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Biographical Research

Research · July 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3156.1209

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Introduction
The aim of this project is to make links between theory and practice explicit at an individual level. I
will be considering the notion of motivation in learning. Motivation is ‘a reason or reasons for acting
or behaving in a particular way’ (Oxford, 2016) Adult education practise uses ‘educational
biographies’. Biography is ‘an account of someone’s life written by someone else.’ (Oxford, 2016).
Biographical research aids in developing a concept of learning which is context-specific, rather than
dependent on individual traits, such as personality or cognitive ability. This approach intertwines the
biographical with the structural and political.
The data was collected using qualitative research. I conducted a semi-structured interview, lasting
approximately 58 minutes. The advantage of this method is that the subject can speak for herself.

Alexandra’s educational biography

My research subject is Alexandra Stein. Alexandra is an associate lecturer in social psychology at
Birkbeck University. She is a lifelong learner and holds a PhD.
Alexandra was born in 1954 in South Africa. Alexandra’s family entered into semi-voluntary exile in
London when she was 3 years old. Her family have been involved in the anti-apartheid movement
and then they came back here because it was getting too dangerous, their friends were getting put
in prison. They moved to very much post war Primrose Hill. Alexandra’s family weren’t wealthy, but
they were intellectual, middle class, educated. They were really part of the first families coming in
gentrifying the neighbourhood. It wasn’t supposed to be on purpose, that’s just what sociologically
happens.
Alexandra’s house wasn’t super fancy but it was one of these big Victorians. Alexandra remembers
this one girl coming in and her mouth kind of dropping open because the hallway was probably the
size of her whole flat where her whole family lived in. Primrose Hill underwent a drastic
transformation. It used to be quite a poor area with pretty grotty and rundown bedsits. When
Alexandra went to her friends’ houses, there’d be broken windows, people sleeping 3, 4 to a room,
outside toilets still in some of the places. I did not research the urban housing policy that would
have been implemented by the government at the time.
Alexandra’s family became an arrival point for other exiled South African families. So through the
house would come people who later became the head of the Communist Party in South Africa or
people who had been in prison with Nelson Mandela, or marvellous musicians and writers, black
artists, who weren’t even allowed to be writers and musicians in South Africa. Just really
interesting people, writers, painters. This made Alexandra’s house, a fascinating place to grow up
and contributed to her rich cultural and social capital. Alexandra had a very early understanding of
what prejudice and discrimination and apartheid meant. She always played with John, this little
South African black kid. Alexandra’s mother said that in South Africa, she wouldn't be allowed to
play with him.
Experiential learning occurred throughout Alexandra’s life. Alexandra’s environment was culturally
and politically very, very rich with all these very interesting people drinking tea and talking,
talking, talking. Alexandra just sat there with her big ears and her big eyes kind of absorbing it. Her
only memory from South Africa is being dragged around art galleries when she was just little and
going: ‘No, not another gallery, Ma’. Her house was also full of books. Researcher Benjamin Bloom
pointed out that favourable learning and support conditions aid people in developing high levels of
excellence (On talent development: A conversation with Benjamin Bloom, no date).
Very early on, Alexandra established herself as a self-directed learner with critical thinking skills,
intrinsic motivation and self-efficacious beliefs. She was quite bright and started early on, what she
still does: listening, being curious.
Alexandra’s first formal educational experience was attending a primary school full of working class
and probably culturally deprived kids in Primrose Hill. All her friends were really poor. So early on
she had exposure to worlds that were very different and contrasting and seeing inequality.
Alexandra did very well in her primary school. She was already ahead by the virtue of her
background. Low income is a strong predictor of low educational performance. According to
research, diverse experiences and subsequent learners’ attitudes (such as learners’ confidence in
their ability to thrive within the system) must be taken into account when seeking to raise
achievement and improving equal educational opportunities. (Experiences of poverty and
educational disadvantage round-up reviewing the evidence, 2007) Social divide in educational
outcomes cannot be addressed solely by the school quality and delivery of the school curriculum.
Effective responses in policy and practice must take multiple aspects of disadvantaged children’s
lives into account. (ibid.) It would be interesting to research educational attainment and social
mobility of working class Baby Boomers.
Alexandra and her friend Robin, who had a similar background, both passed the scholarship exam
and were sent off to North London Collegiate School, this school in the far suburbs. The school was
very snobbish kind of, it was called a direct Grant School, it was basically a private school, but they
had scholarships for some kids from London, central city. Here, Alexandra struggled with opposing
cultures and class-markers, her cultural identity, isolation and a personal loss. Suddenly from all
these immigrants and mixed classroom, she was in this all white classroom with rich kids who
would talk about their horses and went out with boys from Harrow. I do not know whether the
school had any culturally appropriate curriculum. It was completely alienating to Alexandra and
she totally didn't fit in and she hated more or less every minute of it. Research suggests that
students from lower socio-economic backgrounds can experience negative influences on their
identity in an elite educational setting. (Winkle-Wagner, 2010). I do not know whether the school
organised any social events or study groups that would enable Alexandra build positive relationships
with the dominant group of students. The school was also so far away that Alexandra was alienated
from making friends in her neighbourhood. Alexandra is pretty sure if she had been sent to the
local school she would have found friends who were like her. And she would have had a normal
social life, going to parties in her neighbourhood. I do not know whether the school provided any
community outreach.
Alexandra and Robin were very naughty together, they got in trouble a lot and kind of made
friends with the other scholarship girls. I did not research the governmental guidance on Behaviour
and discipline in schools that would have been implemented at that time. Alexandra seemed to
relate better to other lower-income peers with whom she seemed to have more in common.
Robin ended up getting way into drugs and heroin. It was really bad and she moved schools and
Alexandra was left alone in the school without her friend Robin. Alexandra was kind of lonely
because she lost her friend Robin to drugs. I did not research the governmental drug advice for
schools that would have been in place at the time. I do not know whether the school provided
Alexandra with any mental health support aimed at family and friends of drug users. I do not know
whether the school involved the parents or whether the parents had any opportunities for
mobilizing institutional support. I do not know whether the school had a safeguarding policy or a
strategy to prevent drug use problems. I do not know whether the school identified that Robin had a
drug use problem or provided Robin with any referrals. Alexandra’s sister had bipolar and became
very severely mentally ill. It was before there was a good understanding of some of the issues, this
was fifty years ago. And there weren’t good places for teenagers to go and the whole family was
kind of disrupted by this illness. I do not know whether there was a good understanding of other
mental health issues, such as substance misuse, at the time. Alexandra would sometimes not go out
at break. Instead, she would like hide behind this cupboard in the classroom and read like
Dostoevsky. As previously mentioned, I do not know whether the school organised any social events
or study groups that would enable Alexandra build positive relationships with the dominant group. It
is possible that she could have felt less isolated as a result of various institutional preventions and
interventions. Alexandra used to read all these books that were way beyond what she really could
understand. Alexandra was the serious kid, she wanted to really understand the world, she always
had the desire to understand the world – from when she can remember. It’s just part of her
personality. Alexandra asked her mom to take her out of school to go somewhere like Summerhill.
However, her mum went to Summerhill and didn’t want to do that (send Alexandra to Summerhill)
because it was a boarding school and she didn’t feel that that was right.
Alexandra fell in love with a very handsome, French man and ended up running away to Paris at
the age of 15. She often says she was running away from home and she was running away to this
mad love, but she thinks a lot she was running away from school. Some theories propose that
student departure may serve as a barometer of the social and intellectual health of college life as
much as of the students' experiences at the college. (Vincent, 1987)
Alexandra attended a Touch Typing course at University of Nantes and studied at Beaux-Arts, the
distinguished National School of Fine Arts in Paris. It was shortly after May ’68 uprisings in Paris
student rebellions when in this period the administrative structures have fallen apart. Alexandra
enquired where to apply and register for courses but was told ‘Oh, don’t bother with that, just
come into the class’. Alexandra did life sculpture and she did metal sculpture. Beaux-Arts seemed
to have found the balance between Process and Product in their curriculum. Learning was the most
open and free, but the Art teachers clearly knew what they were doing, it wasn't random.
Alexandra briefly moved to New York. She attended courses at the New School for Social Research
where she was following her interest in politics. Alexandra took a couple of wonderful courses
there, which she still remembers: ‘Revolutions in the twentieth century’ and then there was
Marxist economics. After returning to London, Alexandra continued to study Art at Sir John Cass
Faculty of Art in Whitechapel. Alexandra’s mum was running the White Chapel Art Gallery, at that
point. And across from that is the John Cass School. Alexandra was still interested in art, so she has
kind of politics and art interest. The faculty’s product-orientated curriculum and teaching approach
was not a good fit for mastery-approach orientated Alexandra. This week we draw leaves, then you
put your leaves away, second week we draw model. Third week we go to British Museum and
draw skeleton. It was completely rigid and Alexandra had no autonomy. The faculty did not aid in
accelerating Alexandra’s learning or amplifying her Creative Art abilities. It wasn’t working. I do not
know whether a more personalised approach would have resulted in better engagement.
Mastery-approach is an important aspect of Alexandra’s educational biography. Early developmental
goals were not central to Alexandra’s motivation. She did a lot of this through her earlier life course,
just taking classes….Just totally following her interests, that’s been her path, very self-
motivated….no qualification, no credit at the end, but learning, learning, learning. But she would
also have been reading on her own a lot, learning, learning, learning and that’s just her that's her
personality. Students with a mastery goal orientation also tend to have a growth mind-set (Papa,
2014)
Alexandra went back to US where she followed her political interests at City College of San Francisco,
California. The society was all about this big change: Hippies, feminism, the healthy food
movement, the food co-ops, people questioning everything. There was a free clinic for poor people
and Alexandra went and volunteered there. It was basically run by political, hippie Lefties.
Alexandra learnt First Aid from the volunteer medical professionals. And again it was the times, the
Vietnam War had come to an end. Alexandra started getting very political and they had like study
groups and she was teaching some of those study groups. She was a very conscientious teacher.
Young, but again, she’s just a good teacher. Alexandra also took a marvellous class by such a
wonderful woman on the Economics of Women’s Liberation. She was an economist, but she had a
PhD, but she was teaching in this alternative place. And she also took a class from a Palestinian
guy she thinks, he was, on Arab- Israeli relations. So these were topics we could be studying today,
right, but this was in the 70s. And they were wonderful classes but they were completely outside of
any system. The classes took place in an alternative University, called ‘The Liberation School’ that
operated out of an empty storefront in San Francisco.
Alexandra joined a political cult in 1980. Alexandra builds her definition of a cult on the work of
Lifton, Singer, Arendt and others. Her definition encompasses the following five points:

 Closed, hierarchical social system

 Charismatic and authoritarian leader
 Use of coercive persuasion (also called: thought reform, mind control, brainwashing)
 Followers are controlled and exploited by leader
 All-or-nothing (total) ideology or belief system
(Goldstein, 2015)

According to Dr. Margaret Singer, coercive persuasion (i.e. Mind control, brainwashing) is ‘effective
restraining, impairing, or compelling through the gradual application of psychological forces.’
(Warren, 2005)
Robert Jay Lifton's devised eight criteria of thought reform (ICSA, 1997) which can be applied to
various domains (religion, politics, advertising and the media, education, mental health, the military,
the criminal justice system, domestic violence, the corporate world, torture, for example)
Alexandra was looking for a sense of belonging and a worthy cause. All that interesting period that
she was talking about with everybody working together and all that - had kind of died down.
Alexandra still wanted to be a revolutionary. That was her motivation – ‘Let's change the world!’
Her friends were moving on and she was looking for a new political place to do stuff.
Sense of belonging is a deficiency need on the third level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (MERAJ,
2009). Joining the cult kind of brought an end to some of this education that was self-motivated
and that she was very enthusiastic about. A lot of her studying kind of stopped at that point.
Alexandra was instructed by the cult leader to enter vocational studies. She was instructed to learn
machining and later computer programming. Alexandra actually enjoyed the skill of machining. It
kind of fit in with some of the sculpturing, metal work and welding stuff that she has done at
Beaux Arts. Alexandra was also good at computer programming but she hated it and thought it was
dull. She had some feeling for the machining but no feeling for the computer work. It had nothing
to do with her and her motivations, it was someone else's motivation. Extrinsically motivated
behaviour refers to behaviour that is performed because of rewards that are external to a person.
(Do et al., 2011).They just told her what to do, it didn’t make sense. But she was in a cult, she did
what she was told.
Some theorists acknowledge that reflection is an important part of adult learning. (Abela, 2009,
p.12) Self-evaluation and self-reflection is also an important part of teaching practice.
Alexandra recalls endless ‘self-reflections’, designed to aid learned helplessness.

And then we had all these tools about everything you did you had to
analyse on this form of like which was your ideological problem and which
was your… Oh I can’t remember all these categories-you always had to put
 everything into these categories. You were always been made to criticize
yourself and summarize your practice into these categories that were just
kind of pretty insane. But it was a way of stopping you having space to
think and shoving you down this way of thinking. So would call that not
learning. It was the opposite of learning. It was almost like unlearning.
(Transcript, paragraph 143)

Learned helplessness is a motivational problem and can impair learning in certain

situations. Learned helpless students try to avoid failure and punishment from their
teachers.
Well you don’t but you struggle…. struggle with the practice means work
harder. If you read George Orwell's Animal Farm, there's a wonderful line in
there when the Boxer is trying to fight against the cult leader in there and
he’s just told to work harder.
So, so what you learn is: ‘Don’t ask questions because you're gonna get
punished. You’re gonna be made to double up your work, write these
terrible self-criticism forms that will drive you mad.’ (Paragraph 145-146)

Andragogy assumes that adults are independent and self-motivating. Malcolm Knowles remarks that
as ‘a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12 quoted in K, 2013).
According to Stipek, 1988, ‘Learned helpless students do not fit under the intrinsic motivational
characteristic. They fit more in the area of extrinsic motivation’ (Stipek, 1988). Learned helplessness
is a conditioned response because it is learned rather than rational. This form of conditioning
learner’s behaviour is contrary to the learning environment that Bloom desired to produce.
Discouraging a discussion and active learning contradicts Bloom’s taxonomy (Atherton, no date)
which classifies forms and levels of learning.
Learned helplessness was eventually replaced with Transformational learning and a balance.
Motivation based on the encouragement from family and friends is interwoven throughout
Alexandra’s educational biography. Alexandra’s mother encouraged her to sign up for the Touch
Typing course in Paris and her family provided financial support. Counselling and Support groups for
Survivors of Cults also played an important role. Because you can imagine after you get out of a cult
you are a little bit screwed up. Alexandra also completed a creative writing course to shape
practicing writing and finding her voice again. Alexandra wrote her book and she raised her
children. It was all quite difficult but at least she was free. Many psychological and medical studies
have shown the transformative power of writing. (Heal by writing about your trauma, 2015)
Later, Alexandra’s friends were nagging her, saying: ‘You really should go to university.’ One of her
friends brought her the university catalogue and she had found Alexandra a course and she had
circled it. However, Alexandra had kind of like an allergy to them (to universities) she used to be
anti-university. She used to like not wanting to walk across the campus to get somewhere.
However, after this catalogue with this circled course sat on her counter –she swears for three
months - she’d kind of looked at it and she finally said ‘Ok, I’ll try it’. Alexandra attended a 10 week
course in University of Minnesota, titled: ‘Cults and totalitarianism’. She then went onto complete
an MA and a PhD at University of Minnesota.
However, Alexandra was also met with some degree of discouragement from educational
institutions. Alexandra had a nice Psychology teacher throughout her MA studies, whom she spoke
to about applying to do a PhD. He told Alexandra that she will never get in, because she is too old.
Alexandra comments that the teacher didn't say it meanly, he was kind of giving her the facts.
Alexandra didn’t have it in her to fight. However, she would fight that now but then she didn’t have
enough energy. I do not think that the teacher’s comment would be acceptable today. Educational
institutions must adhere to Equality & Diversity policy and implement Inclusion policy in
understanding the support needs of mature students. Nevertheless, Alexandra also comments on a
guy who wanted to be her (PhD) supervisor and who more or less offered himself to her. Alexandra
applied to Sociology and got in, after she sort of missed the deadline the previous year. This ‘guy’
was a German who was born more or less the day the war ended. He married a Jewish woman
later and was very interested in what had happened in Germany and Hitler and totalitarianism. He
had picked up on that (Alexandra’s search for the answers) in her application.
Alexandra’s decision to complete her postgraduate studies can be framed into transformational
learning theory. This theory explains how adults interpret their life experiences or redirect their
behaviour. Alexandra was motivated by self-reflection. Once she figured out that the group she left
was a cult, she was like: ‘Damn, I got to understand this. How such a clever, independent person as
myself have been fooled into this thing? (Transcript, paragraph 154). That was a big question.
Transformational learning produces a paradigm shift.
According to Kiely, 2005, the desired outcome of transformational learning is ‘that one is
empowered by learning to be more socially responsible, self-directed, and less dependent on false
assumptions’. (Kiely, 2005, p.7, quoted in Service learning from the perspective of faculty in higher
education: A .., 2008). Alexandra had this burning question how the cults work why did this happen.
Her motivation was to understand this thing. MA degree helped Alexandra to go some way. She
went onto complete her PhD studies because she hasn’t answered her questions. And she also
enjoyed being a student.
Furthermore, professional counselling led Alexandra to the discovery of John Bowlby and
Attachment theory. Therefore, critical self-reflection proved to be ‘an inspiration’ for her academic
work.
PhD is the maximum level of education. It can be viewed as reaching ones highest potential in an
area of interest. Reaching ones potential or self-actualization, is the final stage of Maslow's
hierarchy. (Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and diagrams of Maslow's motivational theory -
pyramid diagrams of Maslow's theory, 2016). Alexandra is now meeting her transcendence needs,
i.e. helping others to achieve self-actualization. Transcendence needs were later included on
Maslow’s expanded model (A, 2007).
What motivates Alexandra now is teaching. She loves teaching. This (cults) is an area
that’s not well understood and she feels she’s one of the few people in the world who
have a both the qualification now and the experience and the knowledge. This is a
hugely important issue if you go from ISIS to North Korea to the local cult around the
corner. And all the millions of people who are affected by these things. Alexandra
describes a feel of responsibility that’s a motivation. A view which contradicts this
account is that of Barker, who contends that the theory of though reform ‘absolves
victims of any responsibility’ (Barker, 2013). Barker states that cult apostates construct
‘atrocity tales’: a reality of a victim and a redeemed crusader (ibid).
Similar view is expressed by Wilson who writes that apostates are motivated by
‘Need of self-justification, seeking to reconstruct their past and to excuse
their former affiliations, while blaming those who were formerly their
closest associates’ (Gutenberg, no date)
Even when Alexandra gets tired of it (cult studies) and thinks she would love to go back to painting
or sculpture, she feels she has to keep speaking about it in some way. Alexandra talked at the
Occupy Tent University, which was a bit like the Liberation school. If Alexandra could learn
anything now, she’d love to learn Portuguese. Alexandra doesn’t have a burning question in the
same way. And she wonders about that sometimes.
Apart from her cult experience, Alexandra describes self-determination and an innate love of
learning. Her learning experiences were Autotelic: worth having for their own sake.
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1997 in Hokanson, Clinton, and Tracey, 2015).
Intrinsic motivation is experienced when engaging in activities because the activities are
spontaneously rewarding and provide opportunities for explorations, interest taking and enjoyment.
These activities promote learning and creativity. Intrinsic motivation is a basic and innate tool which
underlies the development of skills and knowledge in independent mastery attempts to respond to
challenges. It helps individuals grow by exposing them to new environments and challenges.
(Weinstein, 2014. Intrinsic motivation emerges from the sense of satisfaction, or flow that comes
with full involvement with an activity.
Flow theory was proposed by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi to describe the experiences of intrinsically
motivated people. (Hokanson, Clinton, and Tracey, 2015). Flow is commonly described as being
completely focused or being ‘on the roll’, ‘in the zone’, ‘on the ball’. Athletes describe it as ‘runners
high’. It is the old idea about ultimate performance which suggests that we use only 10% of our
brains. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory supports Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow theory. Maslow (1962)
believed self-actualization (i.e. fulfilling ones potential; the highest human need) could be measured
through the concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally
for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy and wonder. (A, 2007). Flow heightens outside
the box thinking or lateral thinking: the ability to link information into something new. It has driven
significant progress in arts and is responsible for breakthroughs in science.
When applied to education, this ‘ultimate experience’ involves equally integrating cognitive and
affective domains. Flow can be triggered in an ideal learning environment. Flow is built around
autonomy, mastery and purpose. These are the three most powerful intrinsic motivators known.
Alexandra lacked autonomy at Sir John Cass Faculty of Art in Whitechapel. Some of the ways
Alexandra refers to her various ‘flow’ educational experiences are:
 Fantastic Art teachers. Absolutely wonderful. It was a fantastic experience.
 marvellous, wonderful
She even describes an amazing moment when her lecturer revealed he had the concentration camp
number under his sleeve. And he hadn’t said anything throughout the course about that. Alexandra
describes flow when she was introduced to Hannah Arendt, her heroine. Arendt’s book The Origins
of Totalitarianism more or less changed Alexandra’s life. An interdisciplinary MA programme at
University of Minnesota was in line with Alexandra’s mastery-orientated approach. ‘OK. This might
work for someone like me who doesn't like to be pigeon holed’. And it was great because it was
perfect for a person like her because she was so self-motivated. However, the actual person who
signed her MA thesis was not good. She (the MA supervisor) was busy with other things, she didn't
really give a damn about Alexandra or about the work she was doing. Alexandra doesn't even think
the supervisor read her Master's thesis. Alexandra think she signed it without reading.
Alexandra describes having autonomy during her PhD studies. Her PhD supervisor understood her
and that the best thing was to leave her alone and that she would do good work and that she was
so self-motivated. And so he kind of left her alone. Gaining a PhD was hard, very difficult but it
was also very rewarding, very very rewarding.

My educational auto/biography
I was born in 1981. I survived Soviet schooling together with Soviet propaganda activities like Young
Pioneer assemblies. I was aware of the reality and the pseudo-reality. I survived the Velvet
Revolution in 1989 and my subsequent Catholic schooling. My early educational experience was also
unfolding against the backdrop of reminders of the Holocaust, entrenched racism and the
normalized persecution of the Roma. I applied to study Psychology at the Comenius University in
Slovakia in 1999. I passed the psychometric tests but left the country shortly after. I attended various
professional training courses in the UK. I am also an undergraduate student and a teacher.
I believe that skiing and other action adventure sports had an impact on my educational biography.
According to Dweck, people's self-theories about intelligence have a profound influence on their
motivation to learn. (Trei, 2007). Mistakes or failure can become a personal threat and challenge an
individual’s self-image or identity. People with a growth mind-set persevere despite making errors.
The view that abilities aren’t fixed but can be developed, ‘creates a love of learning and a resilience
that is essential for great accomplishment’, writes Dweck (ibid). Without taking risks in sport and
experiencing flow, I would have struggled to adopt a growth mind-set.

Conclusion
The focus of this study was on Alexandra and the sense she makes of her educational experiences
within the broader context. One of the limitations of collecting data by conducting interviews, both
structured and unstructured, is that the subject may not give an accurate or truthful response. The
aim of biographical learning is not to dismiss a story because of its subjective aspect. I applied
motivational theories which seek to explain the reasons for change or epiphany at important stages
and transitions. I also assessed the relationships among the sociocultural influences on educational
activities and other biographical themes. This form of reflective practise enables teachers apply
professional judgment when adapting to the latest subject requirements or government initiatives,
such as Prevent strategy (Home Office, 2011), for example.

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Available at: https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/2123.pdf (Accessed: 3 April
2016).
Experiential learning (no date) Available at:
http://www.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/experiential_learning.pdf (Accessed: 1 April
2016).
Fiorenza, E.S. (2014) Empowering memory and movement. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UYN-
AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=auto+slash+biography&source=bl&ots=q3Hf834OJx&sig=k1tC7O
SF7s78n3tmmVUA2d2KZCE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR-
PKh7ePLAhXH8A4KHRbfBuYQ6AEITTAI#v=onepage&q=auto%20slash%20biography&f=false
(Accessed: 28 March 2016).
Fischbacher-Smith, D., Fischbacher-Smith, M., Vitay, J., Hamker, F.H., Lutterer, W., Love, B.C., Jones,
M., Srinivasan, M.V., Pear, J.J., Martin, G.L., Timberlake, W., Weems, S., Reggia, J., Tsang, C.D., Dib,
N., Sturmey, P., Phillips, D.C., Michael Spector, J., Feltovich, N., Bernat, E., Kim, C., Ekehammar, B.,
Akrami, N., Saalbach, H., Kempert, S., Christensen, M.K., Domjan, M., Ifenthaler, D., Seel, N.M.,
Gogus, A., Rips, L.J., Vogel-Walcutt, J.J., Abich, J., Schatz, S., Sun, R., Gobet, F., Lane, P.C.R. and Pines,
A.M. (2012) ‘Biographical learning’, in Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer Science +
Business Media, pp. 457–460.
Goldstein, M.L. (2015) Handbook of child custody. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s79OCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274&lpg=PA274&dq=alexandra+stein+
cult+definition&source=bl&ots=6GAZREpH7S&sig=tw5KlwejkFOQkzw1Ol_eRBTtd9g&hl=en&sa=X&v
ed=0ahUKEwj5pfaZ3q7LAhWLWRoKHTKKCxkQ6AEINTAF#v=onepage&q=alexandra%20stein%20cult
%20definition&f=false (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
Green, L. and Glasgow, R. (2006) ‘Evaluating the relevance, generalization, and applicability of
research: Issues in external validation and translation methodology’, Evaluation & the health
professions., 29(1), pp. 126–53.
Gutenberg, P. (no date) Project Gutenberg self-publishing - eBooks. Available at:
http://gutenberg.us/articles/Atrocity_story#References (Accessed: 31 March 2016).
Hallqvist, A. (2012) Work transitions as biographical learning exploring the dynamics of job loss.
Available at: http://liu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:515474/FULLTEXT01.pdf (Accessed: 28
March 2016).
Heal by writing about your trauma (2015) Available at:
https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/stop-walking-eggshells/201211/heal-writing-about-your-
trauma (Accessed: 3 April 2016).
Heckhausen, J. and Schulz, R. (1995) ‘A life-span theory of control’, Psychological review., 102(2), pp.
284–304.
Hokanson, B., Clinton, G. and Tracey, M. (2015) The design of learning experience: Creating the
future of educational technology. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DasYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=learning+experienc
e+becomes+Autotelic:+It+is+worth+having+for+its+own+sake&source=bl&ots=X1XslnUu59&sig=1on
8Eiea0IcFuU0qRat31-
ZDMTA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiKxceYgvDLAhVJ1xoKHZJLDEQQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=learni
ng%20experience%20becomes%20Autotelic%3A%20It%20is%20worth%20having%20for%20its%20o
wn%20sake&f=false (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
Home Office (2011) Prevent strategy. Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97976/prevent-
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ICSA (1997) ^ Lifton, Robert J. M.D.: ‘ Lifton’s Eight criteria for thought reform’ - study guide.
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March 2016).
K, M. (2013) Andragogy: What is it and does it help thinking about adult learning? Available at:
http://infed.org/mobi/andragogy-what-is-it-and-does-it-help-thinking-about-adult-learning/
(Accessed: 31 March 2016).
Kezar, A. (2010) Recognizing and serving low-income students in higher education: An .. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPktCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248&lpg=PA248&dq=low+income+stud
ents+feel+different&source=bl&ots=UPjauGntZ1&sig=Z44ZGUIfkmpHh4IphwnYbdSHD1w&hl=en&sa
=X&ved=0ahUKEwixmJmjqPLLAhUHvBQKHRpWBn0Q6AEIKzAF#v=onepage&q=low%20income%20st
udents%20feel%20different&f=false (Accessed: 3 April 2016).
Kim, M.-R. and Han, S.-J. (2014) ‘A study on learning flow, critical thinking and communication skills
in nursing students’, . doi: 10.14257/astl.2014.72.08.
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Learning-Theories (2014) Bloom’s Taxonomy (bloom) - learning theories. Available at:
http://www.learning-theories.com/blooms-taxonomy-bloom.html (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
Letherby, G., Scott, J. and Williams, M. (2012) Objectivity and subjectivity in social research.
Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qUrN2uBXDLgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=auto+slash+biograp
hy&source=bl&ots=3SI8OiWAkz&sig=SSg4KhFxtNGirhY_iW83JcYJE48&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR
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(Accessed: 28 March 2016).
LSDA (1970) Should we be using learning styles? Available at:
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2016).
Mayring, P. and Klagenfurt, U. (2008) On generalization in qualitatively oriented research. Available
at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/291/641 (Accessed: 29 March
2016).
MERAJ (2009) Safety and security needs. Available at:
http://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495570540_162121.pdf (Accessed: 2 April
2016).
Mezirow’s Ten phases of Transformative learning - Transformative learning (no date) Available at:
https://sites.google.com/site/transformativelearning/elements-of-the-theory-1 (Accessed: 31 March
2016).
On talent development: A conversation with Benjamin Bloom (no date) Available at:
http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198509_brandt2.pdf (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
Open, T. (2016) Continuity and learning. Available at:
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=19555&printable=1 (Accessed:
29 March 2016).
Open, T. (no date) Learning to teach: Becoming a reflective practitioner. Available at:
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practitioner/content-section-0 (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
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http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/biography (Accessed: 28 March 2016).
Oxford (2016c) ‘Motivation’, in Oxford Dictionary. Available at:
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pages/learning-styles-preferences/ (Accessed: 28 March 2016).
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7DQ3I6jFdQC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=A+coercive+persuasion+program+is+a+behavioral+change&
source=bl&ots=xuutQvjTlQ&sig=NNgm9TWBRCV43GnQ_whrEMS26oc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj
SyJCz7ebLAhXGPBQKHWbJBKsQ6AEINDAE#v=onepage&q=A%20coercive%20persuasion%20progra
m%20is%20a%20behavioral%20change&f=false (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
Weinstein, N. (2014) Human motivation and interpersonal relationships: Theory, research, and ..
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https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0I_FBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=%5Bintrinsic%5D+moti
vation+that+emerges+from+the+sense+of+satisfaction&source=bl&ots=x47kZH6Cgd&sig=UJtNRn2e
Cg_6H187K4ZL1hKPzEQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiIyZ-
EhvDLAhWHMhoKHW1AD8wQ6AEISzAH#v=onepage&q=%5Bintrinsic%5D%20motivation%20that%2
0emerges%20from%20the%20sense%20of%20satisfaction&f=false (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
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nts+cultural+capital&source=bl&ots=0_piokurWW&sig=WJ6dPjF4fP5W8BHr93hwz9E1wEY&hl=en&s
a=X&ved=0ahUKEwjHh-
aArPLLAhUBbRQKHc2zDr8Q6AEILzAE#v=onepage&q=low%20income%20students%20cultural%20ca
pital&f=false (Accessed: 3 April 2016).
Citations, Quotes & Annotations

2016, G.P. (2016) Evidence based teaching (EBT). Available at: http://geoffpetty.com/geoffs-
books/evidence-based-teaching-ebt/ (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
(2016, 2016)
A, S.M.S. (2007) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Available at:
http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
(A, 2007)
Abela, J. (2009) ‘Adult learning theories and medical education: A review’, Malta Medical Journal, 21.
(Abela, 2009)
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and diagrams of Maslow's motivational theory - pyramid
diagrams of Maslow's theory (2016) Available at: http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm
(Accessed: 28 March 2016).
(Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and diagrams of Maslow's motivational theory - pyramid
diagrams of Maslow's theory, 2016)
Arweck, E. (2006) Researching new religious movements: Responses and Redefinitions. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bUnINgpiigoC&pg=PA145&lpg=PA145&dq=eileen+barker+atro
city+tales&source=bl&ots=nfjneq9tdG&sig=wrKj8hk_LWmCvSg83aSkSHv2AXM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0
ahUKEwirsJ2SpK_LAhWH7RQKHdt3CxwQ6AEIOTAG#v=onepage&q=eileen%20barker%20atrocity%2
0tales&f=false (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
(Arweck, 2006)
Atherton, J. (no date) Bloom’s taxonomy. Available at:
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
(Atherton, no date)
Barker, E. (2013) The cult as a social problem book section. Available at:
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/50874/1/__libfile_REPOSITORY_Content_Barker,%20E_The%20cult%20socia
l%20problem_Barker_The%20cult%20social%20problem_2013.pdf (Accessed: 31 March 2016).
(Barker, 2013)
Barker, E. (2016) ‘The making of a Moonie: Choice or brainwashing?’, .
(Barker, 2016)
Do, L.L.T.N., Nguyen Do, L.L.T., Axe, J.B., McKnight, C., Ball, C.R., Hall, J.N., Noggle, C.A., Williams,
S.A.S., Waddell, T., Odland, A.P., Mittenberg, W., Weller-Clarke, A., Watt, F., Fornoff, A., Pavelka,
L.C., Weymouth, L., Howe, T.R., Koulenti, T., Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, X., Georgiou, N.,
Guerra, N.S., Bolt, N., Sonnentag, T.L., Barnett, M.A., Vanderlaan, A.F., Prinzi, L., Kilanowski-Press, L.,
Watson, S.T., Brown, D., Essau, C.A., Palazzi, S., Santos, E., Walrath, R., Snarey, J., Poole, S., Leeth, C.,
Stovall, S., Castañeda-Sound, C.L., Dorliae, F.C., Atingdui, N., Farnfield, S., Avirett, E.K., Maricle, D.E.,
Chang, M.Y., Dean, R.S., Frazier, M.S., Means, C., Gurley, J.R., Grote-Garcia, S.A., McDowell, F.D.,
Phelps, B.I., Hsieh, P.-H., Davis, D., MacKay, A. and Sander, J. (2011) ‘Extrinsically motivated
behavior’, in Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer Science + Business Media,
pp. 628–628.
(Do et al., 2011)
Experiences of poverty and educational disadvantage round-up reviewing the evidence (2007)
Available at: https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/2123.pdf (Accessed: 3 April
2016).
(Experiences of poverty and educational disadvantage round-up reviewing the evidence, 2007)
Experiential learning (no date) Available at:
http://www.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/experiential_learning.pdf (Accessed: 1 April
2016).
(Experiential learning, no date)
Fiorenza, E.S. (2014) Empowering memory and movement. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UYN-
AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=auto+slash+biography&source=bl&ots=q3Hf834OJx&sig=k1tC7O
SF7s78n3tmmVUA2d2KZCE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR-
PKh7ePLAhXH8A4KHRbfBuYQ6AEITTAI#v=onepage&q=auto%20slash%20biography&f=false
(Accessed: 28 March 2016).
(Fiorenza, 2014)
Fischbacher-Smith, D., Fischbacher-Smith, M., Vitay, J., Hamker, F.H., Lutterer, W., Love, B.C., Jones,
M., Srinivasan, M.V., Pear, J.J., Martin, G.L., Timberlake, W., Weems, S., Reggia, J., Tsang, C.D., Dib,
N., Sturmey, P., Phillips, D.C., Michael Spector, J., Feltovich, N., Bernat, E., Kim, C., Ekehammar, B.,
Akrami, N., Saalbach, H., Kempert, S., Christensen, M.K., Domjan, M., Ifenthaler, D., Seel, N.M.,
Gogus, A., Rips, L.J., Vogel-Walcutt, J.J., Abich, J., Schatz, S., Sun, R., Gobet, F., Lane, P.C.R. and Pines,
A.M. (2012) ‘Biographical learning’, in Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer Science +
Business Media, pp. 457–460.
(Fischbacher-Smith et al., 2012)
Goldstein, M.L. (2015) Handbook of child custody. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s79OCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274&lpg=PA274&dq=alexandra+stein+
cult+definition&source=bl&ots=6GAZREpH7S&sig=tw5KlwejkFOQkzw1Ol_eRBTtd9g&hl=en&sa=X&v
ed=0ahUKEwj5pfaZ3q7LAhWLWRoKHTKKCxkQ6AEINTAF#v=onepage&q=alexandra%20stein%20cult
%20definition&f=false (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
(Goldstein, 2015)
Green, L. and Glasgow, R. (2006) ‘Evaluating the relevance, generalization, and applicability of
research: Issues in external validation and translation methodology’, Evaluation & the health
professions., 29(1), pp. 126–53.
(Green and Glasgow, 2006)
Gutenberg, P. (no date) Project Gutenberg self-publishing - eBooks. Available at:
http://gutenberg.us/articles/Atrocity_story#References (Accessed: 31 March 2016).
(Gutenberg, no date)
Hallqvist, A. (2012) Work transitions as biographical learning exploring the dynamics of job loss.
Available at: http://liu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:515474/FULLTEXT01.pdf (Accessed: 28
March 2016).
(Hallqvist, 2012)
Heal by writing about your trauma (2015) Available at:
https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/stop-walking-eggshells/201211/heal-writing-about-your-
trauma (Accessed: 3 April 2016).
(Heal by writing about your trauma, 2015)
Heckhausen, J. and Schulz, R. (1995) ‘A life-span theory of control’, Psychological review., 102(2), pp.
284–304.
(Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995)
Hokanson, B., Clinton, G. and Tracey, M. (2015) The design of learning experience: Creating the
future of educational technology. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DasYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=learning+experienc
e+becomes+Autotelic:+It+is+worth+having+for+its+own+sake&source=bl&ots=X1XslnUu59&sig=1on
8Eiea0IcFuU0qRat31-
ZDMTA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiKxceYgvDLAhVJ1xoKHZJLDEQQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=learni
ng%20experience%20becomes%20Autotelic%3A%20It%20is%20worth%20having%20for%20its%20o
wn%20sake&f=false (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
(Hokanson, Clinton, and Tracey, 2015)
Home Office (2011) Prevent strategy. Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97976/prevent-
strategy-review.pdf (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
(Home Office, 2011)
ICSA (1997) ^ Lifton, Robert J. M.D.: ‘ Lifton’s Eight criteria for thought reform’ - study guide.
Available at: http://www.csj.org/studyindex/studymindctr/study_mindctr_lifton.htm (Accessed: 29
March 2016).
(ICSA, 1997)
K, M. (2013) Andragogy: What is it and does it help thinking about adult learning? Available at:
http://infed.org/mobi/andragogy-what-is-it-and-does-it-help-thinking-about-adult-learning/
(Accessed: 31 March 2016).
(K, 2013)
Kezar, A. (2010) Recognizing and serving low-income students in higher education: An .. Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPktCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248&lpg=PA248&dq=low+income+stud
ents+feel+different&source=bl&ots=UPjauGntZ1&sig=Z44ZGUIfkmpHh4IphwnYbdSHD1w&hl=en&sa
=X&ved=0ahUKEwixmJmjqPLLAhUHvBQKHRpWBn0Q6AEIKzAF#v=onepage&q=low%20income%20st
udents%20feel%20different&f=false (Accessed: 3 April 2016).
(Kezar, 2010)
Kim, M.-R. and Han, S.-J. (2014) ‘A study on learning flow, critical thinking and communication skills
in nursing students’, . doi: 10.14257/astl.2014.72.08.
(Kim and Han, 2014)
Learned helplessness (2006) Available at: http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Learned_helplessness
(Accessed: 28 March 2016).
(Learned helplessness, 2006)
Learning-Theories (2014) Bloom’s Taxonomy (bloom) - learning theories. Available at:
http://www.learning-theories.com/blooms-taxonomy-bloom.html (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
(Learning-Theories, 2014)
Letherby, G., Scott, J. and Williams, M. (2012) Objectivity and subjectivity in social research.
Available at:
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qUrN2uBXDLgC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=auto+slash+biograp
hy&source=bl&ots=3SI8OiWAkz&sig=SSg4KhFxtNGirhY_iW83JcYJE48&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR
-PKh7ePLAhXH8A4KHRbfBuYQ6AEISDAH#v=onepage&q=auto%20slash%20biography&f=false
(Accessed: 28 March 2016).
(Letherby, Scott, and Williams, 2012)
LSDA (1970) Should we be using learning styles? Available at:
http://www.itslifejimbutnotasweknowit.org.uk/files/LSRC_LearningStyles.pdf (Accessed: 28 March
2016).
(LSDA, 1970)
Mayring, P. and Klagenfurt, U. (2008) On generalization in qualitatively oriented research. Available
at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/291/641 (Accessed: 29 March
2016).
(Mayring and Klagenfurt, 2008)
MERAJ (2009) Safety and security needs. Available at:
http://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495570540_162121.pdf (Accessed: 2 April
2016).
(MERAJ, 2009)
Mezirow’s Ten phases of Transformative learning - Transformative learning (no date) Available at:
https://sites.google.com/site/transformativelearning/elements-of-the-theory-1 (Accessed: 31 March
2016).
(Mezirow’s Ten phases of Transformative learning - Transformative learning, no date)
On talent development: A conversation with Benjamin Bloom (no date) Available at:
http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198509_brandt2.pdf (Accessed: 2 April 2016).
(On talent development: A conversation with Benjamin Bloom, no date)
Open, T. (2016) Continuity and learning. Available at:
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=19555&printable=1 (Accessed:
29 March 2016).
(Open, 2016)
Open, T. (no date) Learning to teach: Becoming a reflective practitioner. Available at:
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/education/learning-teach-becoming-reflective-
practitioner/content-section-0 (Accessed: 29 March 2016).
(Open, no date)
Oxford (2016a) ‘Autobiography’, in Oxford Dictionary. Available at:
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/autobiography (Accessed: 28 March 2016).
(Oxford, 2016)
Oxford (2016b) ‘Biography’, in Oxford Dictionary. Available at:
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/biography (Accessed: 28 March 2016).
(Oxford, 2016)
Oxford (2016c) ‘Motivation’, in Oxford Dictionary. Available at:
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