APPLYING FLUENCY AND COMPREHENSION READING

INTERVENTIONS TO COLLEGE-AGED DEVELOPMENTAL

EDUCATION STUDENTS

by

David Young

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A dissertation presented to the Department of Psychology and Counseling and the
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Graduate School of the University of Central Arkansas in partial fulfillment of the
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requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
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in

Psychology

Conway, Arkansas

August 2023
 ABSTRACT

Previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of the Repeated Readings

intervention at improving reading fluency and reading comprehension. However,

research on the effectiveness of fluency interventions focuses on young children, with

limited research on the effects on college-age populations. The primary purpose of the

current study was to apply Repeated Reading fluency interventions, found to be effective

at improving reading fluency and comprehension in younger populations, with college-

aged students, adapting for their particular reading levels. The study was conducted with

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a single subject multiple baseline design, using Curriculum Based Measures to assess the

effectiveness of the reading intervention. Results of the study indicated that students
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performed marginally better on fluency reading passages following intervention, yet only
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for skill passages at their skill level, rather than below their level. Additionally, the study

concluded that students did not make meaningful gains to fluency before the introduction

of the intervention over the course of a five-month intervention, despite their involvement
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in college-level classes as well as a remedial reading course. This was evidenced due to

the lack of overall progress displayed by the student on standardized measures and

fluency and comprehension assessments and the presence of positive effect sizes within

the measured categories that did show meaningful gains.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ii

List of Tables ix

List of Figures x

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 1

Significance of the Problem 1

Adult Literacy Education 2

The Role of School Psychologists in Adult Literacy 3

Statement of the Purpose 5

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Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 5

Brief Overview of Reading Skills 8

Oral Language
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Phonemic Awareness 9
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Phonics 10

Vocabulary 10
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Fluency 10

Comprehension 11

Developmental Education 11

Reasoning Behind the Methods Chosen 14

Objectives, Hypotheses, Research Questions 15

Objectives 15

Hypotheses 15

Research Questions 15
Assumptions/Limitations 16

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 17

Basic Skills and Reading Prerequisites 17

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 Oral Language 17
Early and Pre-Literacy Skills 20

Five Essential Components of Reading Instruction 23

Fluency 26

Automaticity 28
Decoding 28

Word-Reading Accuracy 29

Reading Rate 29

Prosody 30
History and Importance of Fluency 30

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Oral Reading Fluency 32

Reading Comprehension 33
Elements of Comprehension
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Reading Interventions 36
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History of Reading Interventions 36

1910s – 1950s 37
1960s – 2000s 41
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Modern Reading Interventions 43

Examples of Reading Interventions 44

Developmental Education 49
History of Developmental Education 49

Summary of Developmental Education 52

Four Intervention Types 53

Avoid 53

Accelerate 54

Contextual 55

Support 55

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 Six Steps of the Traditional Developmental Education Experience 57
Transitional Programs 58

Developmental Education Organizations 59

Developmental Education and Risk for Drop-Out 60

Effectiveness of Developmental Education 62

Five Effective Methods of Developmental Education 67

Accelerated Instruction 67

Contextualized Instruction 68

Supplemental Advising and Counseling 68

Technology-Supported Learning Systems 69

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Corequisite Developmental Education 71

Struggles with Corequisite Implementation 73

Limited Buy-In
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Issues with Scheduling and Logistics 75

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Limited Preparation and Support 76

Rapid Speed and Uncertainty 76

Summary of Literacy Review 76
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CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 79

Introduction 79

Research Questions 79
Participants and Setting 80

Protection of Subjects 81

Instruments 81
Experimental Design 85

Data Collection 87

Curriculum-Based Measures Data Collection 87

Curriculum-Based Measures Data Analysis 87

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 Calculating the Effect Size 87
Visual Analysis of Data 88

Split-Line Method 88

Slope of A and B Phases 89

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, 4th Edition Data Collection 89

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, 4th Edition Data Analysis 90

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 91

Curriculum-Based Measures Results 93

Research Question 1: Effect Size 93

WPM 8th Grade (60s) 93

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Errors 8th Grade (60s) 93

WPM 8th Grade (Full) 94

Errors 8th Grade (Full)
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WPM Grade Level (60s) 94

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Errors Grade Level (60s) 94

WPM Grade Level (Full) 94

Errors Grade Level (Full) 94
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% Correct 8th Grade 94

% Correct Grade Level 94

Research Question 2: Visual Analysis, Split-Line Method of Visual 98

Assessment, MBL, Slope

Visual Analysis of Individual Participants 98

Split-Line Method and Visual Assessment 101

Multiple Baseline Data 105

Analysis of Slope in A and B Phases 110

Research Question 3: WJ-IV Test 110

Individual Student Results 115

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CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION 122
Summary 122

Research Questions 121

Question 1 123

Effect Size 123

Question 2 124

Visual Analysis 125

Split-line 125

Multiple Baseline 126

Slope 126

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Question 3 127

Results and Hypothesis 130

Limitations
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Group Performance and CBM Scoring Anomalies 131

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Group Performance and Standardized Assessment 134

Student Intervention Performance Given Remedial Course 135

Student Performance and the Nature of Remediating Adult Reading Skills 135
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Student Performance and the Experiment 136

Areas for Error 136

Ethical Ramifications 137

Possible Explanations for Results 137

Conclusion 139

Implications and Useful Areas for Future Research 140

Relevance to School Psychologists 143

Concluding Comments 143

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REFERENCES 146
APPENDIX A: Commonly Used Terms 175

APPENDIX B: IRB Approval Form 176

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Components of Phonology (Armbuster et al., 2006) 20

Table 2. Different Phases of Developmental Education for College Students in 50

the United States (Arendale, 2000)
Table 3. Summary of Reviewed Developmental Education Reform Features 71
(Conforti et al., 2014)
Table 4. Strategies for Overcoming Challenges to Intervention Implementation 74
(Carew et al., 2018)

Table 5. Course of Baseline and Intervention Phases 86

Table 6. Data at a Glance 92

Table 7. Effect Sizes for Fluency, Percentage of Non-overlapping Data 96

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Table 8. Effect Sizes for Comprehension, Percentage of Non-overlapping Data 97

Table 9. Visual Analysis of Data Trend (T), Level (L), Variability (V), Slope
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Determination and Split-line Determination

Table 10. Split-Line Method of Visual Assessment: Favorable (1) or 102

Unfavorable (0) Change After Intervention
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Table 11. Slopes of Words per Minute during Baseline and Intervention 104

Table 12. RPI Scores 112

Table 13. RPI Score Intervals and Corresponding Proficiency Categories 113
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Table 14. Changes in Relative Proficiency across Students 114

Table 15. Paired Sample t-Test Analysis of WJ RPI Score Changes within 115
Subjects

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Relationship of Reading Fluency to Reading Categories (Hudson et 27
al., 2005)

Figure 2. Grade Level (Full) - Upper Tertile Effect Size 107

Figure 3. Grade Level (Full) - Middle Tertile Effect Size 108

Figure 4. Grade Level (Full) - Lower Tertile Effect Size 109

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 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

It is widely understood that reading is a necessary component of education and a

fundamental component of functioning in day-to-day life. Most people learn to read at a

very young age, with the first forays into reading starting as early as preschool (National

Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 1998). According to the

NAEYC (1998),

Learning to read and write is critical to a child’s success in school and later in life.

One of the best predictors of whether a child will function competently in school

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and go on to contribute actively in our increasingly literate society is the level to
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which the child progresses in reading and writing. (p. 30)

Unfortunately, not all individuals obtain a functional reading level by the time they exit
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primary and secondary education. Approximately 21% of individuals in the United States

lack the literacy skills needed to compare and contrast information, make inferences, and

paraphrase what is read (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019).

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Significance of the Problem

The adult literacy rate in the United States is troublesome. Poor reading skills are

an inconvenience for day-to-day life and inhibit one’s ability to find employment that

pays a living wage. Nearly 40% of employers find high school graduates to be deficient

in reading comprehension, while at the same time nearly 70% of employers identify

reading comprehension as critically important for work (National Endowment for the

Arts, 2007). Given the importance of reading, it is reasonable that researchers have

explored the nature of adult literacy education. However, adult literacy education

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research tends to focus on one group: older non-readers over the age of 25 who are

typically out of school or have limited education (Moats, 2020; Sawchuck, 2019;

Southern Regional Education Board, 2005). Given that the majority of college students

are younger adults, research from the area of adult literacy may not apply to college-aged

students. As well, this population will have a different set of experiences and is likely to

be at a more advanced stage of learning. Furthermore, educational resources and curricula

for learning to read focus primarily on elementary-aged learners (Sencibaugh, 2007).

Therefore, a need exists for research in the area of reading intervention/instruction

effectiveness with college students struggling in reading. The current study will focus on

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the effects of a reading intervention on the reading skills of college-aged students who are

enrolled in remedial reading.

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Adult Literacy Education
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Historically, the term adult literacy education applied to adults learning to read

for the first time. Yet the modern interpretation of the term implies remediation; learning

after a point at which most individuals typically would have mastered a skill (Grossen,
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1997). The Adult Education Act of 1964 marked the beginning of the adult literacy

movement in the United States. The act provided funding for state-level education

programs with the intent of educating lower-income adults. The overall goal of the act

was to improve the economic outcomes for the targeted individuals by offering these

individuals means to improve their education (Rose, 1991). The first-year costs of the

Adult Education Act were over $18,000,000, indicating a sufficient belief in the

connection between adult education and the productivity of individuals (National Adult

Education Professional Development Consortium, 1998). Adult literacy since then has

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developed and grown. In some fields, adult literacy education may also incorporate

developmental education, which is the focus of the current research. Developmental

education (DE) refers to the research, policy, and practice intended to improve the

academic abilities of students, particularly college students, whose abilities are not

sufficient to succeed in higher education (Ganga et al., 2018).

The Role of School Psychologists in Adult Literacy

Although the field of school psychology primarily focuses on the areas of primary

and secondary education, it has an existing, if nebulous, relationship with higher

education. Athanasou (2008) noted that there exists a rift between adult literacy education

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and the topic of educational psychology and the related field of school psychology.
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Research, he noted, on adult literacy education rarely includes educational psychology

sources, and in return, educational psychology literature rarely covers adult educational
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literacy topics. The lack of interaction is particularly problematic as the two fields have

much to offer each other. Educational psychologists possess technical skills and abilities

that could greatly benefit practices in adult literacy education (Athanasou, 2008).
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Despite a limited connection in research, school psychologists have demonstrated

an interest in adult literacy education and/or higher education. Fagan and Wise stated that

school psychologists can provide intervention in the form of individual and group

advising for college students (Fagan & Wise, 2007). This is the only mention of college-

level or adult-level assistance offered in their handbook. Other researchers reported that

the advising role is too limiting and that other opportunities exist for school psychologists

to contribute to college-level education. Zavadski et al. (2012) noted that school

psychologists are present in higher education but only provide consultation services for

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students, reflecting the position held by Fagan and Wise (2007). Fagan and Wise (2007)

argued for the use of school psychology techniques and the presence of school

psychology practitioners for educating college-level teachers, thereby expanding the

limited role of school psychologists within the area of higher education. A special issue

of The School Psychologist, a journal published by the American Psychological

Association, addressed the role of the school psychologist in post-secondary education.

Each research article examined a specific area of assistance the school psychologist can

offer; however, these generally break down into two categories: transition services and

research services (Machek, 2017). Transition services refers to the processes of helping

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students successfully leave high school and move into college. The process can involve
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ensuring the student has the proper skill sets, the student is aware of services available to

them, and the student is aware of legal issues regarding disabilities (Machek, 2017). As
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school psychologists are familiar with the particular difficulties facing students and the

legal aspects surrounding education, they are uniquely suited to assist in college

transitions. Researchers have suggested that school psychologists may contribute to

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successful transitions either as part of a dedicated transition team or by directly assisting

students in need (Hengen & Weaver, 2017; Morales & Hagermoser Sanetti, 2017;

Roberts & Roach, 2017; Styck, 2017; Tyre et al., 2017).

Research services refer to the school psychologist performing data collection and

analysis for research that may be beneficial for educational purposes. Although larger

universities will likely already have access to personnel with experience in social science

research, smaller universities may not have any personnel with experience in educational

research. A school psychologist is trained in research and data collection techniques, such

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as classroom observation, and is equipped to aid in academic research completed on

campus (Scott et al., 2018).

What is clear is that there is a place and a reason for school psychologists to

engage in higher education services, and, in many ways, they already do. However, the

school psychologist’s role is limited, and other opportunities exist for school

psychologists to apply their technical knowledge within the mentioned educational

framework. School psychologists possess an understanding of many educational

processes and the techniques to remediate deficiencies in these processes, including the

critically important skill of reading (Scott et al., 2018).

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Statement of Purpose
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The purpose of the study was to investigate the application of an empirically

supported reading fluency intervention in a new population. Most interventions

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documented in the school psychology literature have not been evaluated in college-aged

students who demonstrate difficulties reading. The following sections in the introduction

will briefly outline the theoretical underpinnings of the study, an outline of basic reading
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skills, the typical structure of remedial reading education in colleges and universities, and

the reasoning behind the methods chosen for the current study.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

The theoretical framework for the study conducted was cognitive learning theory.

Prior to the development of cognitive psychology, the prevailing theory regarding reading

was based on a more simplistic behavioral model (Grow, 1996; Shuell, 1986). The

behavioral model assumes that when someone reads, they translate the words they read

into sounds in their mind, listen to what was read, and then understand the context from

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there (Grow, 1996; Shuell, 1986). The model was supported by early 20th-century

behaviorist interpretations of behavior and psychology and essentially argued that

learning was an external process to which the individual passively responded (Dierking,

1991).

We now know the behavioral perspective was incomplete and did not reflect how

individuals actively read, which often involved processing whole sentences

simultaneously and making assumptions about text before it was read. As such, with the

development of a cognitive model for psychology, a similar understanding of learning

was applied to reading (Grow, 1996). The cognitive model, which has its origins with the

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psychologist Jean Piaget, states that individuals are not passive in the process of learning.
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Instead, individuals actively create cognitive schemas and strategies that help define and

understand the world, as well as interpret the information the world presents. Although
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these new cognitive models were more reflective of observations than their behavioral

predecessors were, they were not yet complete. Early models used a stage theory of

development that suggested that learners acquire specific skills in a specific order at
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specific times, each proceeding and enabling the next. However, early models did not

reflect how most learners tend to operate (Dierking, 1991). Dierking (1991) argued that

the cognitive process of learning was too complex to be simplified into a single model

and instead offered a series of potential collective generalizations that described the

major influences on learning. Those generalizations are:

1. Perception is central to the learning process. Individuals need to perceive

something in order to learn something.

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2. Memory is central to the learning process. Learning is a measurable change in

behavior that persists over time, and this learning exists within the memory.

3. Learning is an active process. Learning involves making connections between

ideas, and thus the material is acted upon by the individual.

4. Learning is both a cognitive process and a metacognitive process. Learning

involves application of appropriate metacognitive strategies that make learning

more effective.

5. Development influences the learning process. Individual developmental level

corresponds with bands of what is possible in learning.

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6. The learning process is not always orderly or sequential. Expressing learning
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as a sequential process from one step to the next does not reflect the complexity

of the human condition.

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7. The learning process is strongly influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs, and

experiences. An individual's knowledge, beliefs, and experiences are incredibly

important in shaping what a person will learn.

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8. Learning occurs in a physical and social context. Our learning about the world

is dependent not just on the information we see, but on the context in which it is

learned.

9. Motivation strongly influences learning. Choices we make regarding learning

and persistence in learning affect the ability to learn.

10. People learn in different ways. Most models of intelligence involve numerous

components, and these components suggest that people have varying strengths

and weaknesses in the skills they use to learn new information.

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 Research has consistently identified that internal constructs and their interaction

with the environment are the foundation of learning (Dierking, 1991; Shuell, 1986).

These generalizations do not define reading and learning but instead describe their nature.

Shuell (1986) offers a more concrete definition of learning. Based on the literature, he

breaks down learning into three core components:

1. Learning involves a change in an individual’s ability to do something.

2. Learning requires a stipulation that this change must come from some sort of

practice or experience.

3. There is the necessary stipulation that the change is an enduring one.

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The understanding of reading is based on the cognitive theory of learning.
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Additionally, it is well-understood that reading is a deeply individualized task, with

individuals having widely different levels of skill and ability (E. Smith & Winterhalder,
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2006). Therefore, it can safely be presumed that reading is a complex, multifaceted

process and that its foundations are rooted in an understanding of the cognitive theories

of psychology.
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Brief Overview of Reading Skills

There are many skills and abilities associated with reading proficiently, and

mastery of reading requires competency in each of these skills. The following paragraphs

contain a brief overview of reading, beginning with oral language and followed by five

key components of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and

comprehension (National Institute of Child Health and Development, 2000; Pinnel,

2008).

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Oral Language

Oral language is a foundational skill in reading. The basic components of oral

language are the connection between letters and the sounds they make (individual letter-

sound correspondences), the order in which the letters are meaningfully arranged

(sequencing), and their pronunciations. The basic components of oral language represent

the core of all languages, and if adequately acquired, they aid readers in successfully

navigating early literacy experiences (Connely et al., 2001). The fundamental rules of

oral language are important, yet these rules may not be taught explicitly. Spoken

language predates reading and the formal characteristics of language. For many,

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acquiring oral language skills is easy. In fact, most people learn to speak, and some even
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read, without formal instruction. However, not all children properly develop these skills,

which may inhibit later reading development (Connely et al., 2001). Children may not
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develop oral language skills for various reasons, such as lack of interaction and

experience, failure to learn syntactic forms, or physiological concerns (Genishi, 1998).

Phonemic Awareness
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Phonemic awareness refers to the ability to hear, understand, and manipulate the

sounds of spoken language, as well as the understanding that language and words are

composed of these individual sounds arranged in meaningful ways (University of Oregon

Center on Teaching and Learning, 2009; Yopp, 1992). As an example, phonemic

awareness would be the ability to recognize that the word sound is composed of the

specific sounds sss oww nn and d and that these are many of the same sounds as in the

word round. Being able to identify these specific sounds is critical to connecting with the

idea that specific words generate these specific sounds (Yopp, 1992).

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Phonics

Phonics refers to the process of teaching the connection between written letters

with sounds and meaningful concepts. Research has demonstrated numerous benefits to

phonics instruction, including its positive effects on improving reading ability in low-

literacy students, its superiority to non-phonics instruction for improving literacy, and its

superiority in improving encoding and decoding versus non-phonics education (Ehri et

al., 2001; Hammill & Swanson, 2006; Juel & Minden-Cupp, 2000). It is presumed that

improving phonics abilities would then improve overall reading. Decoding strategies, for

which phonemic awareness is a necessary component, are another element of effective

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reading instruction (Beck & Juel, 1995).

Vocabulary
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Vocabulary is a general term referring to the sum of word knowledge, including
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formal, informal, and technical words used by an individual or group (Williamson, 2014).

Vocabulary has a well-understood connection with our ability to comprehend text. The

more words that a reader understands, the easier it is for the reader to understand what
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they are reading. Additionally, individuals with broad vocabularies are more likely to

read actively, further improving their comprehension skills (Joshi, 2005).

Fluency

Fluency is described as a reader’s ability to effectively engage with the text.

Fluency refers to how quickly and accurately an individual can read. Fluency skills,

together with the other basic reading skills in this section, are necessary to become a

proficient reader. However, the end goal of reading is to be able to understand and

remember what is read, a skill referred to as comprehension. Although comprehension is

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a significant concept within reading, it is simply one component of the act of reading.

Solving the issue of poor reading requires an understanding of adult literacy, its context

within college education, and the skills one must acquire to become a proficient reader

(McKee, 2012).

Comprehension

Reading is the ability of readers to understand text, to interpret the information

and context, and draw useful knowledge from what is read (McKee, 2012). This is a task

far more complicated than simply understanding words. The reader must take those

words and form them into meaning using the context of the story being read, and

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understand the intent of the author (McKee, 2012). This necessitates the ability to take
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what is read, break it down, re-organize it, and analyze it. This is a complex and

challenging cognitive skill. Mastering this skill is critical, as it is foundational for

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educational achievement (McKee, 2012).

Developmental Education

Developmental education refers to courses and programs designed to improve the

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reading, writing, or math skills of college students that are deemed insufficiently

developed (Ganga et al., 2018). Some sources indicate that as many as two-thirds of

community college students and as many as 40% of students in four-year programs take

developmental education courses (Ganga et al., 2018; Jaggars & Bickerstaff, 2018;

Visher, 2013). In addition to its pervasive presence among college-attending students,

there is concern about its efficacy. Researchers have found that the effects of

developmental education tend to be moderate and tend to be lost in one or two semesters

(Ganga et al., 2018; Visher, 2013). The reason for this lack of sustained growth seems to

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be a result of a disconnect between the students in need of support and the strategies used

by conventional education. That is, students that would benefit from traditional

educational techniques, like tutoring or advising, would not normally need developmental

education in the first place (Visher, 2013). Because of these concerns, there is a

conversation and a call for reform in developmental education. This is an important

discussion to have, not simply because of the number of students present in

developmental education but also because of the cost of developmental education: as

much as $7 billion a year to colleges and universities (Ganga et al., 2018; Visher, 2013).

In addition, racial imbalances in developmental education compound the need for reform.

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Black and Hispanic students are disproportionately identified for developmental

education (Ganga et al., 2018).

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The Center for the Analysis of Postsecondary Readiness has proposed two
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immediate changes to existing developmental courses. First, placement tests are

insufficient, as they over place students within developmental education courses. Thus,

placement procedures need changes. Second, students often fail to complete

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developmental courses after placement (Ganga et al., 2018). Therefore, retention of

students is a needed area of study and policies should reflect current research.

Fortunately, several lateral strategies for approaching developmental education have been

proposed that show promise. In particular are acceleration-based strategies. Acceleration-

based strategies are designed to decrease how long it takes to complete developmental

education courses without reducing the number of classes while increasing the relevance

of course material for non-developmental education courses (Ganga et al., 2018; Visher,

2013). Unfortunately, implementing these strategies is not a simple task. When done

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properly, developmental education reform should be thorough and comprehensive, which

often proves to be expensive (Visher, 2013). In 2013, the Manpower Demonstration

Research Corporation, or MDRC, a research corporation dedicated to discovering

solutions to educational and economic problems, recommend ed that further data be

collected on instruction and other interactions that occur in the developmental education

classroom, to better understand what is happening and guide future solutions, for which

future research has followed (Visher, 2013).

Goldwasser et al. (2017), in their meta-analysis of developmental education

research and procedures, explored best practice in developmental education. They

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concluded there is no single, universal developmental education model or method, and
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different models and strategies may be more effective for different circumstances

(Goldwasser et al., 2017). Instead, the focus of the research was based on what were the
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most effective strategies for vetting the various developmental education programs that

are available. They offered a list of twenty best practices, based on the evidence

collected, that are organized into three categories: best practices in cost, best practices in
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structure, and best practices in placement. These categories could be summarized as the

following: keep costs reasonable and marginal, keep your developmental education

practices centralized and organized, and use adequate placement assessment techniques

to put students where they need to be (Goldwasser et al., 2017). The qualities of the

Repeated Readings intervention which is used in the current research reflect the nature of

these recommendations, particularly the emphasis on cost and simplicity, and suggest that

it would fall under the category of best practice for developmental education strategies.

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 In October 2022, Bickerstaff et al. of the Community College Research Center

published a white paper of the five principles for reforming developmental education

based on published studies from 2010 until 2022. In this summary, the group expanded

on past research and stressed the importance of allowing students to take college-level

courses their first semester, of providing targeted and tiered supports to address students’

academic and non academic needs, of employing real-life application of literacy and

numeracy practice and student-centered pedagogy, of designing equity-minded screening

and instructional practices, and of the application of long-term, effective supports for

students throughout their post-secondary careers (Bickerstaff et al., 2022).

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Reasoning Behind the Methods Chosen
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This study’s methods were chosen to be minimally invasive, concise, and reflect

the ordinary experiences of the participants. When considering what reading intervention
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to use with college-aged students, it is important to recognize that reading interventions

must both be research-based as well as palatable to students. Repeated Readings, as is

established later in this paper, is a research-supported reading intervention shown to

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produce positive results in students’ reading fluency (Strictland et al., 2013; Therrien,

2004). In addition, Repeated Readings demands very little in terms of time and effort on

the part of the student. Most importantly, Repeated Readings is a conceptually easy idea;

it does not require students to read lower-level reading material or require a lot of

attention from the administrator, which may make it more palatable to the participant.

This reading intervention involves two participants reading a specified passage aloud to

each other, practicing the passage by reading it again after reading, and offering feedback

and correction to the other student.

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