, with as much confidence
and security as though it were his own property. And so indeed was
his corner of the mighty peninsula, which he had over-run from end
to end, and whence, had he but had the necessary reinforcements
sent to him, he would have been ready at any time to spring forth
once more like a lion and devastate the fair Italian plains, right back
to those Alps whence he had long years before descended upon this
promised land. But where now were all those to whom he had
promised it? How many were left of the original band who had set
out with him upon that wonderful march from Spain? Of all the
generals and captains who had started on that journey Maharbal
alone remained. Chœras, the cheery, light-hearted poet, had been
slain at Salapia, and all those of superior rank who had marched
across the Ebro were dead also—Monomachus, Hanno, Hasdrubal
the pioneer, and thousands more, ay, even Hasdrubal the brother of
Hannibal, who had marched over the Alps to join him, all—all were
gone! Only old Sosilus still remained. No wonder that Elissa found
her father morose and inclined to find fault with a pitiless fate which
had allowed the miserable ineptitude of the rulers in Carthage to rob
him of the benefit of all his victories, of all his many years of warfare,
and which had cost him the lives of nearly all his old friends, and
given no commensurate return.
 But still, not all the twenty legions that had been raised that year in
Italy could put him out of that last corner of Italy which he had
selected for his own. There he sat, like an eagle upon the rock; and
still, when like the eagle he chose to sally forth and swoop over the
plain, even as the frightened game flying before the monarch of the
skies would the Roman legions retire before him in the open and
take shelter in walled towns or strongly-entrenched encampments,
which, owing to his reduced numbers, he was unable to besiege.
And thus it remained to the end. Hannibal was never defeated in
Italy.
Meanwhile, her father’s original attachment to Maharbal had,
Elissa found, gone on increasing, if possible, through all the years
that they had fought side by side, and especially since he had so
nearly lost his noble lieutenant’s life at the terrible slaughter of the
Numidians at Salapia. From that place, wounded in half-a-dozen
places, he had been one of the very few who had managed to cut
their way through to the horses.
But now, poor Maharbal was but general of the Numidians in
name, for there were no more than at most some seventy-five of the
far-famed Numidians left. And to his great chagrin, his cousin
Massinissa, after killing his uncle, King Syphax, in Numidia, had now
placed many thousands of Numidian cavalry in the field on
Carthaginian soil, side by side with the Romans. For he had, so it
was rumoured, added all the forces of the late King Syphax to his
own, and all were in active alliance with Scipio against Carthage.
Maharbal was now often almost as morose and moody as
Hannibal himself; but the Numidian had an extra cause for sorrow.
For throughout the whole of his long years of warrings in Italy, he
had remained faithful to Elissa. And now he found that she had
ceased to love him. He had been quite prepared to overlook her
doubtful alliance with King Philip of Macedon; but he found, to his
surprise, that no magnanimity was required upon his side, for Elissa
would have nothing of him. He had been ready to excuse both the
original flirtation with Scipio at the Court of Syphax, of which an
exaggerated report had reached him, and also her later
determination to marry Scipio; but he discovered that to be excused
either on the one count or the other was the very last thing that
Elissa herself desired. In fact she deliberately refused to
acknowledge his right to interfere in, question, or condone her
conduct from any point of view. And he felt somehow that through
the barrier of reserve, which she had raised from the very moment of
their meeting again, it would be far more difficult for him to break
than it would have been for him to break down, single-handed, the
Colline gate of the walls of Rome, over which Hannibal had cast his
spear in token of defiance.
It was not that he found her hard to him, for, on the contrary, she
was gentle; but she was no longer in love with him; she was
indifferent. There is nothing so terrible for a man to contend against
in the woman who once loved him with all her heart and soul, with
every fibre of her frame, than this same indifference, that is, if he
love her still himself. Now, Maharbal loved Elissa still, and the more
indifferent she showed herself to him, the more he loved her. But it is
not to be wondered at if, after all she had gone through, Elissa could
not find it in her to rush violently all at once into a renewal of her
former relations with Maharbal. Not only were all her dreams of an
Utopia with Scipio now dashed to the ground, but she heard daily of
the terrible reverses that had occurred to her beloved Carthage,
which she had never seen, owing to the failure of her marriage with
him.
And who was it who had been the direct cause of her failing to join
Scipio in Syracuse but Maharbal himself, who had detached five
warships from the fleet, and captured her and killed her friends. Was
not poor Cleandra’s death directly attributable to Maharbal? and
who, in all her life, had been such a friend to her as Cleandra? And
was not Æmilius her friend? He had saved her from the court of
Philip, and yet Maharbal or his men—it was the same thing—had
killed him.
“What,” thought Elissa, “has Maharbal ever given to me like the
devotion of a Cleandra, the love of a Scipio—ay, or even the
courtesy of a Lælius or an Æmilius?” Was it sufficient for Maharbal to
leave her alone for year after year, when he might have visited her
instead of her uncle Mago? Was it enough for him, while taking his
fill of the life he delighted in—a life of blood and military glory—to
continue to love her at a distance, and to expect her to fall at his feet
at his bidding after all, just because fate or chance placed her in his
way? “No,” cried Elissa to herself; “a thousand times no!” and she
thought of the old days, when she had wept her eyes out for
Maharbal, while he was with Melania at the court of King Andobales,
and stamped with her feet upon the ground with rage to think that
she ever had been such a fool.
But now she was so utterly miserable, so distressed at Cleandra’s
death, so disappointed at the terrible failure of her grand plans for
the happiness of the world in conjunction with Scipio, that really this
matter of Maharbal scarcely interested her. She had lived too much,
seen too much, suffered too much! So she told him plainly one day
that he must be content with the past. It might now indeed seem to
both of them almost as a dream. Well, so much the better! A dream it
must remain, for anything now more approaching a reality was
utterly impossible. And with that she left him.
 CHAPTER V.
HIS LEGAL WIFE.

Meanwhile the Carthaginian embassy to Rome to sue for terms of

peace had not been a success. It was owing to the atrocious
behaviour of the Carthaginian party themselves, who had
endeavoured to cast the whole blame of the war from start to finish
upon Hannibal, and Hannibal alone, that the negotiations broke
down.
For the Roman Senate were not children, and there were so many
issues at stake in which it could be clearly proved that the
Carthaginians, entirely apart from Hannibal, had held the leading
hand, that the Romans were disgusted at their excuses.
For the Senate well knew that, while the people in Carthage had
been glad enough to vaunt Hannibal’s victories, they had, from
jealousy, never supported him properly, or Rome might now have
been a mere province of Carthage. They also divined that, defeated
in their own country, the Carthaginians were treacherously inclined to
give to Rome as a scapegoat the glorious hero who, alone, unaided,
and deserted by his country, had won victory upon victory throughout
three-quarters of the then known world.
Therefore the Roman Senate refused the terms of peace, and
ordained that Scipio should go on with the war or get better terms.
Scipio was personally annoyed at the failure of the negotiations,
for he had ever the same object in view, the long-deferred hope of
the possession as his bride of the beloved Elissa. He had suffered
much since her recapture by her own countrymen off Locri, and,
were it only for revenge upon Maharbal, whose insulting message he
had received, he longed more than ever to marry her. But, all
question of revenge apart, since the letters that had passed between
them, and when she had so nearly reached his outstretched arms,
he felt that he loved her more than ever—more than it seemed
possible for any man on earth to love a woman.
 Instead, therefore, of carrying on the war, Scipio for a while
continued the truce, pretending to play with the Carthaginian envoys
to deceive Rome, and with the Roman envoys to deceive Carthage.
For he argued: “Did I not see the wine-god Bacchus in a vision?
and did he not tell me that I shall be married to Elissa by a priest with
a long beard flowing to his knees? and has ever yet one of my
visions proved false?” For by this time he had himself really begun to
believe in these visions or dreams which had for so long been
believed in by others.
Scipio being thus inclined, peace might have been made, after all,
but for the treachery of the Carthaginians, who seized, during a time
of truce, upon some Roman transports full of provisions, which had
been driven ashore in a storm. After this no further ideas of peace
were possible, and Scipio recommenced the war with all the more
fury because he feared that he must for ever renounce his dearest
hopes.
The cowardly Carthaginians, who had neglected him for so many
years, now wrote letters recalling Hannibal to the country which he
had not seen since he was a boy of nine, for they wanted him to
come and defend them. They also sent for his brother Mago, from
Capua; but the noble Mago, Maharbal’s friend, was wounded on his
way down in a drawn battle in the country of the Insubrian Gauls,
and died at sea; never living to greet either his brother or his friend
Maharbal again, nor indeed to see even his native soil once more.
Hannibal and his daughter, and Maharbal and all the troops,
however, obeyed the summons, thus voluntarily this wonderful
general left the country out of which the Romans would never have
been able to drive him.
“Oh! Elissa, Elissa!” cried the warrior, as for once, weak as a
woman, he fell upon his daughter’s breast in the temple of Juno
Lacinia. “Oh, my daughter, comfort me, comfort me! for truly the
gods have laid a heavy hand upon me, or why should I leave this fair
country of Italy without first taking Rome? See, on yonder brazen
tablets, all the exploits I have had carved in three languages for
future generations to read, yet one is not there inscribed. All mention
that there is of Rome is that I threw my javeline over the wall. Oh! my
countrymen, my countrymen! if ye had but supported me it would not