Department of Technical Mechatronics

Subject: Engineering Mechanics

First Stage
Lecturer: M.SC Alaq F. Hasan
Year: 2022-2023
Lecture Five
 Lecture Outline:

• 5.1 Introduction to Dry Friction

• 5.2 Mechanism of Dry Friction
• 5.3 Types of Dry Friction Problems
• Homework
5.1 Introduction to Dry Friction

It has been established since long that all surfaces of the bodies are never perfectly smooth. It has been observed that whenever,
even a very smooth surface is viewed under a microscope, it is found to have some roughness and irregularities, which may not
be detected by an ordinary touch. It will be interesting to know that if a block of one substance is placed over the level surface of
the same or different material, a certain degree of interlocking of the minutely projecting particles takes place. This does not
involve any force, so long as the block does not move or tends to move. But whenever one of the blocks moves or tends to move
tangentially with respect to the surface, on which it rests, the interlocking property of the projecting particles opposes the
motion. This opposing force, which acts in the opposite direction of the movement of the block, is called force of friction or
simply friction.

5.2 Mechanism of Dry Friction

Consider a solid block of mass m resting on a horizontal surface, as shown in next figure. We assume that the contacting surfaces
have some roughness. The experiment involves the application of a horizontal force P which continuously increases from zero to
a value sufficient to move the block and give it an appreciable velocity.
The free-body diagram of the block for any value of P is shown in above figure, where the tangential friction force exerted by
the plane on the block is labeled F. This friction force acting on the body will always be in a direction to oppose motion or the
tendency toward motion of the body. There is also a normal force N which in this case equals mg, and the total force R exerted
by the supporting surface on the block is the resultant of N and F. A magnified view of the irregularities of the mating surfaces
helps us to visualize the mechanical action of friction. Support is necessarily intermittent and exists at the mating humps. The
direction of each of the reactions on the block, 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 , etc., depends not only on the geometric profile of the irregularities
but also on the extent of local deformation at each contact point. The total normal force N is the sum of the n-components of the
R’s, and the total frictional force F is the sum of the t-components of the R’s. When the surfaces are in relative motion, the
contacts are more nearly along the tops of the humps, and the t-components of the R’s are smaller than when the surfaces are at
rest relative to one another. This observation helps to explain the well known fact that the force P necessary to maintain motion
is generally less than that required to start the block when the irregularities are more nearly in mesh.
If we perform the experiment and record the friction force F as a function of P, we obtain the relation shown in the figure. When P
is zero, equilibrium requires that there be no friction force. As P is increased, the friction force must be equal and opposite to P as
long as the block does not slip. During this period the block is in equilibrium, and all forces acting on the block must satisfy the
equilibrium equations. Finally, we reach a value of P which causes the block to slip and to move in the direction of the applied
force. At this same time the friction force decreases slightly and abruptly. It then remains essentially constant for a time but then
decreases still more as the velocity increases.
• Static Friction
The region in the previous figure up to the point of slippage or impending motion is called the range of static friction, and in this
range the value of the friction force is determined by the equations of equilibrium. This friction force may have any value from
zero up to and including the maximum value. For a given pair of mating surfaces the experiment shows that this maximum value
of static friction 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 is proportional to the normal force N. Thus, we may write
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁

where 𝜇𝑠 is the proportionality constant, called the coefficient of static friction. Be aware that the above equation describes only
the limiting or maximum value of the static friction force and not any lesser value. Thus, the equation applies only to cases where
motion is impending with the friction force at its peak value. For a condition of static equilibrium when motion is not impending,
the static friction force is

𝐹 < 𝜇𝑠 𝑁

• Kinetic Friction
After slippage occurs, a condition of kinetic friction accompanies the ensuing motion. Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat
less than the maximum static friction force.
The kinetic friction force 𝐹𝑘 is also proportional to the normal force. Thus,
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁

where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction. It follows that 𝜇𝑘 is generally less than 𝜇𝑠 . As the velocity of the block increases, the
kinetic friction decreases somewhat, and at high velocities, this decrease may be significant. Coefficients of friction depend greatly
on the exact condition of the surfaces, as well as on the relative velocity, and are subject to considerable uncertainty.

• Friction Angles
The direction of the resultant R measured from the direction of N is specified by 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = 𝐹/𝑁. When the friction force reaches its
limiting static value 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the angle 𝛼 reaches a maximum value 𝜑𝑠 . Thus,

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠

When slippage is occurring, the angle 𝛼 has a value 𝜇𝑘 corresponding to the kinetic friction force. In like manner,
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘
In practice we often see the expression tan 𝜑 = 𝜇 , in which the coefficient of friction may refer to either the static or the kinetic
case, depending on the particular problem. The angle 𝜑𝑠 is called the angle of static friction, and the angle 𝜑𝑘 is called the angle of
kinetic friction. The friction angle for each case clearly defines the limiting direction of the total reaction R between two contacting
surfaces.
5.3 Types of Dry Friction Problems
We can now recognize the following three types of problems encountered in applications involving dry friction. The first step in
solving a friction problem is to identify its type.
1. In the first type of problem, the condition of impending motion is known to exist. Here a body which is in equilibrium is on the
verge of slipping, and the friction force equals the limiting static friction 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁. The equations of equilibrium will, of course,
also hold.
2. In the second type of problem, neither the condition of impending motion nor the condition of motion is known to exist. To
determine the actual friction conditions, we first assume static equilibrium and then solve for the friction force F necessary for
equilibrium. Three outcomes are possible:
(a). 𝐹 < 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁: Here the friction force necessary for equilibrium can be supported, and therefore the body is in static
equilibrium as assumed. We emphasize that the actual friction force F is less than the limiting value 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 and that F is determined
solely by the equations of equilibrium.
(b). 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 : Since the friction force F is at its maximum value 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 , motion impends, as discussed in problem type (1).
The assumption of static equilibrium is valid.
(c). 𝐹 > 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 : Clearly this condition is impossible, because the surfaces cannot support more force than the maximum 𝜇𝑠 𝑁.
The assumption of equilibrium is therefore invalid, and motion occurs. The friction force F is equal to 𝜇𝑘 𝑁.
3. In the third type of problem, relative motion is known to exist between the contacting surfaces, and thus the kinetic coefficient of
friction clearly applies. For this problem type, friction equal to the kinetic friction force.

Example 5.1: Determine the range of values which the mass 𝑚𝑜 may have so that the 100 𝑘𝑔 block shown in the figure will neither
start moving up the plane nor slip down the plane. The coefficient of static friction for the contact surfaces is 0.30.

Solution. The maximum value of 𝑚𝑜 will be given by the requirement for motion
impending up the plane. The friction force on the block therefore acts down the plane, as
shown in the free-body diagram of the block for Case I in the figure.

+↖ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝑁 − 100 9.81 cos 20° = 0 → 𝑁 = 922 𝑁

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 → 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.30 922 = 277 𝑁

+↗ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

𝑚𝑜 9.81 − 100 9.81 sin 20° − 277 = 0 → 𝑚𝑜 = 62.44 𝑘𝑔

The minimum value of 𝑚𝑜 is determined when motion is impending down the plane. The friction force on the block will act up the
plane to oppose the tendency to move, as shown in the free-body diagram for Case II. Equilibrium in the x-direction requires.

+↗ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

𝑚𝑜 9.81 − 100 9.81 sin 20° + 277 = 0 → 𝑚𝑜 = 6 𝑘𝑔

Example 5.2: The uniform 10 𝑘𝑔 ladder rests against the smooth wall at B, and the end A rests on the rough horizontal plane for
which the coefficient of static friction is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.3. Determine the angle of inclination 𝜃 of the ladder and the normal reaction at B
if the ladder is on the verge of slipping.
Solution. Since the ladder is on the verge of slipping, then 𝐹𝐴 = 𝜇𝑆 𝑁𝐴 = 0.3 𝑁𝐴 .
By inspection, 𝑁𝐴 can be obtained directly.

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑁𝐴 − 10 9.81 = 0 → 𝑁𝐴 = 98.1 𝑁

𝐹𝐴 = 𝜇𝑆 𝑁𝐴 = 0.3 98.1 = 29.43 𝑁

+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹𝐴 − 𝑁𝐵 = 0 → 𝑁𝐵 = 29.43 𝑁

Finally, the angle 𝜃 can be determined by summing moments about point A.

+↷ ෍ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 → 10 9.81 2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑁𝐵 4 sin 𝜃 = 0

10 9.81 2 cos 𝜃 − 29.43 4 sin 𝜃 = 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 196.2
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 117.72
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 1.6667

𝜃 = 59.04°
Example 5.3: The uniform crate shown in the figure has a mass of 20 𝑘𝑔. If a force 𝑃 = 80 𝑁 is applied to the crate, determine if it
remains in equilibrium. The coefficient of static friction is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.3.

Solution. As shown in the second figure, the normal force 𝑁𝐶 must act a distance 𝑥 from the
crate’s center line in order to counteract the tipping effect caused by 𝑃. There are three
unknowns, 𝐹, 𝑁𝐶 , and 𝑥, which can be determined strictly from the three equations of
equilibrium.
+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; 80 cos 30° − 𝐹 = 0

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; −80 sin 30° + 𝑁𝐶 − 196.2 = 0

⤹ + ෍ 𝑀𝑂 = 0; 80 sin 30° 𝑁 0.4𝑚 − 80 cos 30° 𝑁 0.2 𝑚 + 𝑁𝐶 𝑥 = 0

Solving,
𝐹 = 69.3 𝑁, 𝑁𝐶 = 236 𝑁, 𝑥 = −9.08 𝑚𝑚
Since 𝑥 is negative it indicates the normal force acts to the left of the crate’s center line. No tipping will occur since 𝑥 < 0.4 𝑚. Also,
the maximum frictional force which can be developed at the surface of contact is 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐶 = 0.3 236 𝑁 = 70.8 𝑁. Since 𝐹
= 69.3 𝑁 < 70.8 𝑁, the crate will not slip, although it is very close to doing so.
Example 5.4: Beam AB is subjected to a load of 800 N and is supported at B by post BC. If the coefficients of static friction at B and C
are 𝜇𝐵 = 0.2 and 𝜇𝑐 = 0.5 , determine the force 𝑃 needed to pull the post out from under the beam. Neglect the weight of the members
and the thickness of the beam.
Solution. The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in the figure.

+↷ ෍ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 → 𝑁𝐵 4 − 800(2) = 0

𝑁𝐵 = 400 𝑁
Referring to the post, the four unknowns 𝐹𝐵 , P, 𝐹𝐶 , and 𝑁𝐶 are determined from the three equations
of equilibrium and one frictional equation applied either at B or C.
(Post Slips at B and Rotates about C.) This requires 𝐹𝐶 ≤ 𝜇𝐶 𝑁𝐶 and 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜇𝐵 𝑁𝐵 = 0.2 400 = 80 𝑁
Equations of Equilibrium and Friction.

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑁𝐶 − 𝑁𝐵 = 0 → 𝑁𝐶 − 400 = 0 → 𝑁𝐶 = 400 𝑁

80
+↷ ෍ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 → 𝑃 0.25 − 𝐹𝐵 1 = 0 → 𝑃 = = 320 𝑁
0.25
+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑃 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐶 = 0 → 320 − 80 − 𝐹𝐶 = 0 → 𝐹𝐶 = 240 𝑁
Since 𝐹𝐶 = 240 𝑁 > 𝜇𝐶 𝑁𝐶 = 0.5 400 = 200 𝑁, slipping at C occurs. Thus the other case of movement must be investigated.

(Post Slips at C and Rotates about B.) This requires 𝐹𝐵 ≤ 𝜇𝐵 𝑁𝐵 and 𝐹𝐶 = 𝜇𝐶 𝑁𝐶

Equations of Equilibrium and Friction.

+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑃 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐶 = 0 (1)

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑁𝐶 − 𝑁𝐵 = 0 (2)

+↷ ෍ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 → 𝑃 0.25 − 𝐹𝐵 1 = 0 (3)

𝐹𝐶 = 0.5 𝑁𝐶 (4)

Solving Eqs. 1 through 4 yields

𝑃 = 267 𝑁
𝑁𝐶 = 400 𝑁
𝐹𝐵 = 66.7 𝑁
𝐹𝐶 = 200 𝑁
Obviously, this case occurs first since it requires a smaller value for P.
Example 5.5: Blocks A and B have a mass of 3 kg and 9 kg, respectively, and are connected to the weightless links. Determine the
largest vertical force P that can be applied at the pin C without causing any movement. The coefficient of static friction between the
blocks and the contacting surfaces is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.3.

Solution.

Equations of Equilibrium and Friction. The force in links AC and BC can be related to
P by considering the equilibrium of pin C.

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹𝐴𝐶 cos 30° − 𝑃 = 0 → 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 1.155 𝑃

+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹𝐴𝐶 sin 30° − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0 → 1.155 𝑃 sin 30° − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0 → 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0.5774 𝑃

Using the result for 𝐹𝐴𝐶 , for block A,

+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝐴𝐶 sin 30° = 0 → 𝐹𝐴 = 0.5775 𝑃

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑁𝐴 − 𝐹𝐴𝐶 cos 30° − 3 9.81 = 0 → 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑃 + 29.43

Using the result for 𝐹𝐵𝐶 , for block B,
+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 𝐹𝐵 = 0 → 𝐹𝐵 = 0.5774 𝑃

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑁𝐵 − 9 9.81 = 0 → 𝑁𝐵 = 88.29 𝑁

Movement of the system may be caused by the initial slipping of either block A or block B.
If we assume that block A slips first, then

𝐹𝐴 = 0.3 𝑁𝐴 → 0.5774 𝑃 = 0.3 𝑃 + 29.43 → 𝑃 = 31.8 𝑁

Substituting this result in 𝐹𝐵 = 0.5774 𝑃, we obtain 𝐹𝐵 = 18.4 𝑁. Since the maximum static frictional force at B is
(𝐹𝐵 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐵 = 0.3 88.29 = 26.5 𝑁 > 𝐹𝐵 , block B will not slip. Thus, the above assumption is correct. Notice that if
the inequality were not satisfied, we would have to assume slipping of block B and then solve for P.
Example 5.6: The three flat blocks are positioned on the 30° incline as shown, and a force P parallel to the incline is applied to the
middle block. The upper block is prevented from moving by a wire which attaches it to the fixed support. The coefficient of static
friction for each of the three pairs of mating surfaces is shown. Determine the maximum value which P may have before any slipping
takes place.
Solution. The free-body diagram of each block is drawn. The friction forces are
assigned in the directions to oppose the relative motion which would occur if no
friction were present. There are two possible conditions for impending motion. Either
the 50-kg block slips and the 40-kg block remains in place, or the 50- and 40-kg blocks
move together with slipping occurring between the 40-kg block and the incline.
The normal forces, which are in the y-direction, may be determined without reference
to the friction forces, which are all in the x-direction. Thus,

+↖ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 30 𝑘𝑔 𝑁1 − 30 9.81 cos 30° = 0 → 𝑁1 = 255 𝑁

50 𝑘𝑔 𝑁2 − 50 9.81 cos 30° − 𝑁1 = 0 → 𝑁2 = 680 𝑁

40 𝑘𝑔 𝑁3 − 50 9.81 cos 30° − 𝑁2 = 0 → 𝑁3 = 1019 𝑁

We will assume arbitrarily that only the 50-kg block slips, so that the 40-kg block remains in place. Thus,
for impending slippage at both surfaces of the 50-kg block, we have
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁

𝐹1 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁1 = 0.30 255 = 76.5 𝑁 , 𝐹2 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁2 = 0.40 680 = 272 𝑁

The assumed equilibrium of forces at impending motion for the 50-kg block gives

+↙ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑃 − 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 + 50 9.81 sin 30° = 0 → 𝑃 − 76.5 − 272 + 245.5 = 0

𝑃 = 103.1 𝑁
We now check on the validity of our initial assumption. For the 40-kg block with 𝐹2 = 272 𝑁 the
friction force 𝐹3 would be given by

+↙ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹2 − 𝐹3 + 40 9.81 sin 30° = 0 → 272 − 𝐹3 + 196.2 = 0

𝐹3 = 468 𝑁

But the maximum possible value of 𝐹3 is 𝐹3 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁3 = 0.40 1019 = 459 𝑁 . Thus, 468 N cannot be supported and our initial
assumption was wrong. We conclude, therefore, that slipping occurs first between the 40-kg block and the incline. With the
corrected value 𝐹3 = 459 𝑁, equilibrium of the 40-kg block for its impending motion requires
+↙ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹2 − 𝐹3 + 40 9.81 sin 30° = 0 → 𝐹2 − 459 + 196.2 = 0

𝐹2 = 263 𝑁

Equilibrium of the 50-kg block gives, finally,

+↙ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑃 − 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 + 50 9.81 sin 30° = 0 → 𝑃 − 76.5 − 263 + 245.5 = 0

𝑃 = 93.8 𝑁

Thus, with 𝑃 = 93.8 𝑁, motion impends for the 50-kg and 40-kg blocks as a unit.
 Example 5.7: The magnitude of force 𝑃 is slowly increased. Does the homogeneous box of mass 𝑚 slip or tip first? State the value of
𝑃 which would cause each occurrence. Neglect any effect of the size of the small feet.
Solution.
1. Assume sliding occur first.
+
→ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝑃 cos 30° − 𝐹 = 0 → 𝐹 = 𝑃 cos 30° 𝑁

+↑ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑃 sin 30° + 𝑁 − 𝑊 = 0 → 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑃 sin 30° 𝑁

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 0.50 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑃 sin 30° 𝑁

0.50 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑃 sin 30° = 𝑃 cos 30°

𝑃𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.448 𝑚𝑔 𝑁
2. Assume tipping occur first.

+↷ ෍ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 → 𝑃 sin 30° 2𝑑 + 𝑃 cos 30° (𝑑) − 𝑚𝑔(𝑑) = 0

𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.536 𝑚𝑔 𝑁

∵ 𝑃𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 < 𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔

∴ slipping occurs first
 Homework

Q1/. Determine the range of mass 𝑚2 for which the system is in equilibrium. The coefficient of static friction between the block and
the incline is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.25. Neglect friction associated with the pulley. See figure (1).

Q2/. The automobile has a mass of 1 𝑀𝑔 and center of mass at 𝐺. Determine the towing force 𝐹 required to move the car if the back
brakes are locked, and the front wheels are free to roll. Take 𝜇𝑠 = 0.25. See figure (2).

Q3/. Determine the maximum force 𝑃 that can be applied without causing movement of the 200 𝑙𝑏 crate that has a center of gravity at
𝐺. The coefficient of static friction at the floor is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.4. See figure (3).

Fig (1) Fig (2) Fig (3)

 References

• J.L. MERIAM, L.G. KRAIGE and J. N . BOLTON, ENGINEERING MECHANICS STATICS, EIGHTH
EDITION

• R. C. HiBBELER, ENGINEERING MECHANICS STATICS, FOURTEENTH EDITION