COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

2.1 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Measurement is the determination of the dimensions, capacity, quantity, or extent of something.

In chemical laboratories, the most common types of measurements are those of mass, volume, length, time, temperature, pressure, and
concentration.
Two systems of measurement are in use in the United States:
(1) English system of units - inch, foot, pound, quart, and gallon
(2) Metric system of units. - gram, meter, and liter

2.2 Metric System Units

 There is one base unit for each type of measurement (length, mass, volume, etc.).
 Add prefixes to the base unit to indicate the size of the unit.
 The prefix is independent of the base unit and always remains constant.

Example:
1. 478 m → km 1km = 1x10³m

478 m 1𝑘𝑚
x 1x10³m = 0.478 km
1

2. 0.236L → mL 1km = 1x10⁻³L

0.2336L 1𝑚𝐿
x = 236mL
1 1x10⁻³L

3. 496pm → µm 1pm = 1x10⁻¹²m

1 µm = 1x10⁻⁶m

496pm 1x10⁻¹²m 1 µm
x x 1x10⁻⁶m = 4.96 x 10⁻⁴ µm
1 1pm

496 x 10⁻¹² x 10⁻⁶

496 x 10⁻⁶ = 4.96 x 10² x 10⁻⁶

4. 3.54 x 10⁷nm → km 1nm = 1x10⁻⁹m

1km = 1 x10³m

3.54 x 10⁷nm 1x10⁻⁹m 1km

x x 1 x10³ = 3.54x10⁻⁵km
1 1𝑛𝑚

3.54 x 10⁷ x 10⁻⁹ x 10⁻³ = 3.54x10⁻⁵km

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Exercise: Write the name of the metric system prefix associated with the listed power of 10 or the power of 10 associated with the
listed metric system prefix.
a. nano- b. micro- c. deci- d. 10³ e. 10⁶ f. 10⁹

a. Metric Length Units

 Meter (m) is the base unit of length in the metric system.
 Length is measured by determining the distance between two points.

Convert:
1km= 1000m 1m=100cm
1m=1,000mm 1cm=10mm

1. 3m= ___cm 4. 400cm= __m

2. 10m=___cm 5. 50mm=___cm
3. 9km= ____m 6. 8000mm=____m

b. Metric Mass Units

 Gram (g): – Base unit of mass in the metric system.
 Mass is measured by determining the amount of matter in an object.
 Mass – measure of the total quantity of matter in an object
 Weight – a measure of the force exerted on an object by gravitational forces

1. 3kg=___g 4. 3kg=___mg
2. 8kg=___g 5. 4,000,000mg =___kg
3. 5,000g= ___kg 6. 8,000mg= ____g

c. Metric Volume Units

• Liter (L)
- Base unit of volume in the metric system.
• Volume is measured by determining the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object.
• 1 liter = 1 dm³
• 1 mL = 1 cm³
• mL is generally used for liquids and gases.
• cm³ used for solid

Exercise:
1. What is the maximum volume of liquid (in mL) that this container can hold?
Volume = L x W x H cm3-> mL
5.00cm x 4.00cm x 7.00cm = 140cm3 to 140mL

1mL= 1cm3

2. A kiddie pool is shown in the diagram. What volume of water (in liters) can it hold if filled all the
way to the top?

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m→ dm → Volume → dm³ → L

Step 1:
10𝑑𝑚
1.50m x 1𝑚 = 15.0 dm

10𝑑𝑚
2.50m x = 25.0 dm
1𝑚

10𝑑𝑚
5.00m x = 50.0dm
1𝑚

Step 2:
15.0m x 25.0m x 50.0cm = 18,800dm3=18,800L
1𝐿
18,800dm3 x 1𝑑𝑚3 = 18,800L

2.3 EXACT AND INEXACT NUMBERS

Exact Number
 A number whose value has no uncertainty associated with it – that is, it is known exactly. 
Definitions – 12 objects in a dozen
 Counting – 15 pretzels in a bowl
 Simple fractions – ½ or ¾
Inexact Number
 A number whose value has a degree of uncertainty associated with it.
 Results any time a measurement is made

2.4 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figures are the digits in a measurement that are known with certainty plus one digit that is
estimated. To summarize, in equation form:

Number of significant figures all certain digits one estimated digit.

Guidelines for Determining Significant Figures:

1. In any measurement, all nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros may or may not be significant because zeros can be used in two ways: (
(1) to position a decimal point
(2) to indicate a measured value

When zeros are present in a measured number, we follow these rules:

a. Leading zeros, those at the beginning of a number, are never significant.
0.0141 has three significant figures.
0.0000000048 has two significant figures.

b. Confined zeros, those between nonzero digits, are always significant.

3.063 has four significant figures.
0.001004 has four significant figures.

c. Trailing zeros, those at the end of a number, are significant if a decimal point is present in the number.
56.00 has four significant figures.
0.05050 has four significant figures.

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d. Trailing zeros, those at the end of a number, are not significant if the number lacks an explicitly shown
decimal point.
59,000,000 has two significant figures.
6010 has three significant figures.

2.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Rounding Off Numbers
When we obtain calculator answers that contain too many digits, it is necessary to delete (drop) the
nonsignificant digits, a process that is called rounding off. Rounding off is the process of deleting unwanted
(nonsignificant) digits from calculated numbers. There are two rules for rounding off numbers.
1. If the first digit to be deleted is 4 or less, simply drop it and all the following digits.
For example, the number 3.724567 becomes 3.72 when rounded to three significant figures.

2. If the first digit to be deleted is 5 or greater, that digit and all that follow are dropped, and the last
retained digit is increased by one.
The number 5.00673 becomes 5.01 when rounded to three significant figures

Exercise 1: Rounding Numbers to a Specified Number of Significant Figures.

a. 25.7
Solution: a. Rule 2 applies. The last retained digit (the 5) is increased in value by one unit.
25.7 becomes 26
b. 0.4327
Solution: b. Rule 1 applies. The last retained digit (the 3) remains the same, and all digits that follow it are
simply dropped. 0.4327 becomes 0.43
c. 432,117
Solution: c. Since the first digit to be dropped is a 2, rule 1 applies
432,117 becomes 430,000
d. 13,500
Solution: d. This is a rule 2 situation because the first digit to be dropped is a 5. The 3 is rounded up to a 4 and
zeros take the place of all digits to the left of the inferred decimal place that are dropped.
13,500 becomes 14,000

OPERATIONAL RULES
1. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the answer is the same as the number of significant
figures in the measurement that contains the fewest significant figures. For example,

The calculator answer is rounded to three significant figures because the measurement with the fewest significant
figures (2.57) contains only three significant figures.

2. In addition and subtraction, the answer has no more digits to the right of the decimal point than are found in the
measurement with the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point. For example

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2.6 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Scientific notation refers to expressing a number as a product of any number between 1 and 10 to the 10th power.
Scientific notation is mostly used when dealing with large quantities or numbers containing many digits since it
shortens the notation.

CONVERTING FROM DECIMAL TO SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

The procedure for converting a number from decimal notation to scientific notation has two parts.
1. The decimal point in the decimal number is moved to the position behind (to the right of) the first nonzero
digit.
2. The exponent for the exponential term is equal to the number of places the decimal point has been moved.
The exponent is positive if the original decimal number is 10 or greater and is negative if the original decimal
number is less than 1. For numbers between 1 and 10, the exponent is zero.

The following two examples illustrate the use of these procedures:

Examples: Original number → Scientific Notation

76300 → 7.63×10⁴
2,560,000 → 2.56×10⁶
0.000066 → 6.6 × 10⁻⁵
0.005 → 5 × 10⁻³

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Multiplication and division of numbers expressed in scientific notation are common procedures. For these two types
of operations, the coefficients, which are decimal numbers, are combined in the usual way. The rules for handling the
exponential terms are
1. To multiply exponential terms, add the exponents.
2. To divide exponential terms, subtract the exponents.

Examples:
Carry out the following mathematical operations involving numbers that are expressed in scientific notation.
a. (2.33 x 10³) x (1.55 x 10⁴)
a. Multiplying the two coefficients gives
2.33 x 1.55 = 3.6115 (calculator answer)
= 3.61 (correct answer)
= 10³ x 10⁴ = 10³⁺⁴ = 10⁷
Combining the new coefficient with the new exponential term gives the answer.
3.61 x 10⁷

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8.42 x 10⁶
b. 3.02 𝑥 10⁴

Performing the indicated division of the coefficients gives

8.42
= 2.7880794 (calculator answer)
3.02
=2.79 (correct answer)
The division of exponential terms requires that we subtract the exponents.
10⁶
= 10 ⁽⁺⁶⁾⁻⁽⁴⁾ = 10²
10⁴
Combining the new coefficient and the new exponential term gives
2.79 x 10²
2.7 CONVERSION FACTORS
A CONVERSION FACTOR is a ratio that specifies how one unit of measurement is related to another unit of measurement.

Conversion factors are derived from equations (equalities) that relate units. Consider the quantities “1 minute” and “60
seconds,” both of which describe the same amount of time. We may write an equation describing this fact.
1 min = 60 sec
This fixed relationship is the basis for the construction of a pair of conversion factors that relate seconds and
minutes.
1 min 60 sec
and these two quantities are
60 sec 1 min
the same

EQUALITIES AND CONVERSION FACTORS

THAT RELATE THE ENGLISH AND METRIC
SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT

2.8 DENSITY
Density is the ratio of the mass of an object to the volume occupied by that object.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Densities are generally expressed in:

a. grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) for solids
b. grams per milliliter (g/mL) for liquids
c. grams per liter (g/L) for gases

Calculating Density Given a Mass and a Volume:

1. A student determines that the mass of a 20.0-mL sample of olive oil is 18.4 g. What is the density of the
olive oil in grams per milliliter?

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𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 18.4𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = = 20.0𝑚𝐿 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 0.92g/mL (calculator answer)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 0.920g/mL

2. A sample of table sugar (sucrose) with a mass of 2.500 g occupies a volume of 1.575 cm³. What is the
density, in grams per cubic centimeter, of this sample of table sugar?
Answer: 1.587 g/cm³

****Density is commonly expressed in units of grams per cubic centimetre.

2.9 TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy. Temperature is an indicator of the tendency of heat energy to be transferred. Heat
energy flows from objects of higher temperature to objects of lower temperature.

Three different temperature scales are in common use:

1. Celsius - is the scale most commonly encountered in scientific work. The normal boiling and freezing points of water
serve as reference points on this scale.
2. Kelvin - is a close relative of the Celsius scale. Both have the same size degree, and the number of degrees between
the freezing and boiling points of water is the same. The two scales differ only in the numbers assigned to the
reference points. On the Kelvin scale, the boiling point of water is 373 kelvins (K) and the freezing point of water is
273 K
3. Fahrenheit - has a smaller degree size than the other two temperature scales. On this scale, there are 180 degrees
between the freezing and boiling points of water.

Conversions between Temperature Scales

K = ºC + 273
Cº = K – 273

The relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales can also be stated in an equation format.
9 5
ºF = 5 (ºC) + 32 OR ºC = 9 (ºF – 32)

Converting from One Temperature Scale to Another

Body temperature for a person with a high fever is found to be 104 F. To what is this tem perature equivalent on the
following scales?
a. Celsius scale b. Kelvin scale

Solution:
a. We substitute 104 for ºF in the equation
5 5 5
ºC = 9 (ºF – 32) ºC = 9 (104 – 32) = 9 (72) = 40 ºC

b. Using the answer from part a and the equation

K = ºC + 273 K = 40 + 273 = 313K

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