Biology Part-1 Notes

WARRIOR BATCH
ENGLISH MEDIUM
MPPSC MAINS
PAPER-3 UNIT-3
PART-1
-BY: Dr. Kuldeep Sarkar
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Circulatory system
• The system which carries digested food, oxygen and other useful substances like vitamins and hormones,
enzymes etc. to each part of the body and collects the excretory substances from different parts and brings
them to the excretory organs is called circulatory system.
• It is of two types -
1. Water Circulatory system
2. Blood Circulatory system
Human circulation system

• Humans have a dual circulatory system.
1. Pulmonary circulatory system
2. Systemic circulatory system
• From the point of view of study, the human circulatory system can be divided into two parts.
1. Blood Circulatory System
2. Lymphatic Circulatory System
• The blood circulatory system is made up of the following three parts-

A. Heart
B. Blood vessels
C. Blood
BLOOD
Type of tissue fluid connective tissue
Volume 5-5.5 lit in males , 4-4.5lit in femlaes
Weight 7-8% of body weight
pH 7.4
Functions
1.transportO2, CO2nutritional substances and excretory substances.
2. Regulates temperature.
3. Keeps the internal environment of the body stable which is called Homeostasis
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4. Protection from diseases

5. Transport Hormones
6. Blood clotting
Components of the Blood

a. plasma (55-60%)
b. Corpusles (40-45%)
Plasma
• It is the non-living liquid part of the blood.
• It is colorless but appears pale yellow in excessive quantity
• It contains 90% water and 10% organic and inorganic substances in dissolved state.
• Sodium chloride and sodium bicarbonate are the main inorganic substances.
• These salts act as buffer.
• Major organic substances found in plasma
Plasma protein
1) Albumin
• It is the most abundant plasma protein that keeps the blood thick and regulates osmotic pressure.
2) Globulins
• Gamma globulins are called antibodies. It works against antigens.
3) Fibrinogen and Prothrombin
• It clots blood.
• Plasma proteins are produced in the liver but globulins are produced in the lymphatic organs.
Anticoagulants
• Blood in the body always remains in a liquid state because anticoagulants prevent blood from clotting.
• Heparin acts as an anticoagulant in the human body, which is produced by mast cells.
• An anticoagulant named hirudin is found in leech.
• In the laboratory EDTA, Oxalate, Citrate are used as anticoagulant.
• The plasma without fibrinogen after clotting of blood is called serum.
Corpuscles
• There are three types of corpuscles.
(1) RBC (Erythrocyte)
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(2) WBC (Leukocyte)

(3) Platelets (Thrombocyte)
RBC (Erythrocyte)
Shape Biconcave
RBC count 4-5 millions per cubic mm
Life span 120 days.
Production Red bone marrow
Destruction site Spleen (graveyard of the RBC)
Nucleus Absent(Exception camle and Lama)
Other cell organelle Absent
Hemoglobin
• The red color of the RBC is due to haemoglobin.
• Average amount of hemoglobin is 14-16 mg/dL.
• The red color of hemoglobin is due to iron (ferrous). Males 5-5.5 Lit (70 kg) and Female 4-4.5 lit
• A haemoglobin is made up of 4 polypeptide chains (two alphas, two betas).
• There are 141 amino acids in the alpha chain and 146 in the beta chain.
• One hemoglobin can transport 4 oxygen molecules.
Formation of RBC
• In the embryonic stage, the yolk, liver, spleen, lymph organs, red bone marrow and in the adult stage, long
and flat bones from the red bone marrow.
• The erythropoietin hormone released from the kidney increases the rate of RBC formation.
Breakdown of RBC (Hemolysis)

• Hemoglobin comes out when RBC breaks down.
• Hemoglobin again breaks down into Haem and globin.
• Haem breaks down into iron and porphyrins.
• The porphyrin turns into a green biliverdin.
• Biliverdin turns into yellow colored bilirubin.
• Bilirubin is passed out with urine or feces.
• If the amount of bilirubin is high then the person turns yellow this is called Jaundice.
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Anaemia
• Oxygen carrying capacity decreases due to decrease in blood volume, RBC number or hemoglobin,
which is called Anaemia.
• The increase in the number of RBC is called Polycythemia.
Types of anemia
(1) Nutritional – Due to Iron deficiency
(2) Megaloblastic Anemia

• Deficiency of vitamin B12 and folic acid leads to enlargement of the RBC causing it to break down.
(3) Sickle Cell Anemia
• In malaria-prone areas, the shape of the RBC becomes sicle shaped, due to which the life of RBC
becomes 30-40 days.
(4) Thalassemia
• It is an inherited disease which is mainly caused due to abnormal haemoglobin synthesis.
(5) Aplastic Anemia
• Aplastic anaemia is a blood disorder that occurs when the body's bone marrow fails to produce
enough new blood cells.
WBC
• It is larger than RBC in size but less in number (5000-10,000), colorless and nucleated.
• WBC survives for 1-4 days.
• The shape of the WBC is not permanent, but like an amoeba, it is changeable.
• They have two main categories
1. Granular white blood cells or granulocytes
2. Agranular white blood cells or agranulocytes
(A) Granulocytes
1. Acidophil/ Eosinophils
• It is 2 to 3 percent of the total WBC.
• It protects against allergies and parasitic infection.
• Their number increases during allergy which is called Eosinophilia.
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2. Basophils
• It is 0.5 to 1 percent of the total WBC.
• They are present in the least number.
• They contain substances as heparin, histamine and serotonin.
• They are involved in inflammatory reactions.
• They secrete histamine at the time of injury or inflammation.
• Histamine dilates blood vessels making capillaries more permeable.
• Heparin is an anticoagulant and also stimulates fat removal from the blood.
3. Heterophils or Neutrophils
• most abundant type of WBCs (65-70 %)
• Nucleus is divided into many small Lobes, so that they are called Polymorphonuclear.
• They have the highest capacity of Phagocytosis.
• These Tissue turn into Microphages into the fluid.
(B) Agranulocytes
1. Lymphocytes
• It is 25 percent of the total WBC.
• Smallest in size.
• Their main function is to synthesize immune proteins (antibodies), which were discovered in 1891 by
Emil Von Behring.
2.Monocytes
• It is 5 percent of the total WBC.
• Their life span is less than 24 hours.
• Largest WBC in size.
• These tissues turn into go into Macrophages into the fluid.
Platelets
• They are found only in mammals.
• Their number is 3-5 lakh cubic mm.
• Their function is to stop the small bleeding which is called Thrombosis.
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• It is not a complete cell but the parts of Megakaryocyte.
Important facts
Leucopenia – Low WBC count
Leukocytosis – High WBC count
Leukemia – Blood cancer
Blood clot
• Blood coagulation or clotting is an important phenomenon to prevent excess loss of blood in case of
injury or trauma.
Factors Involved in Blood Coagulation
• Coagulation of blood occurs through a series of reactions due to the activation of a group of
substances called clotting factors.
• There are 13 clotting factors
• Prothrombin is the inactive form of thrombin that is present in the plasma. Thrombokinase converts
prothrombin to active thrombin which in turn activates fibrinogen to fibrin. All these clotting factors
help in blood coagulation.
Blood Clotting Disorders

• Haemophilia is the main blood clotting disorder. Haemophilia is characterised by excessive bleeding.
• It is due to the absence of some of the factors required in the blood clotting cascade.
• The three main forms of haemophilia are as follows:
Haemophilia A – Factor VIII deficiency
Haemophilia B – Factor IX deficiency or “Christmas disease”
Haemophilia C – Factor XI deficiency
Blood Group
• Antigens found on the surface of the RBC determine the Blood Group.
• There will be A or B antigen found on the surface of the RBC, on the basis of which blood groups are
classified into four groups.
Blood Group Antigen antibodies
A A B
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B B A
AB A and B absent
O absent a,b
• Blood Group was discovered by Karland Steiner in 1900; hence he was awarded in 1930 by the Nobel
Prize.
• Karland Steiner and Alexander Wiener find Rh factor in monkeys. If Rh found then blood group is
Positive and if Rh is not found then blood group is Negative.
• AB+ is the Universal Recipient and O- is the Universal Donor.
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
• If Rh–mother has Rh+children, then the second Rh+children are at risk which is called Erythroblastosis
Fetalis.
• For this, mother has given Anti-D/Rh.
Blood vessels
• Due to the closed circulatory system,
human blood always flows in the tubes and
their branches.
• These tubes are called blood vessels
• There are three types of blood vessels found in humans
A. arteries
B. veins
C. capillaries
Arteries
• The vessels that distribute blood from the heart to different parts of the body are called arteries.
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• Normally pure blood (Oxygenated blood) flows in them, but impure blood (deoxygenated blood) flows
from the heart to the lungs in the pulmonary artery.
• The walls of the arteries are relatively thick, muscular and flexible. Hence its cavity is thin.
• Arteries bear the pressure of blood from inside while pumping the heart.
Veins
• The vessels which collect blood from different parts of the body and transfer it to the heart are called
veins.
• Normally impure blood (Deoxygenated blood) flows in them, but in the pulmonary vein pure blood
(Oxygenated blood) flows from the lungs to the heart.
• The walls of the veins are thin.
• Their cavities are wider; most of the veins have valves which allow the blood to go towards the heart but
do not allow it to come back.
Capillaries
• Arteries are divided at the ends into thin and thin branches which are called arterioles.
• Arteries again divide to form thin capillaries.
• These capillaries again join together to form veins and the venules again join together to form veins.
• Capillaries are very fine.
• The thickness of their wall is only that of a cell.
• The walls of capillaries are permeable for carbon dioxide and oxygen.
• Capillariesexchange oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs.
• Therefore, there is an exchange of all the above mentioned substances between the blood capillary and
cells and also the circulation of essential substances takes place through the blood.
Arteries Vein
Carries blood from heart to organs Brings blood from different parts of the body to the
heart
Blood flows at high pressure Blood flows at low pressure
The walls of the arteries are thick, the walls of the veins are thin and flexible
The cavity of the arteries is narrow, the cavity of the veins is wide
Arteries do not have valves, veins have valves
Arteries doesn't deflate when empty, veins deflate when empty
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Arteries are usually located deep in the body Veins are located on the upper surface.
parts,
Arteries are red in color, veins are dark red or blue-violet
Oxygenated blood flows in all, except De-Oxygenated blood flows in all, except pulmonary
pulmonary
Lymph
• Due to the pressure exerted by the heart, blood plasma permeates through the thin walls of the capillaries
and moves out of the capillaries and fills the intercellular spaces found between the cells.This leaked
plasma is called lymph.
• Lymph is a colorless liquid.
• It doesn't have RBC.
• The number of Lymphocytes in them is very high.
Functions of lymph
1. Lymphocytes present in the lymph help in the prevention of diseases by eating harmful bacteria
2. Circulates various objects from tissues to veins
3. Lymph helps in wound healing.
4. It transports food substances and oxygen from the vessels to the cells.
5. The lymphatic vessels of the small intestine absorb fat.
6. Lymphocytes are produced through lymph.
7. Lymph nodes perform the filtering in humans. Bacteria, dust particles, cancer cells, etc., get stuck in
the lymph node and other substances reach the bloodstream.
Comparison between blood and lymph

Similarities
1. In both WBC is found.
2. Sugar, urea, amino acids, salts, etc., remain in equal amounts in both.
3. Both have the ability to form clots.
4. Lymph, similar to blood transportsO2and nutrients to tissues and cells and collects CO2 from excretory
substances.
5. In both, antibodies, antigens and other substances remain in almost equal quantity.
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Difference between lymph and blood

Lymph Blood
It is a colorless liquid tissue It is dark red liquid tissue
RBCs are not found in lymph RBCsare found in the blood
Small amounts of proteins are found in lymph It is rich in proteins
In the lymph, CO2 and waste substances are found In the blood, there is an equal amount of CO2 and
more the forbidden substances.
Small amount of O2 is found in lymph It contains high amount of O2
Large quantity of WBCs is found in Lymph Small amounts ofWBCsare found in blood
Heart
1. The length of the heart is 12 cm, width is 9 cm and the thickness is 6 cm.
2. Men's heart is of 300 gram, women's heart is of 250 grams.
3. The place where the heart is found is called the mediastinum.
4. The covering around the heart is called pericardium.
5. Heart has 2 Atriumand 2 ventricles.
Heart Chamber Function

Right atrium Collects Co2 containing blood from the whole body through the aorta
Left atrium Collects blood containing O2 from the lungs via the pulmonary vein
Right ventricle Pumps blood containing CO2 to the lungs via the pulmonary artery
Left ventricle Pumps blood containing O2 to the whole body through the aorta
Heart Rate
• A contraction and relaxation of the heart combined is called a beat.
• Beats 72 times in 1 minute (1 time in 0.8 seconds)
• Heart beat is done by SA Node which sends the AV node, the electrical impulse 72 times in 1 minute.
• AV (Atrioventricular Node) generates electrical impulse 60 times in 1 minute and sends it forward via
Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers.
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Cardiac Output
• The volume of blood pumped per minute by the heart is called cardiac output.
• Cardiac output is the product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV)
• SV is the volume of blood ejected during ventricular contraction or each stroke of the heart
• stroke volume is 70 ml
• The heart pumps about 5 liters of blood in 1 minute.
ECG → (Electrocardiogram)
• The impulses of contraction and relaxation inside the heart are transmitted in the form of electrochemical
waves, which are measured by the instrument called electro cardiograph and these impulses can be
expressed in the form of graph on paper which is called electrocardiogram.
Electric wave Cardiac activity

P Atrial contraction
QRS Complex Ventricular contraction
T Ventricular dilation
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Blood pressure
• The heart produces a pressure on the walls of the artery by pumping called blood pressure.
• That is why the blood pressure is measured in the artery and the wall of the artery is thick and the cavity
is narrow.
• Normally blood pressure is 120/80
• Blood pressure increases with age due to rigidness of vessels.
• Sphygmomanometer is used to measure the BP,which is filled with mercury.
• High blood pressure is called hypertension and low blood pressure is called hypotension.
Factors Affecting Blood Pressure

1. Blood pressure rises after doing hard work.
2. Blood pressure rises in times of excitement and emotion.
3. Blood pressure increases during contraction of blood vessels while decreases during relaxation
4. Blood pressure decreases during sleeping, but being normal in standing position.
5. Women's blood pressure is slightly lower than that of men
6. If the concentration and volume of blood increases, the blood pressure also increases.
Heart Sounds
• There are 4 sounds in the heart, out of which 2 are heard through a stethoscope - lub and dub.
First Heart Sound

• Just before contraction of the ventricles
• Caused by atrio-ventricular valve closure is heard as a sound.
Second Heart Sound

• Just before atrial contraction
• Caused by closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves
• Is heard as a dub sound.
Third Heart Sound
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• Blood flow from the atrium to Ventricle

• Water flow is heard in the form of sound.
Fourth Heart Sound
• resulting from atrial contraction
Specific Conducting Tissue Of The Heart

1. S.A node
• located in the wall of the right atrium
• In this, 72 times electrical impulses are generated in 1 minute which starts the heartbeat.
• It is called the pacemaker of the heart
2. A.V. node
• This gap is located in the lower part of the interatrial septum
• It further conducts the electrical impulses received from such knob
3. Bundle of His
• Further transmit the electrical impulses received from the node
4. Right and Left Bundle Branches

• The bundle of His divides and transmits electrical impulses to the right-left side of the heart.
5. Perkinje fiber
• Conducts electrical impulses required for contraction in cardiac muscle fibers.
Coronary artery diseases (CAD)

a. Arteriosclerosis
• Ca+2 deposition in walls of coronary arteries.
• Hardening of artery
b. Atherosclerosis
• Chloresterol deposit in lumen of coronary arteries
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• Narrowing of artery
2. Angina pectoris
• Acute chest pain
• when no enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
3. Myocardial infarction/ Heart attack

• Sudden death of heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply.
4. Cardiac arrest – Heart stop beating

5. Heart failure – Heart not pumping blood effectively – To meet the needs of the body.
6. Hypertension
• It is also called high blood pressure. Hypertension or high blood pressure is the occurrence of persistent
systolic arterial pressure of more than 140 mm Hg and diastolic arterial pressure of more than 90 mm
Hg.
7. Hypotension
• It is also called low blood pressure. Hypotension or low blood pressure is the occurrence of persistent
systolic arterial pressure of less than 110 mm Hg and diastolic arterial pressure of less than 70 mm Hg.
• It is caused by persistent vasodilation of arterioles, reduced ventricular pumping, valvular defects,
anaemia and deficient diet.
8. Varicose Veins
• On prolonged standing or due to defect in the valves of the veins of the legs. These veins may become
dialated, torturous and thickened.
• Such veins become clearly visible and prominent.
• Treatment- Surgical removal of such veins.
Nutrition
• The absorption of food by organisms and the use of the energy obtained in biological processes.
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Nutrition in animals
• On the basis of nutrition, organisms are of two types-
1. Autotrophs
2. Heterotrophs
Autotrophs
• Organisms that synthesize organic nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc.) by taking inorganic
substances from the environment.
• These are of two types-
A. Chemosynthetic
• They synthesize nutrients from ( H 2 S ) hydrogen sulfide gas.
• Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter
B. Photo-autotrophic
• They use solar energy to synthesize nutrients from carbon dioxide and water (in green plants).
Heterotrophs
• Organisms those are unable to make their own food and depend on other organisms to fulfill their
nutritional needs.
Herbivorous plant-eating
Carnivorous meat-eater
Frugivorous fruit eaters
Scavenger dead eaters
Sanguivorous (mosquitoes) blood-drinking
Insectivorous insect eaters
(Due to lack of nitrogen in the soil, plant became
Insectivorous.)
Cannibals
Detritus (Earthworm) Take nutrients from the soil
Saprophytes/ Decomposers(Bacteria, Fungus) They eat dead organisms
scavengers Scavengers are animals that consume dead
organisms
Coprophagus (Rabbit) self excreta eater
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• Nutrition in humans takes place in the following five stages.

1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Assimilation
5. Excretion
1. Ingestion
• In this, food is taken inside the body with the help of organs like hands, mouth, tongue, teeth etc.
2. Digestion
• In this, complex organic substances taken as food are broken down into simpler and smaller substances
so that they can be absorbed and enter into our cells.
• Extracellular type of digestion is found in humans in whom the digestion of food takes place outside the
cell.
Digestive System
• All the organs that take part in the process of digestion together are called digestive system.
• The human digestive system is divided into two parts-
A. Alimentary canal
B. Digestive glands
Alimentary Canal
• The human alimentary canal is 8 to 10 meters long and is divided into the following parts-
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small Intestine
6. Large Intestine
Buccal cavity/Mouth
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• The roof of the mouth cavity is called the palate. The front part of the palate is hard while the back part
is soft.
• Teeth are hard structures meant for tearing cutting, crushing and holding food.
• An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of four different types (heterodont dentition) - incisors
(I), canine (C), premolars (PM) and molars (M).
• Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in the order I, C, PM, M is represented by
a dental formula which in human is 2123/2123
• Temporary teeth (Milk teeth ) in man = 2102/2102
• Teeth at the age of 20 year = 2122/2122
• Human beings (Adult) = 2123/2123
a. Incisors (8) - These are the front, long, curved and possess sharp-edged teeth. They are adapted for
cutting or cropping and biting.
b. Canines (4) : These are pointed teeth .They are meant for piercing, tearing and offence and defence.
These are poorly developed in man.
c. Premolars (8) : They are meant for crushing, grinding and chewing. They are also called cheek teeth.
d. Molars (12) : They are also called cheek teeth. They are specialized for crushing and grinding the food.
• Enamel represents the hardest substance of the body. It is made up of calcium phospahate and calcium
carbonate.
Tongue
• The tongue is a freely movable muscular organ attached to the floor of the oral cavity by the frenulum.
• Tongue not only helps in ingestion, mastication and deglutition of food but also help in voice
production and tasting of food.
• The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some of which bear taste buds.
Pharynx
• The mouth cavity opens into a funnel-shaped cavity of the alimentary canal called the pharynx.
• It is divided into three parts-
A. Nasopharynx
B. Oropharynx
C. Laryngopharynx
• Laryngopharynx opens into the throat through an opening called the esophagus
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Esophagus
• It is a tube about 25 cm long which starts from the phyarynx and opens into the stomach.
• The contraction and relaxation of its wall allows food to move forward.
• Mucous glands are found in its wall which keeps the wall moist so that food can easily slip into the
stomach.
Stomach
• It is located just below the diaphragm.
• The human stomach is made up of three parts-
A. Cardiac part
B. Fundic part
C. Pyloric part
• The gastric glands secrete gastric juice, in which in addition to hydrochloric acid, protein digestive
enzymes pepsin and renin are found.
• Hydrochloric acid destroys harmful microorganisms in food
Intestine
• It is divided into two parts – small intestine and large intestine.
Small Intestine
• Small intestine is the major site of digestion and absorption of nutrients.
• The small intestine has three parts.
• Duodenum - 25 cm
• Jejunum - 2.5 m
• Ileum - 3 m
• Secretin (First discovered chemical messenger) and Cholecystokynin are the hormones secreted through
Duodenum and Jejunum which activate the Pancreas.
• Duodenum and Jejunum

• activates Gallbladder through Cholecystokynin hormone which secretes bile through the duct into the
small intestine.
• This bile breaks the big drop of fat into small droplets, it is known as Emulsification.
Large Intestine
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• Length of the large intestine is approximately 1.5 m. It is the last part of food pipe.
• Following are the parts of Large Intestine-
1- Caecum - A residual organAppendixis found in it that was helpful in the digestion of cellulose.
2- Ascending colon
3- Transverse colon
4- Descending colon
5- Sigmoid colon
6- Rectum
7- Anus
• No digestion took place in the large intestine, but water and mineral salts are absorbed, remaining
substances are discarded as feces, which are not excreted.
Digestive glands
• Glands related to the alimentary canal that help in the digestion of food are called digestive glands.
• These are following-
1. Salivary Glands
• There are 3 pairs of salivary glands found in human, which releases their secretion through ducts into the
oral cavity.
a. Parotid
b. Submaxillary
c. Submandibular
• Saliva secreted by salivary gland contains 98 to 99% water and 1 to 2% enzymes in which lysozyme
enzyme destroys the microorganisms present in food while ptyalin (amylase) decomposes starch present
in food into maltose.
2. Liver
• The weight of the liver is 1.5 kg. It is the largest organ after the skin.
• It is the largest gland of the body and the largest Exocrine Gland.
• The liver has 2 parts, the right part is big and the left part is small.
Functions of Liver
1. Production of Bile
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• Bile, which helps in the digestion and absorption of fats, vitamins and cholesterol is produced in the
liver.
Absorption of Bilirubin
• Bilirubin is formed by the breakdown of haemoglobin. The iron released is stored in the liver to make
next-generation blood cells.
Supporting Blood Clots
• Bile is responsible for the absorption of vitamin K. If bile is not produced, clotting factors will not be
produced.
Metabolization of Fats
• Bile helps in the breakdown and digestion of fats.
Carbohydrate Metabolization
• The carbohydrates stored in the liver as glycogen are broken down into glucose and released into the
blood to maintain glucose levels.
Storage of Vitamins and Minerals

• Vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12 are stored in the liver. It also stores iron in the form of ferritin to form
new red blood cells.
Metabolization of Proteins
• Bile helps in the digestion of proteins.
Filtering Blood
• The compounds such as hormones, alcohol, etc are filtered by the liver from the blood.
Immunological Function
• The liver contains Kuffer cells involved in immune activity. These destroy any disease-causing agents.
Albumin Production
• Albumin transports fatty acids and steroids to maintain correct pressure and prevent leakage of blood
vessels.
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Angiotensinogen Synthesis
This hormone is responsible for the narrowing of blood vessels which results in an increase in blood
pressure
Pancreas
• Pancreas is the largest mixed gland in the body.
1- Exocrine cells
• Exocrine is the major part (about 99%) of the pancreas. Pancreas secretes the following enzymes into the
alkaline medium (due to bicarbonate) through pancreatic juice in the small intestine.
a. Trypsin - It digests protein.
b. Pancreatic Lipase –This fat (Triglyceride) breaks downinto Monoglyceride and into two fatty acids.
c. Pancreatic Amylase - It digests carbohydrate.
2- Endocrine cells
• Endocrine tissue is the minor part (1% only)
α Cells:- Glucagon hormone
Beta cells: - insulin hormone
• Insulin was discovered by a scientist named Bentick.
• The structure of insulin was discovered by Friedrich Sanger, so he was awarded by the noble Prize of
Chemistryin 1958.
• Again Sanger was awarded by the Nobel Prize of Chemistry for nucleic acids in 1980.
• Due to the lack of insulin the level of glucose increases in the blood, which is called diabetes.
• The person suffering from this uses saccharin.
Absorption
• The cells of the wall of alimentary canal absorb the digested material and mix it into the blood and
lymph, and these digested substances are distributed throughout the body through the circulatory system.
Assimilation
• When absorbed simpler food substance reaches the cell, the cells synthesize new compounds useful for
them like protoplasm from these substances.
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Defecation
• After digestion, some food items are left which cannot be digesting; these substances are not useful for
us, so these are thrown out from the body.
Vitamins
• They do not provide energy but help in metabolism.
• These were discovered by Funk.
• They are not digested but directly absorbed.
• Niacin and Vitamin D are synthesized in our body
• Vitamins are divided into two major categories-
(A) Water soluble vitamin – B complex, C
(B) Fat soluble vitamin – A, D, E, K
Fat Soluble Vitamins

• Fat soluble vitamins are not excreted with urine.
• Therefore, there is some accumulation of them in the fatty tissue, due to which it is not necessary to take
them daily from food.
Vitamins – A
• It is also called retinol.
• It is found in carrot, papaya, fish etc.
• In the absence of it,Night Blindness, Xeropthalmia (dry eyes) and Keratomalacia(destruction of the eye's
Epithelium) caused.
• It is also called anti-infective vitamin.
Vitamin D
• It is also called Calciferol.
• It is obtained from sunlight.
• In its absence, Rickets (arched legs) and Osteomalacia (weakening of bones) occurs. It is also called
marasmus.
Vitamin E
• It is also called Tocopherol.
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• It is essential for the skin.

• Acts as antioxidant.
• Its deficiency causes infertility.
Naphthoquinone or Phylloquinone (Vitamin K)

• It is necessary for the synthesis of a substance called prothrombin in the liver.
• It is produced in the liver
• It is necessary for the Blood Clotting.
Water soluble vitamins

• Excretion of water soluble vitamins occurs in excess amount with urine
Vitamin B Complex
• First known vitamin (Funk-1912)
(a) Vitamin B1 (thiamine)

• It is found in cereal bran, milk, green vegetables, potatoes, yeast, meat, dry fruits, soybeans, fish, eggs
etc.
• Due to the deficiency of this vitamin, the function of the nervous system and muscles deteriorates. This
is called the disease of Beri-beri.
(B) VitaminB2 or Riboflavin

• It is a component of metabolism, FAD and FMN.
• It is found in cheese, eggs, yeast, tomatoes, green leaves, liver, meat, milk etc.
• Due to its deficiency, the angles of the mouth get cracked (cheilosis).
(c) Nicotinic acid, or Niacin B3

• It is the active component of NAD and NADP coenzymes.
• Deficiency of this causes pellagra-D3, Dermatitis(Diarrhea), loss of memory (Dementia)
Vitamin B5(Pantothenic acid )

• Component of Coenzyme ‘’A’’.
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Vitamin B6 or Pyridoxine
• It has special importance in the formation of RBCs and immune proteins and in the working of the
digestive and nervous systems.
(f) Vitamin B9or Folic acid group

• These are helpful in the synthesis of DNA and in the formation of RBCs.
(g) Vitamin B12 or Cyanocobalamin

• It is helpful in the synthesis of nucleic acids and in the formation of RBCs in the bone marrow RBCs.
• Intestinal Bacteria makes VitaminB12 .
Vitamin C or Ascorbic acid

• It is obtained from citrus fruits.
• Its deficiency causes Scurvy (blood and foul odor from the gums).
Digestive diseases
Nutritional Deficiency Diseases
Kwashiorkor
• It lacks protein, swelling on the body
• Arms and legs are thin, but the stomach is fat.
Marasmus
• It lacks calories.
• It is commonly found in babies under one year of age
• In this, the body is very skinny and the skin is wrinkled.
• Anemia
• Night blindness
• Rickets
• Osteomalacia
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• Beri-beri
• Scurvy
• Pellagra
Diseases caused by Over nutrition

• Obesity
• Hypocholesterolemia
• Fluorosis
• Hypervitaminosis
Endocrinology
Exocrine glands
• These glands have ducts for discharging their secretions. E.g., liver, sweat gland, sebaceous gland, gastric
glands and some intestinal glands.
Endocrine glands
• These glands lack ducts and pass secretions into the surrounding blood directly.
• Therefore, they are called ductless glands. E.g., thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary, pineal body and
thymus.
Heterocrine glands
• These glands consist of both exocrine and endocrine tissue. The exocrine discharge its secretion by a duct
and the endocrine tissue discharges its secretion into the blood.
• Pancreas and gonads are heterocrine glands. These are also called mixed glands.
E.g. Pancreas
Endocrine system
• All endocrine glands are collectively called Endocrine system.
Endocrinology
• Endocrinology is the study of endocrine glands, hormones & endocrine system.
• Father of endocrinology was Thomas Addison.
Hormone
• Hormone is a chemical produced by endocrine glands and released into the blood and transported
to a distantly located target organ.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers.
• First hormone discovered was secretin. It was discovered by two English physiologists : William
M. Bayliss and Ernest H. Starling in 1903.
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PROPERTIES OF HORMONES
• These are secreted by endocrine glands
• Their secretions is released directly into blood .
• These are carried to distantly located target organs.
• These have specific physiological action (excitatory or inhibitory)
• The hormones have low molecular weight
• These act in very low concentration.
• Hormones after their action are destroyed in liver and kidney.
HORMONES VS ENZYMES
a. Similarities between hormones and enzymes are
• Easily soluble and diffusible.
• Not obtained from the food, but synthesized by the body.
• Required and secreted in minute quality.
• Not stored (except thyroxine) and have high specificity.
S. N. Characters Enzymes Hormones
1. Chemistry Always proteinaceous May be proteinaceous or amine or

steroids.
2. Molecular Macromolecules with high Have low molecular weights.

weight molecular weights.
4. Site of action Either act intracellularly or carried Generally carried by blood to a target
by some duct to another site. organ.
8. Speed Act quickly Some are quickacting, while some are

slow acting with a lag period.
9. Consumption Not used in metabolic functions. Used up in metabolic functions.
Human Endocrine System

The human endocrine system is made up of the following components
A. Endocrine glands
• Thyroid gland
• Para thyroid gland
• Adrenal gland
• Pituitary gland
B. Mixed glands
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• Pancreatic
• Placenta
• Gonads
• Mucus glands of the intestinal wall
• Skin
• Hypothalamus
• Hypophysis
Pituitary Gland
• It is smallest endocrine gland.
• Pituitary controls all other glands of the body, hence it is called the master gland.
• It is found in the cavity called sella turcica in the brain.
• Hypothalamus controls the hormones of its anterior part while the hormones of the posterior part are
produced by Hypothalamus.
Hormones of Anterior part

1) Growth hormone
• It regulates the growth of the body.
• Results in stunted growth resulting in dwarfism
Hyposecretion of GH
• Causes excessive growth (hypergrowth) of all body parts, resulting into a symmetrically giant body.
• This is called gigantism.
Acromegaly
• It occurs in adults. In this, the long bones do not grow in length due to closed epiphyseal plate at their
ends, but enlarged.
2) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

• It stimulates thyroid.
3) Gonadotrpin hormone
a) FSH
(1) Development of eggs in females
(2) Development of sperm in males
(3) Produces a hormone called estrogen in women.
b) LH
(1) Producing the female hormone progesterone
(2) producing of male hormone androgen
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(3) Ovulation
4) Prolactin
• It produces milk in pregnant women.
5) Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone

• It darkens the skin color by concentration of melanin.
6) ACTH :- It Activates The Adrenal Gland.
Posterior Hormones
1) ADH/ Sopressin
It reduces the amount of urine by increasing the reabsorption of water.
In its absence, a disease called diabetes insipidus occurs.
In this disease, the quantity of urine increases which is called Kpantempe.
2) Oxytocin
• It is helpful in delivery through labor pain.
• It helps in secretion of milk.
• It is used in dairy, poultry, and fish farming.
Pineal Gland
• It is found in the brain.
• Pineal secretes hormone – melatonin which affecting circadian rhythms. For example, it helps in
maintaining the normal rhythm of sleep-wake cycle, body temperature.
• This is called Biological Clock
• It prevents sexual maturity till a certain age.
• In adolescence it becomes small which is called brain sand.
Thyroid Gland
• Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in the body.
• It is also called Pacemaker gland because it controls all the metabolic activities of the body.
• It is the largest Endocrine gland of the body.
• It secretes two types of hormonesa
i. Iodinated Hormone
• Tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
• The thyroid needs iodine to produce these hormones.
Functions
• Regulating basal metabolic rate.
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Hyposecretion
a. Goiter
• In the absence of iodine and thyroxine in the blood, the secretion of TSH from the pituitary gland
increases. Under its influence, the size of the thyroid gland increases, which is called goiter.
• This disease is found in hilly areas.
Cretanism
• Thyroxine hormone helps in the development of the brain, so in the absence of Thyroxine comes
dwarfism with retardation, which is called cretanism.
Myxedema
• Hyposecretion of thyroid causes swelling which is called myxedema.
Hypersecretory Disease
Exophthalmic Goiter
• Exophthalmic goiter occurs due to hyperactivity of thyroid.
ii. Non Iodinated Hormone

Calcitonin hormone
• It lowers the calcium level in the blood by increasing the re-absorption of calcium in the bones and teeth ,
preventing the activity of osteoclasts and reducing the re-absorption of calcium in the kidneys and the
intestines
Parathyroid Gland
• The parathormone of the parathyroid gland increases the calcium level in the blood by removing
calcium from the bones and teeth.
• Thus it acts opposite to calcitonin of thyroid.
• Its deficiency causes tetany and excess causes a disease called osteoporosis.
Adrenal Gland
• Adrenal cortex secrets Glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid (aldosterone being the most prominent) and
sex hormones .
• It secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) from the medulla part to bring
the body into a state of emergency.
• These are also called emergency hormones or F-3 hormones.
Diseases
Hyposecretion
Addison's disease
• Dehydration from excessive excretion of sodium and water
• Hypoglycemia
• Hyperkalemia
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Hypersecretion
Cushing Syndrome
• Excessive breakdown of fat due to over secretion of cortisol which gets deposited in unusual places
like face, shoulders.
Gynecomastia
An increase in the amount of breast gland tissue in boys or men
Thymus Gland
• The thymus gland is located in the anterior part of the chest, right behind the the sternum and between
the lungs
• The thymus gland is at its largest in children and shrinks away as the body grows older hence it is
called Clock of ageing
• Development of T lymphocyte takes place in Thymus.
Respiration in Humans
• The gaseous exchange in humans takes place through an developed system called the respiratory system.
• It is classified into the following two groups
a- Conducting organs (respiratory tubes)
b- Lungs - Major Respiratory Organ
Conducting organs (respiratory tubes)

• Under this group all those organs have been included which work to transport the air of the atmosphere
to the lungs.
• It includes the following-
A. Nasal Cavities
B. Nasal path
C. Pharynx
D. Trachea
E. Bronchi
F. Bronchiole
Pharynx
• It is the part of the windpipe where the alimentary canal and air passage crosses each other.
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Larynx
• The upper end of the windpipe is connected to the pharynx by a small opening; this hole is called the
glottis.
• It is covered by epiglottis
• The epiglottis closes the glottis when food is released, preventing food from entering the respiratory
system.
• It is divided into the following three parts-
A. Nasopharynx
B. Oropharynx
C. Laryngopharynx
Trachea
• It is located just below the throat.
• It connects the lungs with the naso-pharynx.
• It is about 12 cm long.
• Its wall is thin and flexible and
• In this, 16 to 20 chondral incomplete rings are found in the shape of C.
• These rings keep the wall of the trachea straight and do not allow the trachea to contract even after the
air has escaped.
Bronchi and bronchioles

• The windpipe goes into the thoracic cavity and divides into two parts, these branches are called
bronchi.
• Each bronchus divides into many branches by going to the lungs on its own side. These branches again
divide into sub-branches which are called bronchioles.
• Each bronchiole is divided into 2 to 11 branches which are called alveolar vessels (Alveolar ducts)
• Many small cells are found in each alveolar cell, which are called alveoli.
Transport of gases in the blood

Transportation of Oxygen
• 97% of the oxygen taken in respiration is transported by binding with hemoglobin. This is called
oxyhemoglobin.
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• Remaining 3% Oxygen is transported with blood plasma.
Transportation of carbon dioxide

• 70% of the CO2 collected from various parts of the body is converted into bicarbonates in the presence
of an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase.
• Remaining 23% CO2 combines with hemoglobin to formCarb-amino hemoglobin
• 7% CO2 flows with the plasma.
• Carbon monoxide binds hemoglobin to form carboxy hemoglobin.
• The binding capacity of CO to hemoglobin is 200 to 300 times that of oxygen.
Bohr Effect
• An increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood or decrease in its pH, the affinity of hemoglobin
towards oxygen decreases.
Haldane Effect
• As oxygen gets into the lungs, the ability of hemoglobin to connect with carbon dioxide decreases.
Major respiratory disease

(1). Atelectasis: - Lack of surfactant in the lungs.
(2) Emphysema: - The walls of the alveoli dissolve, the area decreases, because of smoking
Asthma:- Allergic disease
Occupational disease
Asbestos Industry - Asbestosis
Coal Industry – Black lung /Anthracosis
Textile Industry – Brown Lung /Byssinosis
Glass Industry - Silicosis
Iron - Siderosis
Sugarcane - Bagassosis
Agricultural Industry – Pneumoconiosis/Farmer’s Lung
In divers - Dysbarism
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Dysbarism:
When a diver goes too deep, nitrogen dissolves in his blood, which causes him to become unconscious.
In this situation, the diver is given the high-pressure O2.
Excretory system
Excretion refers to the partial or complete removal of metabolic by-products, such as ammonia, urea, uric
acid, carbon dioxide, water, as well as ions like sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, sulfate, among others.
Human excretory system
The human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
Kidney
• Humans possess a pair kidney located outside the body cavity. (Retro peritoneal)
• Their primary function is to eliminate blood urea through the production of urine.
• Each kidney weighs approximately 135 grams and has dimensions of 12×7×3 cm.
• The urine produced by the kidneys is then collected in the urinary bladder.
• birds do not possess a urinary bladder.
• The detrusor muscles are located in the urinary bladder.
Nephron
• It is the structural and functional unit of the excretory system.
• Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons.
Parts of nephron
1. Bowman's capsule:
• The first part of the nephron is called Bowman's capsule. It looks like a cup and is where the afferent
arteriole splits into a cluster of tiny blood vessels called the glomerulus.
• The glomerulus and Bowman's capsule together are known as the Malpighian body.
2. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT):
• The PCT is responsible for increasing the surface area for reabsorption.
• Most of the nutrients, around 70-80% of minerals, and water are reabsorbed in this part.
3. Henle's loop:
• The loop of Henle has two parts: the descending limb and the ascending limb.
• The descending limb allows water to pass through but doesn't let mineral salts pass. On the other hand,
the ascending limb doesn't allow water to pass through but allows mineral salts to pass.
4. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT):
• In the DCT, some sodium and water are reabsorbed.
• The reabsorption of mineral salts is influenced by aldosterone, while the reabsorption of water is
influenced by ADH (antidiuretic hormone).
6. Collecting duct:
• The final part of the nephron is called the collecting duct, where the term "urine" is used for the first
time.
• A significant amount of water is reabsorbed in this part.
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Urine-formation
1. Ultrafiltration
2. Selective reabsorption
3. Tubular Secretion
Ultrafiltration:
• During ultrafiltration, urea is filtered from the glomerulus and enters Bowman's capsule. This process
is called filtration.
• Both kidneys filter approximately 1100-1200 liters of blood per minute, which accounts for about 20
percent of the total blood volume.
• Out of this, around 125 ml (180 liters per day) is filtered from the glomerulus to the nephron, and this
is known as the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Selective reabsorption:
• The renal tubules reabsorb about 99 percent of the total 180 liters of filtered fluid.
• Water is reabsorbed in the descending part of the loop of Henle, while electrolytes such as sodium,
chloride, potassium, and magnesium are reabsorbed in the ascending part.
Tubular Secretion:
• The cells lining the walls of the nephron collect waste substances from the blood, including drugs,
dyes, uric acid, etc., and secrete them into the nephron.
ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone):
• ADH is a hormone that is released by the pituitary gland.
• Its main function is to prevent excessive water excretion in the urine.
• When ADH is lacking, it can lead to a condition called diabetes insipidus, where there is an increased
excretion of water in the urine.
• In contrast, the absence of insulin results in diabetes mellitus, which is characterized by elevated blood
glucose levels.
Aldosterone:
• Aldosterone is produced in the cortex part of the adrenal gland.
• Its role is to promote the reabsorption of salts, such as sodium and chloride, in the kidneys, thereby
preventing their loss in the urine.
Renin-Angiotensin System:
• When the blood pressure within the glomerulus drops, a hormone called renin is secreted by the
juxtaglomerular apparatus.
• Renin activates a hormone called angiotensin.
• Angiotensin causes the contraction of blood vessels, leading to an increase in glomerular blood
pressure and restoration of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) back to normal levels.
Atrial Natriuretic Factor:
• When blood pressure rises excessively due to angiotensin, the atrium of the heart releases a hormone
called atrial natriuretic factor.
• This hormone helps normalize the constricted blood vessels, thus reducing blood pressure to a normal
level.
• In cases of kidney failure, a kidney transplant may be recommended for the patient.
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Renal stone
• Calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate or uric acid
• Gout is caused by the accumulation of uric acid.
Kidney Function
• Kidneys are the major excretory organs of the human body which perform important functions.
1. Forming urine by filtering urea from the blood
• The most important function of the kidney is to filter the blood and separate the excretory substances
present in the blood. The kidney filters these wastes from the blood and dissolves them in water to
form urine.
• Every day, both kidneys filter around 150 to 180 liters of blood, removing useless substances and
converting them into urine.
2. Balance of water content in the body
• Another major function of the kidneys is to balance the amount of water in the body. For this reason,
on consuming more water, the amount of urine increases and the volume of urine also increases.
• Conversely, if we consume less water or experience excessive sweating, the kidneys decrease urine
production.
3. Maintaining acid-base balance
• Kidneys work to maintain acid-base balance in the body. On consuming acidic or alkaline substances
in excess, the unnecessary elements are excreted from the body in the form of renal urine.
4. Control of blood sugar
• Kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood sugar levels. Normally, the blood contains around
80-120 mg per 100 ml of glucose. The kidneys filter and reabsorb this sugar, maintaining a constant
level in the blood.
• If blood sugar levels rise above the normal range, the kidneys help control it by excreting the excess
sugar through urine.
5. Control of sodium and calcium
• Kidneys work to control the level of useful mineral salts like sodium and calcium in the blood. The
kidneys keep the amount of these salts constant in the blood by excreting the excess with urine.
6. Blood pressure control
• Kidneys also participate in controlling blood pressure through hormones like renin-angiotensin system,
vasopressin, aldosterone etc.
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Nervous System
• The nervous system allows all the parts of our body to work together in a coordinated and controlled
manner; two types of control and coordination are found in the body of animals.
i. Neurological control and coordination
ii. Hormonal control and coordination
Factor Nervous System Endocrine System

Presence only in animals in both animals and plants
Mechanism nerve impulse hormones
affected cells muscles, glands all cells
Effect period short term long term
action time in milliseconds seconds to hours
Nervous system
• The system that controls the body by establishing harmony and balance in the functions of various
parts of the body along with thinking, understanding, remembering something, is called the nervous
system.
Nerve Cell
• The nervous system is made up of a special type of cell called neuron or nerve cell.
• It is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system
• It is divided into two major parts.

1. Cell body, Cyton
• It is the central part of the nerve cell, in which Nissl's granules are found.
• Centriole is absent in it, due to which cell division does not take place in them.
2. Neurites
• It is again of two types, dendrites and axon.
3. Dendrites
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• In humans, most nerve cells have more than two dendrites. However, in the eye and ear, there are
specialized nerve cells called bipolar cells that have two dendrites.
4. Nerve Impulse
• Sensory organs recive external or internal changes and send signals to nerve cells. These signals are
called nerve impulses.
• Nerve cells transmit these impulses as electrochemical waves to the nervous system.
• The space between two nerve cells is called a synapse. where the transmission of impulses occurs
through neurotransmitters.
• It is both stimulant and depressant type.

5. Stimulants
• Adrenaline, acetylcholine
6. Depressants
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
7. Some fact
• The sodium potassium pump works to transmit messages through the brain.
• The largest cell in the human body is the nerve cell.
The human nervous system is mainly divided into two parts.
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central nervous system (CNS)

It is mainly divided into two parts.
(a) Brain
(b) Spinal cord
Brain
• Weight 1400 grams
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• It has three parts.
Forebrain
• It contains cerebrum and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus) and olfactory lobe
Cerebrum
1. It is the largest part of the brain
2. It is the most developed part
• Cerebral Cortex is divided into the following four parts.
1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe
Frontal Lobe
• It is the largest part, which is situated towards the front.
• It controls intelligence, reasoning, memory, voluntary movements, speech and fine movements.
Parietal lobe
• It is located just behind the frontal lobe, it receives various sensations from the external environment
like touch, temperature, pressure, pain etc.
Temporal lobe
• It is located on the side of the frontal lobe, it is helpful in hearing, language recognition and memory
formation.
Occipital lobe
• It is situated just behind the parietal lobe.
• It is related to vision.
Diencephalon
Thalamus: It makes us feel pain, cold, hot etc.
Hypothalamus
• It controls the hormones of the anterior pituitary.
• It produces the hormones of posterior pituitary.
• It is responsible for hunger, thirst, love, hatred.
Olfactory lobes
• It is the center of smell
• Jacobson's organ is found in dogs to smell.
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Thalamus
and
Hypothala
mus
MID BRAIN
• The upper part of the midbrain is made up of four lobular projections called corpora quadrigeminy.
HIND BRAIN
• It contains pons, medulla oblongata and cerebellum.
Hind
Brain /
• Pons - It acts as a contact center between all the parts of the brain. In this, the pneumotaxic center of
the respiratory center is found, which regulates the volume of the breath by stopping the end breath.
Medulla Oblongata
• It controls heart rate, blood pressure and respiration.
• It is the center of reflex actions related to vomiting, swallowing of food, peristalsis of intestine.
• It is attached to the spinal cord.
Cerebellum
• It is the largest part of the hind brain and the second largest part of the brain.
• It maintains body balance
• It receives sensations from the balance part of the inner ear.
• This part gets affected by drinking alcohol.
Functions of spinal cord
It performs the following main functions-
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• The spinal cord controls and coordinates reflex actions.

• It conducts impulses to and from the brain.
• It establishes coordination between the spinal cord nerves and the brain.
• It controls and coordinates involuntary actions.
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It is mainly divided into two parts.
a. Somatic nervous system
b. Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
• It controls voluntary movements and voluntary reflex actions by connecting the nervous system with
skeletal muscles.
• It has two parts.
1. Cranial Nerves
• They originate from the brain; they are 12 pairs in number.
2. Spinal Nerves
• It originates from the spinal cord, and they are 31 pairs in number.
• The above two types of nerves are of the following three types
a. Sensory nerves
• These nerves transmit sensations from the sense organs to the central nervous system.
b. Motor nerves
• These nerves transmit sensations from the central nervous system to the sense organs.
c. Mixed Nerves
• These nerves perform the functions of both sensory and motor nerves.
Autonomic nervous system
• It connects the internal organs of the body like heart, lungs, stomach, uterus, bladder etc. with the
central nervous system.
• All its actions are involuntary
It has two types.
1. Sympathetic System
2. Parasympathetic System
1. Sympathetic nervous system

• It is activated in emergency situations.
• During this, hormones called adrenaline and noradrenaline are released from the adrenal gland.
Functions
a. By constricting the blood vessels of the skin, it brings yellowness.
b. The hairs on the skin stand up.
c. Decreases the secretion of saliva.
d. Increases heart rate.
e. Increases blood pressure.
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f. Dilates the pupil of the eye.

g. Speeds up the rate of respiration.
h. Slows down the rate of peristalsis in the intestine.
i. Increases sugar in the blood.
2. Parasympathetic nervous system

• It remains active under normal circumstances.
EEG (Electro Encephalograph)

• EEG is done to know the activity of the brain. In which the following waves are visible.
α wave: - in light sleep
β wave: - in the state of activation
δ wave: - in deep sleep
Abnormalities and diseases of the central nervous system
1. Coma
• When a person becomes unconscious and does not respond to any stimulus, then this condition is called
coma.
2. Encephalitis
• In this disease, swelling occurs in the brain due to viral infection and the person becomes unconscious.
3. Meningitis
• Meningitis is a condition characterized by inflammation in the membranes surrounding the brain. It
can cause symptoms such as fever, back pain, and paralysis.
• This disease is caused by viral, bacterial or fungal infection.
4. Fainting
• When a person becomes unconscious for some time, then it is called fainting.
• This happens due to fear, shock, trauma, stoppage of blood flow etc.
5. Epilepsy
• The contraction of muscles and loss of consciousness due to repeated jerks is called epilepsy.
6. Alzheimer's
• Alzheimer's is a disease that causes a person to gradually lose their memory. This happens in old age.
• Alzheimer's Day is celebrated on 21st September.
7. Parkinson's
• In this disease, hands and legs start trembling.
8. Schizophrenia
• In this the person is not able to differentiate between reality and imagination and many miracles happen
inside the person.
9. Psychosis
• In this the person loses his mental balance.
10. Paranoia
• In this, a person starts having false belief about his greatness.
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Reproduction in Humans
• Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produces young one of their own type &
reproductive system is a system of organs which takes part in this process.
Female Reproductive System

• The female reproductive system consists of the primary as well as accessory sex organs. The primary sex
organs in females are a pair of ovaries, which produce ova or egg and they also secrete female sex
hormones like progesterone and estrogen.
• The other accessory sex organs include the uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and vagina. The external
genitalia comprises the labia minora, labia majora and clitoris.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1- Ovary
• Ovaries act as the main female sex organs that produce the female gamete and various hormones.
• These organs are situated one on both the side of the lower abdomen.
• Ovaries consists of various ovarian follicles in different stages of development. The ovarian follicle is
called the basic unit of the female reproductive system
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Function of ovaries
• The ovaries have two distinct functions.
a- Gamete production
• Ovaries are the site of periodic development and release of the egg cell or female gamete by the process
of ovulation. At once, only one egg cell is released.
b- Hormone secretion
• Ovaries secrete a set of hormones including the estrogen, testosterone and progesterone which are
involved in the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the maintenance of the
reproductive function of the ovaries.
2- Fallopian tube
• The fallopian tubes are passageways that carry eggs toward the uterus. They consist of several parts
a- the infundibulum , which is a funnel-shaped opening near the ovaries
b- the fimbriae, which are finger-like projections surrounding the opening
c- cilia, which are hair-like structures inside the fallopian tubes
• When an ovary releases an egg, fluid and the fimbriae propel it toward the fallopian tube opening.
Once inside, the cilia move the egg toward the uter.
• During this time, it is possible for sperm to fertilize the egg if a person has sexual intercourse. Most
fertilization happens in the fallopian tubes.
3- Uterus
• The uterus is an organ that is about the shape and size of a pear. It is also known as the womb.
• It consists of muscular walls and a lining (endometrium) that grows and diminishes with each
menstrual cycle.
• After ovulation, the endometrium gets thicker in preparation for a fertilized egg. If not fertilized, the
egg dies, and the lining of the womb sheds after around 2 weeksTrusted Source.
• The lining breaks down into blood, which then leaves the body through the vagina. This is
menstruation, also called a period.
4- Cervix and vagina

• The cervix is a narrow structure at the bottom of the uterus.
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• It produces mucus which stops sperm from entering the uterus and protects against bacteria
• The mucus also stops bacteria from entering the uterus and keeps the vagina healthy.
• Below the cervix is the vagina, which is a flexible, tubular structure that connects the internal and
external reproductive organs.
• It allows semen, which contains sperm, to enter the body.
Male Reproductive System

• Male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region and consists of a pair of testis, a paired duct
system consisting epididymis, vasa efferentia, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct & urethra.
Testes
• The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum.
• The scrotum allows sperms to develop at the optimum temperature (temperature of testes which is 2–
2.5°C lower than the normal internal body temperature).
• The testis is attached to the scrotum by a band of connective tissue known as gubernaculum testis.
Anatomy of Testes
• Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules. Each lobule contains one to three
highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
• Each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium which is formed of two types of cells -male
germ cells (spermatogonia) and sertoli cells.
• Germ cells undergoes spermatogenesis to form spermatozoa and sertoli cell functions as nurse cells for
differentiating spermatozoa.
• The regions outside the seminiferous tubules (called interstitial spaces) contain small blood vessels and
interstitial cells or Leydig cells.
• Leydig cells synthesize and secrete testicular hormones called androgens.
SECONDARY SEX ORGANS/GLANDS

• The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis.
• The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the posterior surface of each
testis.
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• Epididymis is involved in temporary storage, nutrition & physiological maturation and motility of
sperms.
• Vas deferens is a large duct which arises from the cauda epididymis & reach upto seminal vesicle.
• Ejaculatory ducts are short straight muscular tubes each formed by the union of vas deferens & duct of
seminal vesicle.
The seminal vesicles

• They secrete spermatozoa activating substances, such as fructose, Sperms use fructose as a respiratory
substrate. Seminal fluid maintains viability and motility of sperms.
• Seminal vesicle secretes a alkaline, nutritive fluid which forms main part i.e., 60 % of the semen.
The prostate gland

• The prostate gland surrounds the first portion of the urethra. This gland secretes a slightly acidic fluid
(pH about 6.5) which forms 25% part of the semen.
• The secretion nourish and activates the sperm and essential for sperm motility.
Bulbourethral glands/Cowper glands

• Cowper's glands are also termed as Bulbourethral glands. 1st pair of Cowper's glands are attached to
urethra.
• They secrete alkaline mucus into urethra before the ejaculation of semen.
Primary Sexual Characteristics Secondry Sexual Characters

Present from the birth appear during puberty
Include the external and internal genitalia sexually dimorphic phenotypes that help to
distinguish the sexes of a species
e.g. penis and testes in males and the vagina and Growth of Body hairs and muscle mass in males and
ovaries in females Enlargement of breasts , deposition of fat under the
skin, softening of voice in females
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Primary sex organs secondary sex organs

main function is production of gametes and Does not produce gametes
secretion of sex hormones Helps in conduction of gametes
e.g. Testes in males , Ovaries in females e.g. Prostate in males , Uterus in females
Gametogenesis
• Gametogenesis is the process of gamete (sperm or egg) formation which include spermatogenesis &
oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported by the male sex accessory ducts.
• Spermatogenesis is a continuous process & occurs in seminiferous tubules at the time of puberty &
continues throughout life.
• Increased levels of GnRH acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the secretion of luteinizing
hormone (LH) . LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis
• The spermatogonia present on the inner wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division . Each
spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.
• Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation of
two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes each.
• The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid
spermatids.
Structure of sperm
• Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail.
Head
• The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered by a cap-
like structure, acrosome (produced by golgi body). The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help in
fertilization of the ovum.
Neck
• Neck is very short containing proximal & distal centriole.
The middle piece
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• The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for the movement of tail that
facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization.
Oogenesis
• The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis.
• Oogenesis begins before birth, stops in mid process and only resumes a year after menarche (the first
menstrual bleeding).
• Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of million gamete mother
cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary.
• These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division and get temporarily arrested at
that stage, called primary oocytes. Each primary oocyte surrounded by primary follicle.
• Secondary oocyte is a female gamete in which the 1st meiotic division is completed & second meiotic
division (metaphase stage) begins.
• Secondary oocyte complete the secondary meiotic division only after fertilization by the sperm in the
fallopian tube). The egg is released at secondary oocyte stage under the effect of LH.
• Oogenesis ends at menopause.
• Polar bodies are formed only in oogenesis at the time of formation of secondary oocyte.
Menstrual cycle
• Menstrual cycle is the cyclic change in the reproductive tract of primate females on average completed
in 28 days
• The first menstruation begins at puberty in females is known as menarche.
• Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining sexual maturation (puberty). During ovulation, only one ovum
is released per menstrual cycle.
• The cyclical changes in the ovary and uterus during the menstrual cycle are induced by changes in the
levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
• Menstrual cycle is absent during pregnancy, may be suppressed during lactation and permanently stops
at menopause.
Phases of Menstrual cycle
• Menstrual cycle is divided into four phases - follicular, ovulatory, luteal and menstrual.
a. FOLLICULAR (PROLIFERATIVE) PHASE OR POST-MENSTRUAL OR PRE-OVULATORY

PHASE
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• It follows the menstrual phase and lasts for about 9-10 days
• It involves following changes
• FSH stimulates the change of a primary follicle of the ovary into a Graafian follicle.
• Follicular cells of Graafian follicle secrete estrogens.
• Proliferative phase consists of growth of endometrium, fallopian tube and vagina.
• The follicular phase ends with ovulation.
b. OVULATORY PHASE OR FERTILITY PHASE

• It involves the ovulation from the Graafian follicle of ovary.
• It occurs at the end of proliferative phase i.e. 14th day or midday during menstrual cycle
c. LUTEAL OR PROGESTATIONAL OR PRE-MENSTRUAL OR SECRETORY OR POST-

OVULATORY PHASE
• It lasts for about 12 - 14 days and extends from 16th to 28th day of menstrual cycle.
• It is characterised by following changes –
• Corpus luteum (yellow body) is formed from empty Graafian follicle so is called luteal phase.
• The endometrium prepares for the implantation of an embryo & the corpus luteum is active.
• Corpus luteum begins to secrete a hormone called progesterone.
d. MENSTRUAL PHASE OR BLEEDING PHASE

• It lasts for about 3-5 days and extends from 1st to 4th day of the menstrual cycle.
• When the ovum remains unfertilized, then the corpus luteum starts degenerating. The level of
progesterone in the blood declines. The uterine tissues fail to be maintained. Then the unfertilized
ovum along with ruptured uterine epithelium, about 50 - 100 ml of blood and some mucus is
discharged out through the vaginal orifice and is called menstrual flow or menstruation.
Fertilization
• The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum to form a diploid cell is called fertilization
• Fertilization activates the secondary oocyte cell to complete the division.
• It normally occurs when sperm and egg interact in the upper part of the oviduct (ampulla)
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Sensory organ
Sensory organs and sense organs are those organs found in the body which receive all kinds of
sensations in the body through which the body receives information about environmental changes.
Sensory organs of human - mainly five senses or sensory organs are found in humans which are as
follows.
a- Visual organs (eyes)
b- Auditory organs (ears)
c- Sense of touch (skin)
d- Taste organs (tongue)
e- Olfactory organs (nose)
• The human eyes, found in humans as a pair, are responsible for receiving visual sensations and
providing the knowledge of sight.
• The eye is a nearly spherical like almost round hollow balls situated in a bony socket. They are
slightly bulging outward.
internal structure of the eye

• The eye is in the form of a ball whose wall is made up of three layers.
a- sclera
b- choroid
c- retina
¼1½ Sclera
• It is the outermost layer in which neither blood vessels nor nerves are found.
• Its front part is raised which is called Cornea.
• Cornea is used for eye donation.
Sclera function
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• It concentrates the light rays and maintains the shape of the eyeball.
¼2½ Choroid
• This is the middle layer through which blood is supplied.
• The protruding transparent part in the front is called the iris, which is responsible for the
color of the eyes.
• It controls the amount of light entering the human eye.
• The iris is like the aperture or diaphragm of a camera.
• The part where the Iris is not there is called Pupil.
• Ciliary fibers continue to emerge from the choroid, which do the work of adjusting the lens.
Work
• It prevents light from getting distorted, thus ensuring clear formation of images.
¼3½ Retina
• It is the innermost layer of the human eye in which nerve cells are found.
• A real and inverted image of an object is formed on the retina, which is converted into a straight
and virtual image by the brain.
• There are two types of photoreceptors in the retina.
a. Rhods
• These are long and cylindrical cells like rods.
• They are sensitive to dim light.
b. Cones
• Cones are small sized cells that contain the pigment iodopsin which helps in color discrimination
in animals.
function of cone cell

• Cones are helpful in seeing in bright light and in distinguishing different colours.
• They are particularly effective in bright light, enabling the perception of color images of
objects.
blind spot
• Both Rhods and Cones are absent in the blind spot of the retina, so no image is formed
here.
• From here the optic nerve emerges.
yellow point
• The clearest image is formed due to the presence of more cones in the phobia centralis of
the yellow spot of the retina.
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¼4½ Lens
•Convex lens is found in the human eye which converges the light rays and converges them
on the retina.
• Its power is 20 diopters while the power of the cornea is 40 diopters.
Aqueous fluid
• It is found between the lens and cornea which provides nutrition to the lens and cornea.
• It is formed and destroyed daily.
• Due to its excessive amount, the pressure increases and the nerves are destroyed, which can
lead to blindness.
• This disease is called Kalapani or Glaucoma.
vitreous fluid
• The vitreous fluid is found between the lens and the retina.
• With the help of the lens, the nearest 25 cm and the distant infinity can be seen clearly.
Power of accommodation
• When viewing distant objects, the curvature, focal length, and focus of the eye's lens
increase. Conversely, when viewing nearby objects, the curvature, focal length, and
focus of the eye's lens decrease. The eye can see clearly from a distance of 25
centimeters to an infinite distance.
Some fact
• Bats, dolphins, whales use radar/sonar to see.
• Tapetum is found in the eyes of animals due to which their eyes glow in the night.
Major Eye Diseases

Disease name Result Remedy
X chromosome based
recessive genetic disease
Nearsightedness blurriness of distant objects To correct this, a concave
(myopia) lens (-) is used.
Farsightedness In this, the near objects are To remove it, a convex lens
(hypermetropia) not clearly visible. is used.
Presbyopia In old age, both near and far For this bifocus lens is used.
objects are not visible
clearly.
Astigmatism Horizontal or vertical lines Cylindrical lens is used to
are not visible in this disease. remove it.
Cataract Due to the accumulation of
protein, the lens becomes
opaque, due to which the
image is not clear.
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Ear
2- There are three parts of the ear.
1- External Ear 2- Middle Ear 3- Internal Ear
External Ear
• It has pinna, which is made of Cartilage.
• The muscles responsible for its movement are vestigial.
• There is a tube in the external ear called the External Auditory Meatus.
Middle Ear
• It contains 3 bones and Eustachian tube.
• The Eustachian tube regulates air pressure.
Internal Ear
• Cochlea is found in it for hearing and vestibular apparatus for balance.
• Organ of Corti is found in the cochlea.
Skeleton system
• There are two types of skeletal system
1- Exoskeleton
2- Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
• These skeletal structures are located on the outer surface of the skin
• It keeps the skin strengthen.
• They are non-living due to substances secreted by the skin.
• It originates from the epidermis and dermis of the skin
• Example hair, horn, hoof
• They are mainly made of keratin
Endoskeleton
• It includes the skeletal structures that lie beneath the skin.
• bones and cartilages
• Human skeletal system can be mainly divided into two parts
1- Axial Skeleton
2- Appendicular Skeleton (126+ bones)
Axial Skeleton
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• The upright part of the skeleton of our body.

• It includes skull, vertebral column and ribs
• It contains 80 bones
Skull 8
Face 14
Ear bones 6
Hyoid 1
Vertebrae 26
Sternum 1
Ribs 24
Appendicular Skeleton
• It includes the fore and hind legs and pelvis and pelvic girdle
• There are 126 bones in it.
Skull
• Total 29 bones
• There are 8 bones in the human skull, 14 on the face, 6 in the ears, and hyoid bone under the
tongue.
• Out of all the 29 bones of the skull, only the jaw bone can move.
Ear Bones
• There are three bones in each ear (middle ear).
Ear bones Shape Treaty
Melius the hammer Hinge Treaty between
Great shaped Malleus and the Incas
Incas Anvil shaped ball-and-bone joint
between the incus and
stapes
Steps Stirrup shaped
• Hyoid bone is found under the tongue which is not attached to any other bone.
Ribs
• 12 pairs of ribs are found in humans which are attached to the bone called sternum. These ribs are
attached to the vertebral column at the back.
• First 7 pair of ribs are called true ribs, 8th, 9th and 10th pair of ribs are called false ribs and 11th
and 12th pair of ribs are called floating ribs.
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Vertebral Column
• There are a total of 26 spinal bones (vertebrae) in the vertebral column of the human body.
• 7 - Cervical
• 12 -Thorasic
• 5 - Lumbar
• 1 - Saccrum
• 1 - Coccyx
• The first Cervical is named Atlas which is named after the Greek god.
• The name of the second Cervical is Axis.
• A pivot joint is found between the Atlas and the Axis, due to which the skull does not move.
Pectoral girdle
• The band that connects the skeleton of each hand to the axial skeleton consists of four bones.
• Clavicle - It is a long, thin and 'S' shaped horizontal bone.
• Scapula - It is a large, flat and triangular bone.
• 2 Clavicles (Collar Bone/Beauty Bone) and 2 Scapulas
Arm Bones – 30 Bones
• Humerus, radius, ulna, 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals are found in each hand.
Pelvic girdle
• Pelvic girdle is found in the legs,it is also known as the Pelvic Bone/hip
Bone/Innominate bone.
Bones of legs
• Femur (longest bone of the body), tibia, fibula, patella in knee, 7 tarsals and metatarsals are
found in each leg.
Joints
• The point of contact between two bones or between bone and cartilage is called a joint.
• These are of the following three types.
1- Fibrous joints
• There is no movement of any kind in them.
• It is found in the bones of the skull
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2- Cartilaginous Joints
• In these joints there is cartilage between the bones and movement is less.
• Example - between the vertebrae in the vertebral column
3- Synovial joints
¼1½ Ball and Socket Joint
• In this joint, movement can be done easily in all directions like in shoulder and hip.
¼2½ Hinge joint

• It can move in only one direction.
• Knee joint and Elbow joint
¼3½ Pivotal Joint

• It lies between the Atlas and Axis due to which the skull can rotate.
¼4½ Saddle joint

• Between Carpals and Metacarpals in thumb
¼5½ Gliding joints

• In this one bone slides over another bone.
• Like - Carpals and Tarsals
Ligament
Tissue that connects bone to bone.
Tendon
Tissue connecting bone to muscle.
Key Facts
• Study of bones - Osteology
• There are 206 bones in an adult human body and more than 300 bones in a child.
• Strongest bone - Tibia
• Longest bone - femur
• Smallest bone - stapes
• Contractile proteins - actin and myosin
• Macrophages called histiocytes are found in bones.
Muscles
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• It is a specialized yolk derived from the mesoderm

• It accounts for 40 to 50% of the total body weight of a human.
• There are about 640 muscles in a human being.
• There are three types of muscles on the basis of position
1- skeletal muscles
2- Intrinsic Muscles
3- Cardiac muscles
¼Skeletal muscles½ ¼Visceral muscles½ ¼Cardiac muscles½
Other names for skeletal Other names for smooth

muscles muscles
Multinucleate fiber Located on the inner walls of
internal organs etc. Of the
body
Lined Undrawn Are straited as well as branched
Under the control of the Under the control of the
somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system
Optional Involuntary Involuntary
Primarily concerned with Aids in the transport of food Heart muscles
movement and changes in and gametes
body position
Method Of Muscle Contraction

• Contractile proteins called actin and myosin are found in muscles. Tromyosin and troponin proteins are
attached to the actin proteins.
• When the muscle fiber is excited, Ca+2 ions are released into the sarcoplasm. Ca++ ion binds to troponin
and myosin head starts pulling towards it by binding to actin.
• The unit of contraction is the sarcomere which is located between the two Z lines.
• After contraction, the length of the muscle fiber decreases to two-thirds. Hence, it is clear that in each
sarcomere, myosin rods extend 2/3 of the length.
• Energy is expended in the form of ATP during muscle contraction. This is the reason why the number of
mitochondria is more in muscle fibers.
Origin and development of bones

• The process of bone formation is called ossification.
• On the basis of source of origin, it is of two types.
a- Membrane Bones
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• It is formed in the embryonic stage as a result of ossification in the connective tissue under the skin.
• Example - flat bones of the skull
b- Cartilagenous Bones
• Bones formed in place of embryonic cartilages.
• Most of the bones of the body are cartilaginous.
Major diseases of the skeletal system
Myasthenia gravis
• It is an autoimmune disease in which loss of communication between nerves and muscles leads to
muscle weakness and fatigue.
Titany
• It is caused due to lack of calcium in the body in which there is uncontrolled contraction of muscles.
Osteoporosis
• Due to the lack of calcium, the bones become brittle and weak and there is a fear of breaking them.
Osteomyelitis
• Infection of bones by bacteria
Gout
• The accumulation of uric acid in the joints causes pain which is called arthritis or gout.
Rickets
• Children's bones become bow-shaped due to lack of vitamin D.
Osteomalacia
• Due to the lack of Vitamin D, the bones of an adult man become bow-shaped.
Arthritis
• Inflammation or swelling of joints due to infection or allergy is called Arthritis.
Note - Cori Cycle

• When overworked muscles accumulate lactic acid, which is transported with the blood in the form of
lactate, stored as glycogen in the liver and returned to the blood in the form of glucose.
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Biology Part-1 Notes

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WARRIOR BATCH

Human circulation system

• The blood circulatory system is made up of the following three parts-

4. Protection from diseases

Components of the Blood

(2) WBC (Leukocyte)

Breakdown of RBC (Hemolysis)

(2) Megaloblastic Anemia

• It is not a complete cell but the parts of Megakaryocyte.

Blood Clotting Disorders

Comparison between blood and lymph

Difference between lymph and blood

Heart Chamber Function

Electric wave Cardiac activity

Factors Affecting Blood Pressure

First Heart Sound

Second Heart Sound

Third Heart Sound

• Blood flow from the atrium to Ventricle

Specific Conducting Tissue Of The Heart

4. Right and Left Bundle Branches

Coronary artery diseases (CAD)

3. Myocardial infarction/ Heart attack

4. Cardiac arrest – Heart stop beating

• Nutrition in humans takes place in the following five stages.

• Duodenum and Jejunum

Storage of Vitamins and Minerals

Fat Soluble Vitamins

• It is essential for the skin.

Naphthoquinone or Phylloquinone (Vitamin K)

Water soluble vitamins

(a) Vitamin B1 (thiamine)

(B) VitaminB2 or Riboflavin

(c) Nicotinic acid, or Niacin B3

Vitamin B5(Pantothenic acid )

(f) Vitamin B9or Folic acid group

(g) Vitamin B12 or Cyanocobalamin

Vitamin C or Ascorbic acid

Diseases caused by Over nutrition

S. N. Characters Enzymes Hormones

1. Chemistry Always proteinaceous May be proteinaceous or amine or

2. Molecular Macromolecules with high Have low molecular weights.

8. Speed Act quickly Some are quickacting, while some are

9. Consumption Not used in metabolic functions. Used up in metabolic functions.

Human Endocrine System

Hormones of Anterior part

2) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

5) Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone

6) ACTH :- It Activates The Adrenal Gland.

ii. Non Iodinated Hormone

Conducting organs (respiratory tubes)

Bronchi and bronchioles

Transport of gases in the blood

• Remaining 3% Oxygen is transported with blood plasma.

Transportation of carbon dioxide

Major respiratory disease

Factor Nervous System Endocrine System

• It is divided into two major parts.

• It is both stimulant and depressant type.

Central nervous system (CNS)

• It has three parts.

• The spinal cord controls and coordinates reflex actions.

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM