THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Consists of the structures used to acquire oxygen (O2) and remove carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the blood.

Oxygen - required for the body’s cells to synthesize the chemical energy molecule, ATP.
Carbon Dioxide - a by-protocol of ATP production and must be removed from the blood.

STRUCTURES THAT MAKE UP THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 External nose: encloses the chamber for air inspiration.
 Nasal cavity: a cleaning, warming and humidifying chamber for inspired air.
 Pharynx: commonly called the throat. It serves as a shared passageway for food and air.
 Larynx: frequently called the voice box. Its rigid structure helps keep the air constantly
open, or patent.
 Trachea: commonly known as windpipe. It serves as an air-cleaning tube to funnel
inspired air to each lung .
 Bronchi: tubes that divert air into the lungs.
 Lungs: a labyrinth of air tubes and a complex network of air sacs called alveoli and
capillaries.

The blood pH must be

maintained within
relatively narrow limits
to maintain
homeostasis.

Respiratory System
structures start with
the nose and end with
the alveoli in the lungs.
FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration - what we call breathing is critical for homeostasis.

TWO BROAD ASPECTS

Ventilation - movement of air into and out of the lungs
Respiration - diffusion of gases across cell membranes

MAJOR TYPES OF RESPIRATION

External respiration - movement of gases bet-atmospheric air in the lungs and the blood.
Internal respiration - movement of gases bet-the blood and the body’s/tissue’s cells.

Ventilation and
respiration occur in
different regions of the
respiratory tract
TWO REGIONS
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT - structures from the nose to
the larynx.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - structures from the trachea
through the alveoli in the lungs.

Respiration includes:
 Ventilation - air moves into and out of the respiratory passages.
 External respiration - oxygen moves out of the alveolar air and into the blood.
 Gas transport - carbon dioxide and oxygen travel in the blood to and from the cells.
 Internal respiration - gas exchange with the tissues involves the exit of oxygen, from the
blood into cells, while carbon dioxide exits cells to enter the blood.

Respiratory System performs:

 Regulation of blood pH
 Production of chemical mediators
 Protection
 Voice production
 Olfaction

Conducting zone - respiratory passages that carry air

to the site of a gas exchange.
-filters, humidifies, and warms air

Respiratory zone- site of gas exchange composed of:

 Respiratory bronchioles
 Alveolar sacs
 Alveolar ducts

Primary Functions
 Provides oxygen for metabolisms in the tissues
 Removes carbon dioxide, the evate product of
metabolism

Secondary Functions
 Facilitates sense of smell
 Produces speech
 Maintain, acid-base balance
 Maintains body water levels
 Maintains heat balance
STRUCTURES AND HISTOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
 THE UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Nose and Nasal Cavity

Nose
 Consists of the external
nose and the nasal cavity.
External nose
 The visible structure that forms
a prominent feature of the face
Hyaline cartilage plates
 The largest part of the external
nose is composed
Nasal cavity
 The open chamber inside the nose where air first enters the respiratory system.
 Is divided into right and left halves
 Also contains the opening of a nasolacrimal duct
Nares (sing. naris) or nostrils
 The nasal cavity begins at the anterior external openings
Choanae
 An opening that extends posterior openings into the pharynx
Hard palate
 The floor of the nasal cavity which separates it from the oral cavity in the mouth.
 Covered by a highly vascular mucous membrane
Mucous membrane
 Helps warm and humidify inspired air.
Nasal Septum
 The nasal cavity is divided into right and left halves. The two halves are separated by
a wall of tissue.
 The anterior part is composed of cartilage
 The posterior part consists of bone
Conchae
 On each side of the nasal cavity, there are three lateral bony ridges
 Used to be named the turbinate bones because they act as “wind turbines”
Paranasal sinuses
 The superior and middle meatuses are openings from the various
Nasolacrimal Ducts
 Open into the nasal cavity
 Carry tears from eyes
Sinusitis
 Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the sinus

FIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE NASAL CAVITY:

1. Serves as a passageway for air
2. Cleans the air
3. Humidifies and warms the air
4. Contains the olfactory epithelium
5. Helps determine voice sound
Pharynx (Throat)
 the common opening of both digestive and the respiratory systems.
 Receives air from the nasal cavity and receives air, food and drink from the oral
cavity.
3 Regions of the Pharynx:
 Nasopharynx
- The most superior portion of the pharynx
- Is superior to the soft palate
- Takes in air
Soft Palate
 An incomplete partition composed of muscle and a connective
tissue.
 It separates the nasopharynx from the middle portion of the
pharynx, oropharynx.
Uvula
 The extension of the soft palate
 “little grape”
Pharyngeal Tonsil (Adenoids)
 helps defend the body against infection
 Oropharynx
- A continuation of the nasopharynx
- The middle portion of the pharynx
- Extends from uvula to epiglottis
- Takes in food, drink and air
Moist stratified squamous epithelium
 Lines the oropharynx and protects it against abrasion
Two groups of Tonsils:
 Palatine tonsils
 Lingual tonsils
 Laryngopharynx
- a continuation of the oropharynx
- extends from the epiglottis to the esophagus
- food and drink pass through
Larynx (Voice box)
 located in the anterior in the anterior throat and extends from the base of the
tongue to the trachea.
 It consists of 9 cartilages structure: (3 singles and 3 paired)
3 main functions:
 it maintains an open airway
 it protects the airway during swallowing
 produces the voice
3 Single pair of Cartilages:
 Thyroid (shield) Cartilage
- The largest of the cartilages
- Is a single-shaped piece of cartilage
- Also knows as the Adam’s Apple
 Cricoid (ring-shapes) Cartilage
- forms the base of the larynx
- is a single piece of cartilage upon which the other cartilage rest
 Epiglottis (on the glottis)
- a single piece of cartilage that is attached to the thyroid cartilage and
projects superiorly.
- Freely movable flap and is constructed of elastic cartilage
- Helps diverts food away from the trachea opening during swallowing.
Glottis
 Opening of the larynx
3 pairs of Cartilages:
 Cuneiform (wedged-shaped) Cartilage
- Contained in a mucous membrane anterior to the corniculate cartilages
- The top cartilage
 Corniculate (horn-shaped) Cartilage
- Attached to the superior tips of the arytenoid cartilage
- The middle cartilage
 Arytenoid (ladle-shaped) Cartilage
- Articulate with a superior border on the posterior of the cricoid cartilage
- The bottom cartilage

The Larynx is called the voice box because it houses the ligaments used for
speech as well as for swallowing and other functions.

These ligaments include:

 Vestibular folds (false vocal cords) – superior pair of ligaments
 Vocal folds (true vocal cords) – inferior pair of ligaments
Laryngitis
 An inflammation that occurs when a person “loses” his/her voice.

Functions of Vestibular and Vocal Folds

 The vocal folds are the primary source of sound production.
 Air moving past the vocal folds causes them to vibrate and produce sound.
 The force of air moving past the vocal folds determines the loudness of the sound.
 The frequency of vibrations determines the pitch
 With higher-frequency vibrations producing higher-pitched sounds
 With lower-frequency vibrations producing lower-pitched sounds
Lower Respiratory Tract
Trachea
 is commonly known as the windpipe. It allows air to flow into the lungs.
 The trachea is reinforced with 15-20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage
called tracheal rings.

Bronchi
 The trachea divides two form two tubes called main bronchi, or primary
bronchi.
Carina
 Location where the trachea divides into two main bronchi is a ridge of
cartilage.

Tracheobronchial Tree
 Consist of the trachea and the network of air tube in the lungs.
 Trachea divides to form a left and right main bronchus, each of which
divides to form smaller and smaller bronchi.
 The right main bronchus is larger in diameter.

Four classes of passageways, listed from largest to smallest:

1. Lobar bronchi. Lobar bronchi, or secondary bronchi arise directly from

the main bronchi.
2. Segmental bronchi. Segmental bronchi, or tertiary bronchi, supply
subdivisions with each lung lobe, which are called bronchopulmonary
segments.
3. Bronchioles. Bronchioles result from continued branching of the
segmental bronchi.
4. Terminal bronchioles. Arise from several subdivisions of bronchioles.

Changes in Air Passageway Diameter

Bronchodilation occurs when the smooth muscle relaxes, making the

bronchiole diameter larger.

Bronchoconstriction occurs when the smooth muscle contracts, making the

bronchiole diameter small.

Alveoli
 Are small, air filled chambers where the air and the blood come into close
contact with each other.

Multiple levels of branching. From largest to smallest:

1. Respiratory bronchioles. Respiratory bronchioles have a few attached
alveoli.
2. Alveolar ducts. Arise from the respiratory bronchioles. Alveolar ducts are
like long, branching hallways with many open doorways. The “doorways”
open into the alveoli.
3. Alveolar sacs. Are chambers connected to two or more alveoli at the end
of an alveolar duct.

Alveolar Structure
 Approximately 300 million alveoli are in the two lungs.
 Average diameter - 250 µm and its wall is extremely thin.

Two types of cells form the alveolar wall

1. Squamous epithelial cells - form 90% of the alveolar surface.
2. Surfactant-secreting cells - are round or cube-shaped secretory cells
that produce factant, makes easier for the alveoli to expand during
inspiration.

The Respiratory Membrane

 Where the O2 enters the blood and CO2 exits the blood.

Components of General respiratory membrane:

1. The alveolar cell layer
2. An interstitial space between the alveolar layer and the capillary layer.
3. The capillary endothelial layer.

 Associated with each of the three components are secreted fluids and
basement membranes.
Individual layers to understand respiration:
1. A thin layer of alveolar fluid
2. The alveolar epithelium, which is a single layer of simple squamous
epithelium.
3. The basement membrane of the alveolar epithelium.
4. A thin interstitial space.
5. The basement membrane of the capillary endothelium.
6. The capillary endothelium, which is a single layer of simple squamous cells.

Thoracic Wall and Muscles of Respiration

Thoracic Wall consist of:
1. Thoracic vertebrae
2. Ribs
3. Costal cartilage
4. Sternum
5. Associated muscles

Thoracic Cavity
 Space enclosed by the thoracic wall and the diaphragm.

Lungs
 Primary organs or respiration.

Base
 Portion of the lungs in contact with the diaphragm.
Apex
 Portion of the lungs extends above the clavicle.

Hilum
 An indentation on the medial surface of the lung.

Root of the lung

 All the structures passing through the hilum.

Blood Supply to the Lungs

Oxygenated blood
 Blood that has passed through the lungs and picked up O2.

Deoxygenated blood
 Blood that has passed through the tissues are released some of its O2.

Two blood flow routes to the lungs:

1. Blood flow to the alveoli.
2. Blood flow to the tissues of the bronchial tree.

Lymphatic Supply to the Lungs

Two lymphatic Supplies:
1. The superficial lymphatic vessels - deep to the connective tissue that
surrounds each lung, called visceral pleura.
2. Deep lymphatic vessels - follow the bronchi.

Pleura
 The lungs are contained within the thoracic cavity.

Pleural
 Relating to the cavities are lined with a serous membrane.
Parietal Pleura
 Serous membrane that covers the inner thoracic wall, the superior surface
of the diaphragm, and the mediastinum.

RESPIRATORY EVENTS
1. Pulmonary Ventilation cellular respiration
 “breathing” -metabolism in cells
 physical movement of air into and out of the lungs
2. External Respiration
 Gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli
3. Respiratory transport
 Transport gases from and to the tissues
4. Internal Respiration
 Gas exchange between the blood and the tissue cells

Respiratory rate - number of breathes per minute

Intrapulmonary or alveolar pressure
 Pressure of the lungs
 Higher and lower movement
Intrapleural pressure
 Subatmospheric pressure exerted by the pleural space lower than the alveolar pressure
Ventilation- “breathing”
2 PHASES
 Inspiration (inhalation) - air in
 Expiration (exhalation) - air out
 Pleural space is always negative
 Passive process caused by the elastic recoil of the lung tissues

PULMONARY / RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

 Tidal volume - amount of air that flows in and out of the lungs with one breathe at any
level of activity
 Inspiratory reserve volume - amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal
volume
 Expiratory reserve volume - amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal
expiration
 Residual volume -the air remaining in the lung after a forced expiration

PULMONARY / RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES

 Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - total amount of gas in the lungs at the end of a maximum
inspiration
 Vital Capacity - largest amount of gas that can be moved in or out of the lungs
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC) - maximum amount of gas that can be inspired after a quiet
expiration
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) - amount of gas left in the lungs after a normal
expiration
LUNG VOLUME LUNG CAPACITIES
VOLUME VALUE CAPACITY VALUE
TV 500 mL VC 4600 mL
IRV 3000 mL IC 3500 mL
FRV 1100 mL FRC 2300 mL
RV 1200 mL TLC 5800 mL

GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

 Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways:
1) Attaches the hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin carried in the plasma
2)Molecules inside the RBC’s very small amount of oxygen

Internal Respiration - gas exchange process that occurs between the systemic capillaries and
the tissue cells.
External Respiration - actual exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood
- gas exchange occur through diffusion

RESPIRATORY CENTERS
Control of Respirations
Medulla oblongata - respiratory regulating center
- sets the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration, contains a self-exciting inspiratory
center
Pons - smooth out the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration set by medulla
Respiratory membrane - where gas exchange between blood and air occurs in primary
alveoli
Anatomical dead space - the volume of passage ways where in gas exchange does not occur
Respiratory Membrane Surface Area - total surface area is 70 square meters
- decrease due to renewal of lung tissue, destruction from cancer, emphysema

The Herring-Breur Reflex - inhibits respiratory center when lungs are stretched during
inspiration
 Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata respond to changes in blood pH
 Blood pH are produced by changes in blood CO2 levels
 An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH, result is increased breathing
 Low blood levels of O2 stimulate chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies,
increased breathing