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Carpentry, Third Canadian Edition

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Student Workbook
for use with

Prepared by

FLOYD VOGT
and KIM WOODMAN
 Unit 24: Ceiling Finish
Chapter 75 Suspended Ceilings ........................................................... 281
Chapter 76 Ceiling Tile ......................................................................... 285
Unit 25: Interior Doors and Door Frames
Chapter 77 Description of Interior Doors............................................... 287
Chapter 78 Installation of Interior Doors and Door Frames .................. 291
Unit 26: Interior Trim
Chapter 79 Description and Application of Moulding ............................ 295
Chapter 80 Application of Door Casings, Base,
and Window Trim ............................................................... 299
Unit 27: Stair Finish
Chapter 81 Laying Out Open and Closed Staircases ........................... 303
Chapter 82 Finishing Open and Closed Staircases .............................. 307
Chapter 83 Installing Balustrades ......................................................... 311
Unit 28: Finish Floors
Chapter 84 Description of Wood Finish Floors ..................................... 315
Chapter 85 Laying Wood Finish Floor................................................... 317
Chapter 86 Underlayment and Resilient Tile. ....................................... 321
Unit 29: Cabinets and Countertops
Chapter 87 Description and Installation of
Manufactured Cabinets ...................................................... 325
Chapter 88 Countertop and Cabinet Construction ................................ 329
Section 4: Building for Success............................................................ 333

vi NEL
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This workbook is designed to accompany Carpentry,
Third Canadian Edition, and is intended to provide
you, the student, with a wide variety of activities to
reinforce the important topics introduced in your
textbook. Each chapter includes a set of corresponding
questions and exercises that will help you successfully
accomplish the course content, including the following:
• Multiple Choice Questions highlight key concepts
and help you prepare for quizzes and exams.
• Completion Questions allow you to practise
learning key terms and definitions for
communicating on the jobsite.
• Identification Exercises help you to appropriately
identify components of wood products and
carpentry procedures.
• Math Problem-Solving Exercises provide word
problems containing various situations where
math skills are critical to the accurate completion
of a job.
METRIC AND IMPERIAL MEASURE IN CANADA
By 1970, well over 90 percent of the world’s
population was either using the metric system or was
in the process of converting. Just as English has
become the global language of commerce, the metric
system has become the global language of
measurement. The metric system was made legal for
use in Canada (in addition to the British Imperial
system) in 1873, but was voluntary. Only the scientific
community used metric regularly in Canada before
1970.
In 1971, the government appointed the Metric
Commission to plan and implement the complete
conversion. A target of 1980 was adopted. Government
services, highway signs, package weights, weather
forecasts, and commercial and industrial construction
all were converted. But residential construction has
remained mostly Imperial. The proverb says, “It’s
never a good idea to have one foot in each canoe,” but
two measurements is the current reality for
tradespeople and builders in Canada. Although bricks,
concrete blocks, and plywood thicknesses are
metric, lumber is still ordered in Imperial sizes (2 × 4s,
not 38 × 89s).
Blueprints initially were “soft metric” (designed in
Imperial and converted to metric equivalent), but soon
were “hard metric” (round, even numbers when
possible). Our code books became metric, with
conversions or tables for finding the Imperial
equivalent. As a result of the “hard” metric
conversions, the maximum unit rise for residential
stairs went from 8″ to 200 mm (778″). Other examples
abound.
NEL
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Preface
• Sketching Exercises provide an opportunity for
you to practise identifying key print symbols.
• Discussion Questions get you thinking! Potential
scenarios are presented to encourage you to
practise your creativity and problem-solving
skills.
• Four Building for Success Exercises accompany
each section of chapters and units and provide
practical advice about developing key initiatives
and traits for advancing in the construction
industry—the promotion of safety, effective
communication, solid teamwork, and quality
workmanship.
After reading each chapter in Carpentry, it is advisable
to practise the questions and exercises included in the
corresponding chapter. If need be, refer back to your
Carpentry text until you are confident that you have
mastered the material. Remember, practice makes
perfect!
Why did the industrial and commercial sectors
change, while the residential sector resisted? Concrete
pours as easily in cubic metres as cubic yards, and steel
is manufactured in lineal metres as easily as feet, but
sheathing has remained 4′ × 8′ in size. This
necessitates framing on 12″, 16″, 19.2″, or 24″ centres
to minimize waste. Wood is the main currency of the
housing market. Imperial tapes are essential for layout.
Hence, house plans have remained Imperial. Today’s
Canadian carpenters must be fluent in both systems to
be functional and efficient.
In this workbook, Imperial measure is stated first,
and metric equivalents or approximations are placed in
parentheses where appropriate. Common usage is not
always exact. For instance, we would order 2 × 4s,
which are expressed in their nominal size, with actual
dimensions being 112″ × 312″. However, when using
metric, actual sizes are stated. Hence, the reference in
the code books to 38 mm × 89 mm. (For the record, I
have never ordered a lift of 38 × 89s from my
suppliers.) A little confusing? Yes. But unless we
adopt a single system, this is our reality.
Kim Woodman
vii
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 SECTION ONE

TOOLS AND
MATERIALS
Unit 1: Wood and Lumber
Chapter 1 Wood
Chapter 2 Lumber
Unit 2: Engineered Panels
Chapter 3 Structural (Rated) Panels
Chapter 4 Non-Structural Panels
Unit 3: Engineered Wood Products
Chapter 5 Laminated Veneer Lumber and Cross-Laminated Timbers
Chapter 6 Parallel Strand and Laminated Strand Lumber
Chapter 7 Engineered Joists: Open Joist TRIFORCE®
Chapter 8 Glue-Laminated Lumber and Wood I-Joists
Unit 4: Fasteners
Chapter 9 Nails, Screws, and Bolts
Chapter 10 Anchors and Adhesives
Unit 5: Hand Tools
Chapter 11 Layout Tools
Chapter 12 Boring and Cutting Tools
Chapter 13 Fastening and Dismantling Tools
Unit 6: Portable Power Tools
Chapter 14 Saws, Drills, and Drivers
Chapter 15 Planes, Routers, Sanders, and Plate Joiners
Chapter 16 Fastening Tools
Unit 7: Stationary Power Tools
Chapter 17 Circular Saw Blades
Chapter 18 Radial Arm and Mitre Saws
Chapter 19 Table Saws and Other Stationary Power Tools
Unit 8: Architectural Plans and Building Codes
Chapter 20 Understanding Architectural Plans
Chapter 21 Floor Plans
Chapter 22 Sections and Elevations
Chapter 23 Plot and Foundation Plans
Chapter 24 Building Codes and Zoning Regulations
Building for Success

NEL 1
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 Name ________________________________________________________ Date __________________________

1 Wood
Multiple Choice
Write the letter for the best answer on the line next to the number of the sentence.

______ 1. The carpenter must understand the nature and characteristics of wood to ___________.
A. protect it from decay
B. select it for the appropriate use
C. work it with the proper tools
D. all of the above

______ 2. Wood resists the flow of heat energy ______ times better than brick and ______ times better than
concrete of equal thickness.
A. 6, 10
B. 6, 14
C. 10, 12
D. 14, 6

______ 3. ___________ is a wood that is known for its elasticity.

A. Oak
B. Maple
C. Pine
D. Hickory

______ 4. The natural substance that holds wood’s many hollow cells together is called
___________.
A. pith
B. cambium layer
C. lignin
D. sapwood

______ 5. Tree growth takes place in the ___________.

A. heartwood
B. medullary rays
C. pith
D. cambium layer

______ 6. The central part of the tree that is usually darker in colour is called the ___________.
A. sapwood
B. heartwood
C. springwood
D. medullary rays

______ 7. Wood growth that is rapid and takes place in the ___________ is usually light in colour
and rather porous.
A. spring
B. summer
C. fall
D. winter

NEL 3
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______ 8. Periods of fast or slow growth can be determined by ___________ of the tree.
A. counting the annual rings
B. measuring the height
C. studying the width of the annual rings
D. measuring the circumference

______ 9. ___________ is an example of a hardwood that is softer than some softwoods.

A. Basswood
B. Oak
C. Redwood
D. Cherry

______ 10. All softwoods are ___________.

A. close-grained
B. cone-bearing
C. open-grained
D. A and B

Completion
Complete each sentence by inserting the best answer on the line near the number.

________________ 1. ___________ trees lose their leaves once a year.

________________ 2. Softwoods come from ___________ trees, commonly known as evergreens.

________________ 3. Water passes upward through the tree in the ___________.

________________ 4. Wood that comes from deciduous trees is classified as ___________.

________________ 5. Fir comes from the ___________ classification of wood.

________________ 6. Oak is an example of ___________-grained wood.

________________ 7. The ___________ of cedar, cypress, and redwood are extremely resistant to decay.

________________ 8. Open-grained lumber has large ___________ that show tiny openings
or pores in the surface.

________________ 9. Cedar can always be identified by its characteristic ___________.

________________ 10. The best way to learn the different types of wood is by ___________ with them.

4 NEL
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 Identification: Cross-Section of Wood
Identify each term, and write the letter of the best answer on the line next to each number.

______ 1. pith

______ 2. sapwood

______ 3. cambium layer

______ 4. medullary rays

______ 5. heartwood

______ 6. annual rings

______ 7. bark

NEL 5
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Math Problem-Solving
Solve the following math problems.

___________ 1. A logger signs a contract with a homeowner to cut trees from her property. If 17 ash, 36 cherry,
21 fir, 45 hemlock, 75 maple, and 3 oak trees are cut, what is the total number of trees?

___________ 2. What is the total number of hardwood logs to be cut?

___________ 3. What is the total number of softwood to be cut?

___________ 4. Add the whole numbers 246, 1350, 78, and 9.

___________ 5. What is the length of measurement A in figure shown below?

___________ 6. What is the length of measurement B in figure shown below?

6 NEL
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 Name ________________________________________________________ Date __________________________

2 Lumber
Multiple Choice
Write the letter for the best answer on the line next to the number of the sentence.

______ 1. The process of restacking lumber in a way that allows air to circulate uses
pieces known as ___________.
A. blocking
B. spacers
C. stickers
D. stackers

______ 2. The best appearing side of a piece of lumber is its ___________ side.
A. face
B. visage
C. veneer
D. select

______ 3. Most logs are sawed using the ___________ method.

A. plain-sawed
B. quarter-sawed
C. edge-grained
D. a combination of the plain- and quarter-sawed

______ 4. Cracked ceilings, sticking doors, squeaking floors, and many other problems can
occur from using ___________ lumber.
A. recycled
B. green
C. seasoned
D. quarter-sawed

______ 5. The moisture content of lumber is expressed as a percentage ___________.

A. of its total weight
B. of its total volume
C. of the weight of its free water
D. of weight to volume

______ 6. Wood has reached its___________ when all of the free water is gone.
A. equilibrium moisture content
B. stabilization point
C. fibre-saturation point
D. dehydration point

______ 7. Lumber that is under 2 (51 mm) thick has the classification of ___________.
A. timbers
B. boards
C. dimensional
D. joists

NEL 7
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______ 8. Dimension lumber is in the following category: ___________
A. under 2 (51 mm) thick
B. 2–4 (51 mm–102 mm) thick
C. 5 (127 mm) and thicker
D. open-grained only

______ 9. The best grade of hardwood as established by the National Hardwood Association is
___________.
A. select
B. first and seconds
C. No. 1 commons
D. choice

______ 10. Parallel cracks between the annual rings in wood that are sometimes caused by
storm damage are known as ___________.
A. shakes
B. crooks
C. checks
D. cups

Completion
Complete each sentence by inserting the best answer on the line near the number.

________________ 1. ___________-sawed lumber is the least expensive method of sawing.

________________ 2. ___________-sawed lumber is less likely to warp or shrink.

________________ 3. The ___________ uses a great amount of skill in determining the most
efficient and conservative way to cut a log.

________________ 4. When lumber is first cut from the log it is called ___________ lumber.

________________ 5. The heavy weight of green lumber is due to its high ___________ content.

________________ 6. The low form of plant life that causes wood to decay is known as ___________.

________________ 7. Wood with a moisture content of below ___________ percent will not decay.

________________ 8. Lumber used for framing should not have a moisture content over
___________ percent.

________________ 9. Lumber used for interior finish should not have a moisture content over
___________ percent.

________________ 10. ___________ moisture content occurs when the moisture content of the
lumber is the same as the surrounding air.

________________ 11. S4S means the lumber was surfaced on ___________ sides.

________________ 12. Crooks, bows, twists, and cups are classified as ___________.

8 NEL
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 Identification: Cut Lumber
Identify each term, and write the letter of the best answer on the line next to each number.

______ 1. crook

______ 2. quarter-sawed

______ 3. twist

______ 4. cup

______ 5. check

______ 6. bow

______ 7. plain-sawed

Math Problem-Solving
Solve the following math problems.

___________ 1. If one 2 × 6 × 10 (38 mm × 140 mm × 3.05 m) board weighs 35 pounds (15.9 kg), how
many pounds will 50 boards weigh?

___________ 2. One person can stack and sticker 222 boards in one hour. How long will it take
to stack and sticker 3330 boards?

___________ 3. How many board feet of wood are there in 4 boards that are 1 × 6 × 12 (19 mm ×
140 mm × 3.66 m) long?

___________ 4. How many board feet of wood are there in 750 boards that are 2 × 10 × 16 (38 mm ×
235 mm × 4.88 m)?

___________ 5. How many 1 × 12 × 10 (19 mm × 286 mm × 3.05 m) boards are there in 1000 board feet?

NEL 9
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Discussion
Write your answer(s) on the lines below.

1. Describe the difference between air-dried and kiln-dried lumber.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Describe the difference between nominal and actual dimensions.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Describe some of the factors one must keep in mind when properly storing lumber on the jobsite.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

10 NEL
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 Name ________________________________________________________ Date __________________________

3 Structural (Rated) Panels

Multiple Choice
Write the letter for the best answer on the line next to the number of the sentence.

______ 1. A(n) ____________ is a very thin layer of wood.

A. underlayment
B. comply
C. span
D. veneer

______ 2. With the use of engineered panels, ____________.

A. construction progresses faster
B. more surface protection is provided than with solid lumber
C. lumber resources are more efficiently used
D. all of the above

______ 3. Cross-graining in the manufacture of plywood refers to ____________.

A. touch sanding the grain
B. the use of open-grained hardwoods
C. the grain of each successive layer is at a right angle to the next one
D. the placement of the peeler log on the lathe

______ 4. The American Plywood Association is concerned with quality supervision and testing of
___________.
A. waferboards
B. composites
C. oriented strand board
D. all of the above

______ 5. The letters A, B, C, and D indicate __________.

A. span rating
B. exposure durability classification
C. the quality of the panel veneers
D. strength grades

______ 6. Douglas fir and southern pine are classified in the ____________ strength grade.
A. plugged C
B. group 1
C. 303
D. 32/16

______ 7. A performance-rated panel meets the requirements of the ____________.

A. panel’s end use
B. sawyer
C. APA
D. Canadian Forest Service

NEL 11
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______ 8. The left-hand number in a span rating denotes the maximum recommended support spacing
when the panel is used for ____________.
A. roof sheathing
B. subflooring
C. siding
D. underlayment

Completion
Complete each sentence by inserting the best answer on the line near the number.

________________ 1. The ____________ is the largest trade association that tests the quality of plywood
and other engineered panels.

________________ 2. The sheets of veneer that are bonded together to form plywood are also known as
____________.

________________ 3. Specially selected logs mounted on a huge lathe are known as ____________ logs.

________________ 4. The highest appearance quality of a panel veneer is designated by the letter _____.

________________ 5. Panels with a ______ grade or better are always sanded smooth.

________________ 6. V-groove, channel groove, striated, brushed, and rough-sawed are all special
surfaces used in the manufacture of ____________.

________________ 7. Most panels manufactured with oriented strands or wafers are known as ____________.

________________ 8. Exposure durability of a panel is located on the ___________.

Matching
Write the letter for the best answer on the line near the number to which it corresponds.

______ 1. veneer A. may be exposed to weather during moderate delays

______ 2. span rating B. wood fibres arranged in layers at right angles

______ 3. exposure 1 C. cross-laminated, layered plies glued and bonded under pressure

______ 4. exposure 2 D. may be exposed to weather during long delays

______ 5. exterior E. term used to describe the layers or plies of engineered panel

______ 6. plywood F. appears as two numbers separated by a /

______ 7. oriented strand board G. may be permanently exposed to weather or moisture

______ 8. grade stamp H. assures the product has met quality and performance
requirements

12 NEL
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 Identification: Label Information
Identify each term, and write the letter of the best answer on the line next to each number.

______ 1. thickness

______ 2. mill number

______ 3. panel grade

______ 4. national research board report number

______ 5. exposure durability classification

______ 6. span rating

NEL 13
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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Math Problem-Solving
Solve the following math problems.

___________ 1. Each sheet of plywood measures 4′ × 8′ (122 cm × 244 cm). How many square feet (and
square metres) will 24 sheets cover?

___________ 2. What is the average thickness of a ply in a piece of 1⁄2′′ (12.5 cm) plywood if it is
constructed with 4 plies?

___________ 3. One board weighs 2 pounds per foot (2.98 kg per metre) and a 3⁄4-ton truck is able to carry
1500 pounds (680.4 kg). How many boards 12′ (3.66 m) long can the truck carry?

___________ 4. What percent is 7 of 55?

___________ 5. What is the percent moisture content if 3 ounces (85 g) of water is removed from a wood
block with a dry weight of 14 ounces (397 g)?

14 NEL
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 Name ________________________________________________________ Date __________________________

4 Non-Structural Panels
Multiple Choice
Write the letter for the best answer on the line next to the number of the sentence.

______ 1. Non-structural particleboard is used in the construction industry for ___________.

A. cabinet construction
B. kitchen countertops
C. the core of veneer doors
D. all of the above

______ 2. The best choice of plywood to be installed as a painted soffit is ____________.

A. A-A
B. A-B
C. A-C
D. A-D

______ 3. The highest quality particleboard ____________.

A. contains the same size particles throughout
B. is 100 percent sawdust
C. has large wood flakes in the centre with the particle size decreasing the closer to the
surface
D. usually has a rough surface texture

______ 4. High-density fibreboards are called ____________.

A. particleboard
B. softboard
C. oriented strand board
D. hardboard

______ 5. Masonite is a brand name for ____________.

A. softboard
B. duraflake
C. hardboard
D. particleboard

______ 6. ____________ is a brand name for softboard.

A. Tentest
B. Fibrepine
C. Masonite
D. all of the above

______ 7. To protect exterior softboard wall sheathing from moisture during construction, it is
impregnated with ___________.
A. lignin
B. asphalt
C. oil
D. creosote

NEL 15
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 A CHEAPER MEAT JELLY.

One calf’s foot, a pound and a half or two pounds of neck of veal
or beef, a small onion, a carrot, a bunch of parsley, a little spice, a bit
or two of quite lean ham, dressed or undressed, and five half pints of
water, boiled very slowly for five or six hours will give a strong,
though not a highly-flavoured jelly. More ham, any bones of unboiled
meat, poultry, or game will, in this respect, improve it; and the liquor
in which fowls or veal have been boiled for table should, when at
hand, be used for it instead of water. These jellies keep much better
and longer when no vegetables are stewed down in them.
 GLAZE.

This is merely strong, clear gravy or jelly boiled quickly down to

the consistence of thin cream; but this reduction must be carefully
managed that the glaze may be brought to the proper point without
being burned; it must be attentively watched, and stirred without
being quitted for a moment from the time of its beginning to thicken;
when it has reached the proper degree of boiling, it will jelly in
dropping from the spoon, like preserve, and should then be poured
out immediately, or it will burn. When wanted for use, melt it gently
by placing the vessel which contains it (see article Glazing, Chapter
IX.) in a pan of boiling water, and with a paste-brush lay it on to the
meat, upon which it will form a sort of clear varnish. In consequence
of the very great reduction which it undergoes, salt should be added
to it sparingly when it is made. Any kind of stock may be boiled down
to glaze; but unless it be strong, a pint will afford but a spoonful or
two: a small quantity of it, however, is generally sufficient, unless a
large repast is to be served. Two or three layers must be given to
each joint. The jellies which precede this will answer for it extremely
well; and it may be made also with shin of beef stock, for common
occasions, when no other is at hand.
 ASPIC, OR CLEAR SAVOURY-JELLY.

Boil a couple of calf’s feet, with three or four pounds of knuckle of

veal, three quarters of a pound of lean ham, two large onions, three
whole carrots, and a large bunch of herbs, in a gallon of water, till it
is reduced more than half. Strain it off; when perfectly cold, remove
every particle of fat and sediment, and put the jelly into a very clean
stewpan, with four whites of eggs well beaten; keep it stirred until it is
nearly boiling; then place it by the side of the fire to simmer for a
quarter of an hour. Let it settle, and pour it through a jelly-bag until it
is quite clear. Add, when it first begins to boil, three blades of mace,
a teaspoonful of white peppercorns, and sufficient salt to flavour it
properly, allowing for the ham, and the reduction. French cooks
flavour this jelly with tarragon vinegar when it is clarified; cold poultry,
game, fish, plovers’ eggs, truffles, and various dressed vegetables,
with many other things often elaborately prepared, and highly
ornamental, are moulded and served in it, especially at large
dejeuners and similar repasts. It is also much used to decorate
raised pies, and hams; and for many other purposes of the table.
Calf’s feet, 2; veal, 4 lbs.; ham, 3/4 lb.; onions, 2; carrots, 3; herbs,
large bunch; mace, 3 blades; white whole pepper, 1 teaspoonful;
water, 1 gallon: 5 to 6 hours. Whites of eggs, 4: 15 minutes.
CHAPTER V.

Sauces.
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The difference between good and bad

cookery can scarcely be more
strikingly shown than in the manner in
which sauces are prepared and
served. If well made, appropriate to
the dishes they accompany, and sent
to table with them as hot as possible,
Bain Marie, or Water Bath.
they not only give a heightened relish
to a dinner, but they prove that both
skill and taste have been exerted in its arrangements. When
coarsely or carelessly prepared, on the contrary, as they too often
are, they greatly discredit the cook, and are anything but acceptable
to the eaters. Melted butter, the most common of all—the “one sauce
of England,” as it is called by foreigners, and which forms in reality
the basis of a large number of those which are served in this country
—is often so ill prepared, being either oiled or lumpy, or composed
principally of flour and water, that it says but little for the state of
cookery amongst us. We trust that the receipts in the present
chapter are so far clearly given, that if strictly followed they will
materially assist the learner in preparing tolerably palatable sauces
at the least. The cut at the commencement of the chapter exhibits a
vessel called a bain marie, in which saucepans are placed when it is
necessary to keep their contents hot without allowing them to boil: it
is extremely useful when dinners are delayed after they are ready to
serve.
 TO THICKEN SAUCES.

When this is done with the yolks of eggs, they should first be well
beaten, and then mixed with a spoonful of cold stock should it be at
hand, and with one or two of the boiling sauce, which should be
stirred very quickly to them, and they must in turn be stirred briskly to
the sauce, which may be held over the fire, and well shaken for an
instant afterwards, but never placed upon it, nor allowed to boil.
To the roux or French thickening (which follows), the gravy or other
liquid which is to be mixed with it should be poured boiling and in
small quantities, the saucepan being often well shaken round, and
the sauce made to boil up after each portion is added. If this
precaution be observed, the butter will never float upon the surface,
but the whole will be well and smoothly blended: it will otherwise be
difficult to clear the sauce from it perfectly.
For invalids, or persons who object to butter in their soups or
sauces, flour only mixed to a smooth batter, and stirred into the
boiling liquid may be substituted for other thickening: arrow-root also
used in the same way, will answer even better than flour.
 FRENCH THICKENING, OR BROWN ROUX.

For ordinary purposes this may be made as it is wanted for use;

but when it is required for various dishes at the same time or for
cookery upon a large scale, it can be prepared at once in sufficient
quantity to last for several days, and it will remain good for some
time. Dissolve, with a very gentle degree of heat, half a pound of
good butter, then draw it from the fire, skim it well, give time for it to
settle, pour it gently from the sediment into a very clean frying-pan,
and place it over a slow but clear fire. Put into a dredging box about
seven ounces of fine dry flour; add it gradually to the butter, shake
the pan often as it is thrown in, and keep the thickening constantly
stirred until it has acquired a clear light brown colour. It should be
very slowly and equally done, or its flavour will be unpleasant. Pour it
into a jar, and stir a spoonful or two as it is needed into boiling soup
or gravy. When the butter is not clarified it will absorb an additional
ounce of flour, the whole of which ought to be fine and dry. This
thickening may be made in a well-tinned stewpan even better than in
a frying-pan, and if simmered over a coal fire it should be placed
high above it, and well guarded from smoke.
 WHITE ROUX, OR FRENCH THICKENING.

Proceed exactly as for the preceding receipt, but dredge in the

flour as soon as the butter is in full simmer, and be careful not to
allow the thickening to take the slightest colour: this is used for white
gravies or sauces.
 SAUCE TOURNÉE, OR PALE THICKENED GRAVY.

Sauce tournée is nothing more than rich pale gravy made with
veal or poultry (see Consommé, Chapter IV.) and thickened with
delicate white roux. The French give it a flavouring of mushrooms
and green onions, by boiling some of each in it for about half an hour
before the sauce is served: it must then be strained, previously to
being dished. Either first dissolve an ounce of butter, and then
dredge gradually to it three-quarters of an ounce of flour, and
proceed as for the preceding receipt; or blend the flour and butter
perfectly with a knife before they are thrown into the stewpan, and
keep them stirred without ceasing over a clear and gentle fire until
they have simmered for some minutes, then place the stewpan high
over the fire, and shake it constantly until the roux has lost the raw
taste of the flour; next, stir very gradually to it a pint of the gravy,
which should be boiling. Set it by the side of the stove for a few
minutes, skim it thoroughly, and serve it without delay.
Butter, 1 oz.; flour, 3/4 oz.; strong pale gravy, seasoned with
mushrooms and green onions, 1 pint.
Obs. 3.—With the addition of three or four yolks of very fresh
eggs, mixed with a seasoning of mace, cayenne, and lemon-juice,
this becomes German sauce, now much used for fricassees, and
other dishes; and minced parsley (boiled) and chili vinegar, each in
sufficient quantity to flavour it agreeably, convert it into a good fish
sauce.
 BÉCHAMEL.

This is a fine French white sauce, now very much served at good
English tables. It may be made in various ways, and more or less
expensively; but it should always be thick, smooth, and rich, though
delicate in flavour. The most ready mode of preparing it is to take an
equal portion of very strong, pale veal gravy, and of good cream (a
pint of each for example), and then, by rapid boiling over a very clear
fire, to reduce the gravy nearly half; next, to mix with part of the
cream a tablespoonful of fine dry flour, to pour it to the remainder,
when it boils, and to keep the whole stirred for five minutes or more
over a slow fire, for if placed upon a fierce one it would be liable to
burn; then to add the gravy, to stir and mix the sauce perfectly, and
to simmer it for a few minutes longer. All the flavour should be given
by the gravy, in which French cooks boil a handful of mushrooms, a
few green onions, and some branches of parsley before it is
reduced: but a good béchamel may be made without them, with a
strong consommé (see pale veal gravy, page 98) well reduced.
Strong pale veal gravy (flavoured with mushrooms or not), 1 pint:
reduced half. Rich cream, 1 pint; flour, 1 tablespoonful: 5 minutes.
With gravy, 4 or 5 minutes.
Obs.—Velouté, which is a rather thinner sauce or gravy, is made
by simply well reducing the cream and stock separately, and then
mixing them together without any thickening.
 BÉCHAMEL MAIGRE.

(A cheap White Sauce.)

A good béchamel may be made entirely without meat, when
economy is an object, or when no gravy is at hand. Put into a
stewpan, or a well-tinned and thick saucepan, with from two to three
ounces of butter, a carrot, and a couple of small onions, cut in slices,
with a handful of nicely-cleaned mushroom buttons, when these last
can be easily procured; and when they have stewed slowly for half
an hour, or until the butter is nearly dried up, stir in two
tablespoonsful of flour, and pour in a pint of new milk, a little at a
time, shaking the stewpan well round, that the sauce may be
smooth. Boil the béchamel gently for half an hour; add a little salt,
and cayenne; strain, and reduce it, if not quite thick, or pour it boiling
to the yolks of two fresh eggs.
 ANOTHER COMMON BÉCHAMEL.

Cut half a pound of veal, and a slice of lean ham or smoked beef,
into small dice, and stew them in butter, with vegetables, as directed
in the foregoing receipt: stir in the same proportion of flour, then add
the milk, and let the sauce boil very gently for an hour. It should not
be allowed to thicken too much before it is strained.
Obs.—Common béchamel, with the addition of a spoonful of
made-mustard, is an excellent sauce for boiled mutton.
 RICH MELTED BUTTER.

This is more particularly required in general for lobster sauce,

when it is to be served with turbot or brill, and for good oyster sauce.
Salmon is itself so rich, that less butter is needed for it than for sauce
which is to accompany a drier fish. Mix to a very smooth batter a
dessertspoonful of flour, a half-saltspoonful of salt, and half a pint of
cold water: put these into a delicately clean saucepan, with from four
to six ounces of well-flavoured butter, cut into small bits, and shake
the sauce strongly round, almost without cessation, until the
ingredients are perfectly blended, and it is on the point of boiling; let
it simmer for two or three minutes, and it will be ready for use. The
best French cooks recommend its not being allowed to boil, as they
say it tastes less of flour if served when it is just at the point of
simmering.
Cold water, 1/2 pint; salt, 1/2 spoonful; flour, 1 dessertspoonful: 3
to 4 minutes. Butter, 4 to 6 oz.
 MELTED BUTTER.

(A good common Receipt.)

Put into a basin a large teaspoonful of flour, and a little salt, then
mix with them very gradually and very smoothly a quarter of a pint of
cold water; turn these into a small clean saucepan, and shake or stir
them constantly over a clear fire until they have boiled a couple of
minutes, then add an ounce and a half of butter cut small, keep the
sauce stirred until this is entirely dissolved, give the whole a minute’s
boil, and serve it quickly. The more usual mode is to put the butter in
at first with the flour and water; but for inexperienced or unskilful
cooks the safer plan is to follow the present receipt.
Water, 1/4 pint; flour, 1 teaspoonful: 2 minutes. Butter, 1-1/2 oz.; 1
minute.
Obs.—To render this a rich sauce, increase or even double the
proportion of butter.
 FRENCH MELTED BUTTER.

Pour half a pint of good but not very thick, boiling melted butter to
the well-beaten yolks of two or three fresh eggs, and stir them briskly
as it is added; put the sauce again into the saucepan, and shake it
high over the fire for an instant, but do not allow it to boil or it will
curdle. Add a little lemon-juice or vinegar, and serve it immediately.
 NORFOLK SAUCE, OR RICH MELTED BUTTER WITHOUT
FLOUR.

Put three tablespoonsful of water into a small saucepan, and when

it boils add four ounces of fresh butter; as soon as this is quite
dissolved, take the saucepan from the fire, and shake it round until
the sauce looks thick and smooth. It must not be allowed to boil after
the butter is added.
Water, 3 tablespoonsful; butter, 4 oz.
 WHITE MELTED BUTTER.

Thicken half a pint of new milk with rather less flour than is
directed for the common melted butter, or with a little arrow-root, and
stir into it by degrees after it has boiled, a couple of ounces of fresh
butter cut small; do not cease to stir the sauce until this is entirely
dissolved, or it may become oiled, and float upon the top Thin
cream, substituted for the milk, and flavoured with a few strips of
lemon-rind cut extremely thin, some salt, and a small quantity of
pounded mace, if mixed with rather less flour, and the same
proportion of butter, will make an excellent sauce to serve with fowls
or other dishes, when no gravy is at hand to make white sauce in the
usual way.
 BURNT OR BROWNED BUTTER.

Melt in a frying-pan three ounces of fresh butter, and keep it stirred

slowly over a gentle fire until it is of a dark brown colour; then pour to
it a couple of tablespoonsful of good hot vinegar, and season it with
black pepper and a little salt. In France this is a favourite sauce with
boiled skate, which is served with plenty of crisped parsley, in
addition, strewed over it. It is also often poured over poached eggs
there: it is called beurre noir.
Butter, 3 oz.; vinegar, 2 tablespoonsful; pepper; salt.
 CLARIFIED BUTTER.

Put the butter into a very clean and well-tinned saucepan or

enamelled stewpan, and melt it gently over a clear fire; when it just
begins to simmer, skim it thoroughly, draw it from the fire, and let it
stand a few minutes that the buttermilk may sink to the bottom; then
pour it clear of the sediment through a muslin strainer or a fine hair-
sieve; put it into jars, and store them in a cool place. Butter thus
prepared will answer for all the ordinary purposes of cookery, and
remain good for a great length of time. In France, large quantities are
melted down in autumn for winter use. The clarified butter ordered
for the various receipts in this volume, is merely dissolved with a
gentle degree of heat in a small saucepan, skimmed, and poured out
for use, leaving the thick sediment behind.