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High-Probability Request Sequences and Young

Children: Enhancing Compliance
a b c
Devender R. Banda , John T. Neisworth MS & David L. Lee
a
Penn State University, Department of Educational and School Psychology and Special
Education
b
Penn State , 137A Cedar, University Park, PA
c
Penn State , Great Valley, 30 E. Swedesford Rd., Malvern, PA
Published online: 08 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: Devender R. Banda , John T. Neisworth MS & David L. Lee (2003) High-Probability Request Sequences and
Young Children: Enhancing Compliance, Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 25:2, 17-29, DOI: 10.1300/J019v25n02_02

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 High-Probability Request Sequences
and Young Children:
Enhancing Compliance
Devender R. Banda
John T. Neisworth
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David L. Lee

ABSTRACT. High-probability request sequencing is an emerging ABA

technique. Increasingly, studies are being conducted on the use of this
technique as a means to increase compliance in persons with and without
disabilities. Sixteen published empirical studies are reviewed in which
high-probability request sequencing was used to increase compliance to
requests in children 8 years of age and younger; results across the studies
show effectiveness of the technique. A theoretical framework, method-
ological adequacies, utility, and implications for research are addressed.
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KEYWORDS. Behavioral momentum, high-probability requests, inter-

spersed requests, noncompliance, young children

Devender R. Banda, MS, is a doctoral student at Penn State University in the De-
partment of Educational and School Psychology and Special Education.
John T. Neisworth, PhD, is Academic Coordinator for Applied Behavior Analysis,
Penn State, 137A Cedar, University Park, PA.
David L. Lee, PhD, is Assistant Professor at Penn State, Great Valley, 30 E. Swedesford
Rd., Malvern, PA.
Address correspondence to: Devender R. Banda, 224 Cedar, Penn State University,
University Park, PA 16802 (E-mail: drb222@psu.edu).
Child & Family Behavior Therapy, Vol. 25(2) 2003
http://www.haworthpress.com/store/product.asp?sku=J019
 2003 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
10.1300/J019v25n02_02 17
 18 CHILD & FAMILY BEHAVIOR THERAPY

“Noncompliance” is the refusal to initiate or complete a verbal or

nonverbal request within a prespecified period of time. Noncompliance
is the most frequent reason for psychiatric referral in young children
(Barkley, 1997; Forehand & McMahon, 1981; Walker & Sylwester, 1998),
especially observed in children who are between 3 and 8 years of age
(Erickson, 1992; Forehand, Walley, & Furey, 1984), and in older chil-
dren with developmental delays (Schoen, 1986). Noncompliance re-
portedly impedes learning (Cataldo, Ward, Russo, Riordan, & Bennett,
1986; Parrish, Cataldo, Kolko, Neef, & Egel, 1986; Russo, Cataldo, &
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Cushing, 1981), limits opportunities to participate in normal activities

(Carr, Taylor, & Robinson, 1991; Wahler & Dumas, 1986), disrupts peer
relations (Walker & Sylwester, 1998), and can lead to more severe be-
havioral problems, including aggression and disruptive behavior (Barkley,
1997; Morgan & Jenson, 1988). Therefore, increasing compliance in
young children would seem to be an efficient means of improving a
range of socially and academically important behaviors (Mace et al.,
1988).
Several contingency-based behavioral techniques have been found to
be effective for increasing compliance, including time-out, guided com-
pliance, response cost, social punishment, negative reinforcement, and
tangible reinforcement (e.g., Handen, Parrish, McClung, Kerwin, & Ev-
ans, 1992; Little & Kelley, 1989; Olmi, Sevier, & Nastasi, 1997; Parrish et
al., 1986; Russo et al., 1981). Contingency-based interventions often re-
quire much staff time and effort and are reactive strategies (Killu, 1999;
Mace et al., 1988). The intervention, itself, often becomes discriminative
for responding to requests rather than the original request for action (see
Parrish et al., 1986). Thus, alternative antecedent strategies are advanta-
geous in that they can be set up a priori and prevent noncompliance be-
fore it occurs. One such proactive strategy that has received empirical
support is high-probability (high-p) request sequences.
Simply stated, high-p request sequence intervention involves a rapid
presentation of 2 to 3 instructions with which an individual is likely to
comply (e.g., “give me the book,” “give me five”) prior to making a re-
quest that has a lower-probability (low-p) of compliance (e.g., “clean
your room”). According to Mace et al. (1988), the high-p sequence es-
tablishes a “momentum” of compliance that persists through requests
that typically are associated with a lower likelihood of completion.
This paper reviews and synthesizes research regarding procedures
and effectiveness of high-p request sequences with children 8 years of
age and younger (considered to be the early intervention period by the Na-
 Banda, Neisworth, and Lee 19

tional Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

1994). Four research questions were posed for this review:
1. What is the observed impact of the high-p technique in increasing
compliance to requests with young children?
2. How have researchers implemented the high-p technique (e.g.,
specific procedures used, and type of compliance behaviors tar-
geted)?
3. To what extent do compliant behaviors generalize after they re-
ceived high-p interventions?
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4. To what extent has the high-p technique been reported to be so-

cially valid?
Nevin, Mandell, and Atak (1983) suggested that behavior possesses
momentum, analogous to physical momentum described by Newton’s
law of physical motion. In classical physics, momentum is the product
of mass and velocity of a moving body (Nevin & Grace, 2000). In this
physics/behavior analogy, behavioral momentum is comprised of resis-
tance to change under changing environmental conditions (analogous to
mass) and response rate (analogous to velocity). Most applied research
in the area of behavioral momentum has focused on the velocity component.
Within a given response class, there are responses that are likely to
occur and responses that are relatively unlikely to occur. The high-p re-
quest sequence intervention capitalizes on these probabilities in order to
build the momentum of responding within a response class. When the
high-p sequences are administered and compliance with those requests
reinforced, the response rate within the response class is increased (and
density of reinforcement) and carries through to requests that have a rel-
atively lower probability of occurring.
Although Singer, Singer, and Horner (1987) conducted a study using
pretask requests, Mace et al. (1988) were the first researchers to use
high-p request sequences and explain this intervention within the con-
text of behavioral momentum. In a series of five experiments, Mace et
al. found that high-p request sequences increased compliance, de-
creased latency to initiate, and decreased the time to complete requests
that typically resulted in noncompliance for several individuals with se-
vere mental retardation. The Mace et al. investigation led to several
other applied studies that investigated high-p requests with adults and
children.
Although the literature is replete with studies using high-p requests
with adults and older children, only a few attempts have been reported
with regard to increasing compliance by young children. Davis and
 20 CHILD & FAMILY BEHAVIOR THERAPY

Brady (1993), for example, conducted a review of behavioral momen-

tum with young children with disabilities. However, only four studies
were available for review at that time. More recently, Killu (1999) ex-
panded the possibilities for the application of high-p requests beyond
simple compliance to other areas such as communication skills, social
skills, functional skills, rehabilitation skills, and academics. Likewise, a
review by Davis (1995) highlighted the role of peers in increasing social
and communication skills using high-p requests.
Davis also discussed a few procedural components of the interven-
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tion, such as time interval between the high-p and low-p request, and
type of high-p requests, but did not delineate any particular age group.
However, none of the researchers among the three reviews provided a
comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of high-p requests specifi-
cally with young children.

METHOD

We conducted a computer search using ERIC and PsycInfo. The key-

words used to search databases included behavioral momentum, high-p
requests, low-p requests, interspersed requests, and pretask requests.
The parameters for study inclusion were that:
a. the study was conducted with children 8 years of age and below,
b. high-p request sequence was used to increase compliance, and
c. the study was empirical.
Sixteen studies met selection criteria. If a study had a mixed group (e.g.,
one child was 7 years and the other child was 10 years), only the chil-
dren 8 years and below were included in the final analysis (i.e., 3 studies
had such a mixed age group). Finally, an ancestral search from selected
studies did not produce any further articles that met the study parame-
ters.
Table 1 contains the description of 16 studies organized into catego-
ries by dependent variables, research designs, and results. We present
an analysis and synthesis of the 16 selected studies and discuss their im-
plications for practice and research in early childhood.

RESULTS

Methodological Components

Participants. A total of 33 children, 8 years and younger, participated

in the 16 studies. Of the 33 children, 24 were boys and 9 were girls. The
 Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 05:30 29 December 2014

TABLE 1. Summary of High-p Sequence Studies with Young Children

Study/Authors Types of Requests Research Designs Results/Outcomes

Ardoin et al. (1999) Transitions Multi-element Increased and inconclusive
with one child
Davis et al. (1994) Social interactions Multiple baseline Increased compliance
Davis et al. (1992) General Multiple baseline Increased compliance
Davis and Reichle (1996) General Multiple baseline Increased compliance
Davis and Reichle (2000) Transitions Alternating treatment Increased compliance
Ducharme and Worling (1994) General Multiple baseline (ABAB) Increased compliance
Houlihan et al. (1994) General Alternating treatment Increased compliance
Killu et al. (1998) General Multiple baseline Increased compliance
McComas et al. (1998) Medical care Multiple schedule Increased compliance
McComas et al. (2000) Play, food intake, and Alternating treatment Increased compliance
communication
Ray et al. (1999) General AB case study Increased compliance
Romano and Roll (2000) General Reversal (ABAB) Increased compliance
Rortvedt and Miltenberger (1994) General Multiple baseline Moderate increase in one child
Sanchez-Fort et al. (1995) Communication Multiple baseline Increased compliance
Singer et al. (1987) Transitions Reversal (ABA and BAB) Increased compliance
Smith and Lerman (1999) General Multi-element and multiple Moderate increase
baseline

21
 22 CHILD & FAMILY BEHAVIOR THERAPY

ages ranged from 20 to 96 months with an average age of 5.2 years.

Twenty-eight children had disabilities (e.g., autism spectrum disor-
ders, developmental disabilities/delays, emotional and behavioral dis-
orders, mental retardation, cerebral palsy, etc.) and five were typical.
Settings and trainers. Studies were typically conducted in self-con-
tained classrooms, regular schools, and inclusive classrooms by par-
ents, teachers, psychologists, therapists, graduate assistants, and peers.
Several studies were conducted in other settings, such as home (Ducharme &
Worling, 1994; Ray, Skinner, & Watson, 1999; Rortvedt & Miltenberger,
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1994; Smith & Lerman, 1999), hospital (McComas, Wacker, & Cooper,
1998; McComas et al., 2000), and in a group home attached to a school
for students with developmental disabilities (Romano & Roll, 2000).
Also, in a majority of the studies the procedures were implemented on a
one-on-one basis except in one study (Ardoin, Martens, & Wolfe, 1999)
where the instructions were issued to a group of children along with tar-
geted individual children.
Compliant behaviors. A majority of the studies (63%) involved in-
creasing children’s compliance to miscellaneous general requests (e.g.,
“go to class now,” “put away the shoes”). However, researchers in some
studies targeted specific requests, such as complying with social (Da-
vis, Brady, Hamilton, McEvoy, & Williams, 1994; McComas et al.,
2000), communicative (McComas et al., 2000; Sanchez-Fort, Brady, &
Davis, 1995), transition (Ardoin et al., 1999; Davis & Reichle, 2000;
Singer et al., 1987), medical care (McComas et al., 1998), and food in-
take requests (McComas et al., 2000).
Definitions of low-p and high-p requests. In defining low-p requests,
a majority of the studies (n = 13) had a criterion of 50% compliance dur-
ing an initial (e.g., baseline) assessment of compliance to the requests
provided. However, in four studies, researchers used latency (5 to 30 sec.)
as a criterion (Ardoin et al., 1999; McComas et al., 2000; Rortvedt &
Miltenberger, 1994; Singer et al., 1987). A study by McComas et al.
(1998) used a different criterion of low-p request (i.e., medical care):
holding still for 5 sec. (the child had to stay unmoving when changing an
intravenous line in a hospital crib).
In defining high-p requests, most of the studies (n = 11) had a criterion
of 80% compliance during a baseline assessment of potential high-p re-
quests. In addition to this, Romano and Roll (2000) used two types of
high-p criteria for comparison: medium (50-70% compliance) and high
(75% and above). However, some studies included rather different cri-
teria. Houlihan, Jacobson, and Brandon (1994) had a criterion of 100%
compliance, whereas McComas et al. (2000) set a criterion in which
 Banda, Neisworth, and Lee 23

students had to comply with 75-80% of opportunities provided. Two

studies included latency to response as a criterion: Rortvedt and
Miltenberger (1994) required children to respond immediately, whereas
Singer et al. (1987) required children to respond in 3 sec.
Variant and invariant high-p requests. Researchers in 2 of 16 studies
compared the effectiveness of variant (variety of high-p requests) and
invariant high-p requests (same high-p requests presented repeatedly).
Davis and Reichle (1996) and McComas et al. (2000) found that variant
high-p requests are more effective in increasing compliance. In their
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study on four children with emotional and behavioral disorders, Davis

and Reichle found that variant high-p requests increased and main-
tained social initiations, whereas invariant high-p requests failed to do
so. Likewise, McComas et al. found a moderate improvement in imita-
tion of two-word phrases by a three-year-old child with developmental
delay when variant, rather than invariant, high-p requests were presented.
Interprompt time. Interprompt time (IPT) is defined as the time be-
tween the delivery of last high-p request and the next low-p request in a
sequence. A majority of the researchers (56% of studies) set the IPT at
five sec., while a few used zero (immediate) (Davis & Reichle, 2000;
Rortvedt & Miltenberger, 1994; Singer et al., 1987). Several other stud-
ies employed varying IPTs: Houlihan et al. (1994) compared two IPTs
(i.e., 20 and 5 sec.), McComas et al. (2000) used three IPTs (i.e., 30, 5,
and 0 sec.), and Romano and Roll (2000) used one IPT (i.e., 10 sec.).
Overall, researchers who compared IPTs concluded that lower IPTs in-
creased the effectiveness of the high-p procedure (see Houlihan et al., 1994).
Research designs. Researchers in most of the studies (n = 13) used
single-subject multiple baseline designs. Researchers in two studies
used reversal designs (Romano & Roll, 2000; Singer et al., 1987), and
in one study an A-B design was used (Ray et al., 1999) (For research de-
sign details see Table 1).
Interrater reliability and procedural integrity. Researchers reported
adequate interrater reliability (80% to 100% agreement calculated on a
point-by-point basis) in all but one study (Ray et al., 1999). Also, the
majority of the studies (81%) reported satisfactory treatment fidelity,
with the exception of three studies (Houlihan et al., 1994; McComas et
al., 1998; Singer et al., 1987). In the study by McComas et al., treatment
fidelity was not reported because the researchers directly supervised the
mothers while delivering instructions to the children.

Effectiveness of Behavioral Momentum

Investigators in 12 of 16 studies reported that the high-p request se-

quence intervention was effective in increasing compliance of young
 24 CHILD & FAMILY BEHAVIOR THERAPY

children, while four studies reported that the procedure did not result in
expected compliance levels (Ardoin et al., 1999; Rortvedt & Miltenberger,
1994; McComas et al., 2000; Romano & Roll, 2000). Overall, the tech-
nique was effective for increasing compliance in 29 of 33 children. Of
the 33 children included in the studies, 5 had typical intellectual func-
tioning; of these five children, the high-p sequence was effective for
two, ineffective for two, and results were mixed for one child. High-p
sequences were not effective in one study that was conducted with a two
and a half-year-old child with developmental delay in increasing com-
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pliance to task requests (e.g., “say truck, please”) (McComas et al.,

2000).

Generalization and Social Validity

Researchers in four studies reported generalization of compliant be-

haviors (Davis, Brady, Williams, & Hamilton, 1992; Davis et al., 1994;
Ray et al., 1999; Sanchez-Fort et al., 1995). Davis et al. (1992, 1994) re-
ported successful generalization of compliance to general and social re-
quests across trainers and peers, respectively. Ray et al. reported that
compliance to general requests generalized across other settings (i.e.,
from home to school). Finally, Sanchez-Fort et al. reported that commu-
nication requests were generalized across new words that were not pre-
viously in the child’s repertoire.
Researchers in five of 16 studies reported social validation of the in-
tervention by teachers and parents (Ardoin et al., 1999; Davis &
Reichle, 2000; Ducharme & Worling, 1994; Killu, Sainato, Davis,
Ospelt, & Paul, 1998; Smith & Lerman, 1999). Killu et al. used a ques-
tionnaire to assess the utility of high-p requests among three teachers
and found that two teachers reported that high-p requests were effec-
tive, whereas the remaining teacher specified that high-p was helpful in
reducing child disruptive behavior. Similarly, Ardoin et al. and Davis et
al. found that teachers preferred high-p requests in their classrooms
over other intervention techniques (e.g., time-out) for increasing com-
pliance. Finally, investigators in two studies reported that there was a
moderate to high degree of parental satisfaction with the high-p proce-
dure (Ducharme & Worling, 1994; Smith & Lerman, 1999).

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Analysis of the 16 studies supported the use of high-p sequencing as

a powerful intervention for increasing compliance with children eight years
 Banda, Neisworth, and Lee 25

of age and younger, particularly for children with disabilities. The re-
view suggests that parents, paraprofessionals, and teachers can easily
implement the technique on a one-on-one basis, but implementation for
groups of children requires further research as does generalization across
trainers, settings, and behaviors.
Although the high-p technique is effective in increasing compliance
of children with disabilities, researchers in two studies applied the tech-
nique without success with typical children (Ardoin et al., 1999;
Rortvedt & Miltenberger, 1994), using similar requests and procedures
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as with children with disabilities. Rortvedt and Miltenberger speculated

that children may have recognized the request sequence (high-p and
low-p) and refused compliance to low-p commands. Clearly, the differ-
ences in outcome between children with and without developmental de-
lays/disabilities provokes interesting further research.
High-p sequences appear to be an effective strategy for improving a
variety of compliance behaviors (e.g., food intake, communication, so-
cial interactions, classroom transitions). However, conspicuous by its
absence is research focused on the application of high-p technique in
the area of academics, particularly for increasing fluency in math and
spelling of young children. Research examining the use of high-p se-
quences in the academic areas of math and language arts has produced
positive results for late elementary-age children (see Belfiore, Lee,
Scheeler, & Klein, 2002; Lee & Laspe, in press). If researchers can con-
tinue to demonstrate that high-p sequences is an effective strategy for
increasing math and reading fluency, it could become a valuable addi-
tional technique for teachers who work with younger children who have
academic difficulties.
Interprompt time between high-p and low-p requests is an important
element in successful implementation of the intervention. The results
indicate that the lower IPTs result in enhanced compliance. Delivering
low-p requests within 2-3 sec. after high-p requests may increase the re-
sponse rate, and density of reinforcement, and lead to increased levels
of compliance. Practitioners should be aware that high-p sequences should
use IPTs under 5 sec.
The types of high-p requests may also be an important variable. Vari-
ant high-p requests, presented in random order, are more effective at in-
creasing compliance than invariant high-p requests (Davis & Reichle,
1996; McComas et al., 2000). Thus, practitioners should develop a pool
of potential high-p requests based upon student interests and history of
compliance.
 26 CHILD & FAMILY BEHAVIOR THERAPY

Generalization of compliant behaviors across trainers, low-p re-

quests, and to peers have been attempted in few studies, but results were
inconsistent or unclear. Also, none of the researchers in the 16 studies
reviewed attempted generalization to parents. It is commonly under-
stood that parents or primary caregivers spend large amounts of time
with their children and issue numerous requests in day-to-day life. Cer-
tainly, school-to-home generalization is an apt research dimension to
examine.
Social validity of high-p sequence was assessed and established in
four studies, but no report of long-term acceptance or use of the tech-
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nique in natural settings was found. Addressing questions such as the

following might be important: do parents use the high-p technique with
their children in family gatherings or other social events? How do peers
or siblings respond when the technique is used?
The high-p intervention appears to be a simple instructional se-
quence; however, on closer analysis it involves several behavioral dy-
namics. First, although high-p intervention is said to be an antecedent
technique (see Davis, 1995; Davis et al., 1992; Killu, 1999; McComas
et al., 2000; Rortvedt & Miltenberger, 1994), it involves reinforcement
(for complying with requests) or extinction/prompting (for not comply-
ing with requests); thus, it can also be seen as a contingency-based pro-
cedure. Second, the high-p responses (with reinforcement) may be
functioning as motivating variables that occasion compliance to low-p
requests. Third, there may be stimulus generalization taking place from
high-p to low-p requests in the course of action. Finally, it is not clear
whether the reinforcement schedule or the rate of response is causing
the “momentum.” Future research is warranted to analyze further the nec-
essary and sufficient components of the high-p procedure.
In summary, the literature supports the use of high-p request se-
quences as an effective intervention strategy for increasing compliance
in young children with disabilities. More studies are needed to assess
the robustness of this procedure in children without disabilities. Future
research should focus on characteristics of the technique, including
types and topographies of requests, IPT for academic issues, and use
with groups. Maintenance, generalization, and social validity outcomes
of high-p sequence are related and important concerns for further inquiry.

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