Lecture 2

Lecture 2
Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
MICROBIOLOGY
 the study of microscopic organisms, such as
bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and
protozoa.
 This discipline includes fundamental research
on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology,
ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of
microorganisms, including the host response
to these agents
Microorganisms
Microbes are tiny living things that are

found all around us and are too small to be
seen by the naked eye.
The most common types are

Bacteria, viruses and fungi. There are
also microbes called protozoa. These are
tiny living things that are responsible for
diseases such as toxoplasmosis and
malaria. In this lesson we will focus on
Bacteria and Virus only.
Bacteria
Lecture 2
Bacteria
 single-cell organisms. Some bacteria need oxygen to
survive and others do not. Some love the heat, while
others prefer a cold environment. Well-known examples
of bacteria include salmonella and staphylococcus
bacteria.
Bacteria
Types of bacteria
Spherical: Bacteria shaped like a ball are called cocci, and a

single bacterium is a coccus. Examples include the
streptococcus group, responsible for “strep throat.”
Rod-shaped: These are known as bacilli (singular bacillus).

Some rod-shaped bacteria are curved. These are known as
vibrio. Examples of rod-shaped bacteria include Bacillus
anthracis (B. anthracis), or anthrax.
Spiral: These are known as spirilla (singular spirillus). If their

coil is very tight they are known as
spirochetes. Leptospirosis, Lyme disease, and syphilis are
caused by bacteria of this shape.
Types of bacteria
Bacteria Structure
Feeding
Bacteria feed in different ways.
Heterotrophic bacteria, or heterotrophs, get their energy through

consuming organic carbon. Most absorb dead organic material,
such as decomposing flesh. Some of these parasitic bacteria kill
their host, while others help them.
Autotrophic bacteria (or just autotrophs) make their own food,

either through either:
 photosynthesis, using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide, or
 chemosynthesis, using carbon dioxide, water, and chemicals
such as ammonia, nitrogen, sulfur, and others
Bacteria
Photoautotrophs
 Bacteria that use photosynthesis
 Some types, for example cyanobacteria, produce oxygen. These
probably played a vital role in creating the oxygen in the earth’s
atmosphere. Others, such as heliobacteria, do not produce oxygen.
Chemoautotrophs
 Those that use chemosynthesis
 These bacteria are commonly found in ocean vents and in the roots
of legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts.
Bacteria
How do bacteria reproduce?
binary fission
 the bacterium, which is a single cell, divides into two
identical daughter cells
 begins when the DNA of the bacterium divides into
two (replicates)
 bacterial cell then elongates and splits into two
daughter cells each with identical DNA to the
parent cell
 When conditions are favourable such as the right
temperature and nutrients are available can divide
every 20 minutes
Bacterial Diseases in Humans
Airborne Bacterial Diseases
Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract
1.Streptococcal diseases
are caused by Streptococcus pyogenes,
Symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis (strep throat): Sore
throat, fever, cough, and swollen lymph nodes and tonsils.
Scarlet fever: Fever, cough, swollen lymph nodes and tonsils,
and a skin rash.
• Transmission: Airborne droplets.
• Treatment: Penicillin or clarithromycin.
• Complications: Rheumatic fever and
acute glomerulonephritis.
2.Diphtheria
is caused by a prophage-harboring strain of
Corynebacterium diphtheriae. As dead tissue
accumulates, a pseudomembrane forms in the
throat or nasopharynx.
• Symptoms: Sore throat, Low-grade fever.

• Transmission: Respiratory droplets.
• Treatment: Antitoxins and penicillin or
erythromycin. a Prevention: DTaP or Tdap vaccine.
3. Pertussis (whopping cough)

is caused by Bordetella pertussis
Symptoms: Fever, increasingly severe cough, leading

to the characteristic "whoop."
Transmission: Respiratory droplets.

Treatment: Erythromycin (does not shorten the illness)
Prevention: DTaP or Tdap vaccine.
4. Bacterial meningitis is an inflammation of the

membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. The
infection can be caused by Neisseria meningitidis,
Streptococcus pneumoniae, or Haemophilus influenzae.
• Symptoms: Headache, rigid neck; vomiting and

sensitivity to bright light.
a Transmission: Respiratory droplets.
• Treatment: Early diagnosis and penicillin, cefotaxime, or

ceftriaxone antibiotics.
Diseases of the lower Respiratory Tract
1. Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the acid-fast

bacilli of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Symptoms: Chronic cough, chest pain, and high fever.

• Transmission: Inhalation of bacilli.
• Treatment: Isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and rifampin requires
six to nine months.
• Prevention: BCG vaccine available in endemic areas.
2. "Typical" bacterial pneumonia is primarily caused by Streptococcus

pneumoniae (pneumococcal pneumonia). Haemophilus influenzae,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae are other species.
Symptoms: Fever, sharp chest pains, cough and rustcolored sputum.
• Transmission: Aerosolized droplets.
• Treatment: Penicillin or erythromycin.
• Prevention: Pneumococcal vaccine.
"Atypical" bacterial pneumonia can be caused by Mycoplasma

pneumoniae
• Symptoms: Fever, dry cough, and diarrhea and vomiting.
• Transmission: Aerosolized droplets.
• Treatment: Erythromycin.
4.
Bacterial Diseases of Humans
Foodborne and Waterborne Bacterial Diseases
1. Botulism
is a severe form of food poisoning
caused by nerve toxins produced by
Clostridium botulinum.
Symptoms include blurred vision,

slurred speech, and difficulty
swallowing and breathing.
Botulism is treated by administration

of an antitoxin. Patients often need
to be placed on a ventilator.
2.Salmonella Typhi
is an acid-resistance bacillus that
invades the blood.
The infection is characterized by
fever, abdominal pain, rose spots,
lethargy, and delirium.
Typhoid vaccines are available and
chloramphenicol is the antibiotic of
choice.
3. Vibrio cholerae
infects the small intestines, producing
an enterotoxin causing profuse
watery diarrhea and vomiting.
Oral rehydration therapy restores
electrolyte and glucose balance in
the body.
• Several strains of E. coli can cause various forms of gastroenteritis. Watery diarrhea,
caused by enterotoxin production, is typical of traveler's diarrhea. E. coli 0157:H7 is a
more serious form of diarrhea that can lead to complications called hemorrhagic
colitis. Often this involves the kidneys, causing hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).
• The presence of Helicobacter pylori is responsible for most cases of gastric

ulcers. The exact transmission mechanism is not understood, although
contaminated food or water is a likely candidate. High cure rates have been
attained with antibiotics and acid suppressors.
Soilborne and Arthropodborne Bacterial Diseases
• Anthrax
is an acute infectious disease
caused by Bacillus anthracis.
Human contact can be by
inhalation, consumption, or skin
contact with spores. Inhalation
produces symptoms of respiratory
distress and causes a blood
infection. Consumption and skin
contacts lead to boil-like lesions.
Ciprofloxacin has been the
antibiotic of choice.
• Clostridium tetani is the causative agent of tetanus.

Symptoms of generalized muscle stiffness and trismus lead to convulsive
contractions with an unnatural fixed smile. Antitoxin and antibiotics can be
used to neutralize the toxin and kill the bacterial cells. A vaccine is
available for prevention.
• Leptospirosis is a disease spread from animals to humans (zoonosis) by

Leptospira interrogans. Infected individuals have flu-like symptoms. Up to
10 percent of patients experience a systemic form of the disease.
Penicillin or doxycycline is the antibiotic of choice.
Sexually Transmitted, Contact, and Miscellaneous Bacterial Diseases
Syphilis
caused by Treponema pallidum.
Primary syphilis is characterized by a
chancre. Untreated, secondary
syphilis occurs and presents symptoms
of fever and flu-like illness along with
a skin rash. Tertiary syphilis is
characterized by the gumma.
Infected pregnant women can
transmit syphilis to the fetus
(congenital syphilis).
Sexually Transmitted, Contact, and Miscellaneous Bacterial Diseases
Gonorrhea
caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Women may have symptoms of vaginal
and urethral discharge of pus and burning
during urination. Salpingitis is a potential
complication and pelvic inflammatory
disease may develop. Males may
experience urethral inflammation, a
burning on urination, and discharge of
pus. Infected women can pass N.
gonorrhoeae to the newborn during birth,
causing gonococcal ophthalmia.
Virus
Lecture 2
The Viruses
Studying viruses was extremely difficult until

the 1940s, when the electron microscope
enabled scientists to see viruses and
innovative methods allowed researchers to
cultivate them.
The Viruses and Virus-Like Agents
Foundations of Virology
All viruses are composed of nucleic acid as either DNA or RNA and in either a single-stranded
or double-stranded form. The genome is surrounded by a protein capsid, which is usually
subdivided into capsomeres. Many viruses have an envelope surrounding the nucleocapsid.
Spikes protruding from the capsid or envelope are used for attachment to host cells.
All viruses are composed of nucleic acid as

either DNA or RNA and in either a single-stranded
or double-stranded form. The genome is
surrounded by a protein capsid, which is usually
subdivided into capsomeres. Many viruses have
an envelope surrounding the nucleocapsid.
Spikes protruding from the capsid or envelope
are used for attachment to host cells.
Viruses have
• helical
• Icosahedral
• complex symmetry.
Viral Replication and Its Control
Corona Virus Replication and it’s Control
Virus enters a
cell
Virus releases
genetic code
Genetic code
converts to
proteins
Proteins make copies

Viral parts
get assembled
Remdesivir blocks
replication
Virus slows down

Viral Diseases of Humans
Viral Infections of the Upper Respiratory Tract
1. Influenza
• caused by three different orthomyxoviruses: types
A, B, and C.
• The spike proteins hemagglutinin and
neuraminidase are necessary for viral entry and exit
during an infection.
• Influenza is best prevented with yearly vaccination,
although new antiviral drugs can shorten the
duration of symptoms.
SARS
• represents a newly emerging viral
disease caused by a coronavirus. It
is spread by person-to-person
contact.
• Symptoms include fever, headache,
feeling of discomfort, and body
aches. A dry cough and difficulty
breathing often occur.
• In severe illness, insufficient oxygen
reaches the blood and mechanical
ventilation is required.
Herpes simplex
• describes a wide spectrum of viral
diseases commonly found in the
environment. Among the herpes viruses
are ones that cause cold sores (HSV-1)
and genital herpes (primarily HSV-2).
• Several antiviral drugs have been
developed to treat herpes simplex
infections.
• Neonatal herpes is a possible life-
threatening disease transmitted from a
herpes simplex-infected mother during
childbirth.
Another member of the

herpesviruses is varicella-zoster. This
virus causes Chickenpox,
which is one of the most highly
contagious diseases. The same virus
causes shingles in adults, which can
be a painfully debilitating disease.
Acyclovir has been successful at
lessening the symptoms.
The Measles virus is a

member of the
paramyxoviruses.
Symptoms of measles include
a hacking cough, sneezing,
eye redness, sensitivity to light,
and a high fever. Koplik spots
are common along the gum
line.
Mumps
• produced by a viral
infection from another
member of the
paramyxoviruses.
• The disease produces
swollen parotid (salivary)
glands. The swelling of
the testes (orchitis) may
be a complication of
the disease.
Polio affects nervous tissue, often leading to permanent paralysis and

muscle atrophy. A polio vaccine has eliminated the disease from most of
the world.
Virus
Fungi
Lecture 2
Fungi
 single celled or very complex multicellular organisms
 found in just about any habitat but most live on the
land, mainly in soil or on plant material rather than in
sea or fresh water
Types of Fungi
 Multicellular filamentous molds
 Macroscopic filamentous fungi that form large fruiting bodies.
Sometimes the group is referred to as ‘mushrooms’, but the
mushroom is just the part of the fungus we see above ground
which is also known as the fruiting body.
 Single celled microscopic yeasts
Types of Fungi
Multicellular filamentous molds
 made up of very fine threads (hyphae)
 hyphae keep growing and intertwining until they
form a network of threads called a mycelium.
 Digestive enzymes are secreted from the hyphal tip.
These enzymes break down the organic matter found
in the soil into smaller molecules which are used by
the fungus as food.
Rhizopus nigricans
Types of Fungi
Macroscopic filamentous fungi
 grow by producing a mycelium below
ground. They differ from moulds because
they produce visible fruiting bodies
(commonly known as mushrooms or
toadstools) that hold the spores.
Honey mushroom
fungus
Armillaria.
Macroscopic filamentous Fly agaric fungus (Amanita)
Types of Fungi
Yeasts
 small, lemon-shaped single cells that are
about the same size as red blood cells.
They multiply by budding a daughter cell
off from the original parent cell. Scars can
be seen on the surface of the yeast cell
where buds have broken off.
 one of the most widely used model
organisms for genetic studies
 Saccharomyces
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Fungal Diseases on Humans
Fungal Nail Infections
Symptoms
common infections of the fingernails or toenails that
Nails with a fungal infection are often:
can cause the nail to become discolored, thick, and
•Discolored (yellow, brown, or white)
more likely to crack and break. Infections are more
•Thick
common in toenails than fingernails. 1 The technical
•Fragile or cracked
name for a fungal nail infection is “onychomycosis.”
Ringworm
caused by a fungus. It’s called “ringworm” because it can cause a circular rash (shaped like
a ring) that is usually red and itchy. Anyone can get ringworm. The fungi that cause this
infection can live on skin, surfaces, and on household items such as clothing, towels, and
bedding.
Ringworm goes by many names. The medical terms are “tinea” or “dermatophytosis.” Other
names for ringworm are based on its location on the body – for example, ringworm on the
feet is also called “athlete’s foot.”
symptoms
•Itchy skin
•Ring-shaped rash
•Red, scaly, cracked skin
•Hair loss
infection caused by a yeast (a type of fungus)
Candidiasis called Candida. Candida normally lives inside the body (in places such
as the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina) and on skin without causing any
problems. Sometimes Candida can multiply and cause an infection if
the environment inside the vagina changes in a way that encourages
its growth. Candidiasis in the vagina is commonly called a “vaginal
yeast infection.” Other names for this infection are “vaginal
candidiasis,” “vulvovaginal candidiasis,” or “candidal vaginitis.”
Symptoms
The symptoms of vaginal candidiasis include:1,2
•Vaginal itching or soreness
•Pain during sexual intercourse
•Pain or discomfort when urinating
•Abnormal vaginal discharge
infection caused by a yeast (a type of fungus)
Candidiasis called Candida. Candida normally lives inside the body (in places such
as the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina) and on skin without causing any
problems. Sometimes Candida can multiply and cause an infection if
the environment inside the vagina changes in a way that encourages
its growth. Candidiasis in the vagina is commonly called a “vaginal
yeast infection.” Other names for this infection are “vaginal
candidiasis,” “vulvovaginal candidiasis,” or “candidal vaginitis.”
Symptoms
The symptoms of vaginal candidiasis include:1,2
•Vaginal itching or soreness
•Pain during sexual intercourse
•Pain or discomfort when urinating
•Abnormal vaginal discharge
Candidiasis in the mouth and throat is also called thrush or
Candidiasis
oropharyngeal candidiasis. Candidiasis in the esophagus (the tube that
connects the throat to the stomach) is called esophageal candidiasis
or Candida esophagitis. Esophageal candidiasis is one of the most
common infections in people living with HIV/AIDS.2
Candidiasis in the mouth and throat can have many
different symptoms, including:
•White patches on the inner cheeks, tongue, roof of
the mouth, and throat (photo showing candidiasis in
the mouth)
•Redness or soreness
•Cotton-like feeling in the mouth
•Loss of taste
•Pain while eating or swallowing
•Cracking and redness at the corners of the mouth

Lecture 2 - Microbiology

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Lecture 2 - Microbiology

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Microbes are tiny living things that are

The most common types are

Spherical: Bacteria shaped like a ball are called cocci, and a

Rod-shaped: These are known as bacilli (singular bacillus).

Spiral: These are known as spirilla (singular spirillus). If their

Heterotrophic bacteria, or heterotrophs, get their energy through

Autotrophic bacteria (or just autotrophs) make their own food,

Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract

• Symptoms: Sore throat, Low-grade fever.

Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract

3. Pertussis (whopping cough)

Symptoms: Fever, increasingly severe cough, leading

Transmission: Respiratory droplets.

Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract

4. Bacterial meningitis is an inflammation of the

• Symptoms: Headache, rigid neck; vomiting and

• Treatment: Early diagnosis and penicillin, cefotaxime, or

Diseases of the lower Respiratory Tract

1. Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the acid-fast

• Symptoms: Chronic cough, chest pain, and high fever.

Diseases of the lower Respiratory Tract

2. "Typical" bacterial pneumonia is primarily caused by Streptococcus

"Atypical" bacterial pneumonia can be caused by Mycoplasma

Diseases of the lower Respiratory Tract

Symptoms include blurred vision,

Botulism is treated by administration

• The presence of Helicobacter pylori is responsible for most cases of gastric

• Clostridium tetani is the causative agent of tetanus.

• Leptospirosis is a disease spread from animals to humans (zoonosis) by

Studying viruses was extremely difficult until

All viruses are composed of nucleic acid as

Proteins make copies

Virus slows down

Another member of the

The Measles virus is a

Polio affects nervous tissue, often leading to permanent paralysis and

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