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The foundation of the new system was laid by Thorstein Veblen with the publication of
his book The Theory of Leisure Class , and another book Instinct of Workmanship.
The GD provided a favourable atmosphere for the development of institutionalism as
an academic movement and a tool of public policy.
The Institutionalists criticized the rational self-interest approach of classical economists
and emphasized the importance of human instincts and habits in moulding economic
activities.
The stress is, therefore, on man-made institutions and institutional environments.
INSTITUTIONALISM vs CLASSICISM
Institutionalism has been essentially a movement against the classical and neo-classical
approaches.
According to classical and neo-classical writers, economic activities are governed by
economic laws.
As against this view, the Institutionalists hold that economic activities are governed by
institutions, instincts and habits.
Davenport says that “ Institutions are a working consensus of human thought or habits,
a generally established attitude of mind and a generally adopted custom of action as,
for eg, private property, inheritance, government taxation, competition and credit”.
The classical economists believed that human actions are always guided by rational,
enlightened self-interest and, therefore, economic activities/institutions automatically
get adjusted with each other.
Instincts and habits have been assigned no place in the classical analysis.
Nature was considered to be superior to man and man made institutions were under-
valued in comparison to the laws of nature.
Institutionalism primarily aims at social reform.
In contrast to the concept of static equilibrium of the classical writers, Institutionalists
believe in an all out effort towards a planned evolutionary rearrangement of economic
life.
Contrary to the classical thought, Institutionalists recognize the existence of
maladjustments and advocate their correction by deliberate efforts.
Institutionalists are not mere theorists, they are reformers.
Unlike Marxists, they do not believe in the destruction of Capitalism but in eradicating
its evils.
Heterodox economists attack primarily the assumptions made, particularly the idea that
economic agents are in some way calculative, since they are assumed to have a bounded
rationality, and that they tend to find solutions that minimize costs.
Mainstream economists criticize the lack of mathematical models to support the
reasoning and contribute to testable predictions.
ISSUES:
Any representation of the progress of scientific activity depends primarily on 3
factors:
Theory: It is defined as a set of questions and concepts to answer these questions
Models: Tools rooted in theory and designed to generate predictions about a
class of phenomena
Tests: This involves measurements , to determine whether facts behave
according to predictions.
THEORISING:
One central characteristic of New Institutional Economics is that it is based on a
small set of concepts that are logically coherent and provides powerful tools to
understand a large set of facts and relationships among these facts.
Insofar as posing relevant questions and providing a pool of resources for
addressing these questions are keys to building theory, then New Institutional
Economics is well on its way.
Transactions and their related costs are at the core of the theory and constitute
the force that unifies the subfields that have developed.
Coase theorem - (The Coase Theorem argues that under the right conditions
parties to a dispute over property rights will be able to negotiate an
economically optimal solution, regardless of the initial distribution of the
property rights, In the real world, it is rare that perfect economic conditions
exist, making the Coase Theorem better suited to explaining why inefficiencies
exist as opposed to a way to resolve disputes.) rightly emphasized the
importance of transactions and their centrality in the research program promoted
by neo-institutionalists.
Without transactions and their relevant organizations, it would be impossible to
take advantage of division of labor or of innovative technologies
In that sense, there is a primacy of transactions over conditions of production.
The second key feature of the theory is that organizing transactions involves
costs.
In a world of positive transaction costs, the allocation of resources and the
development of new technologies depend on the prevailing governance
structures, i.e., the modes for organizing transactions, and on the characteristics
of users’ rights, particularly property rights.
This may be why transaction cost economics, another name for New
Institutional Economics that emphasises its analytical core, is often viewed as an
alternative theory.
Note that an alternative theory need not render existing theories obsolete; but
it does “regionalize” them into a more complex scheme, and may restructure
them.
Thanks to Ronald Coase, Douglass North and many others, we have an
increasingly precise identification of the institutions that matter most in the
development of transactions (e.g., the regime of property rights and contract
laws).
MODELLING:
Lack of adequate models is the main critique levelled by mainstream economists
against New Institutional Economics.
Models are necessary intermediaries between the development of a pure theory and
its application to the analysis of empirical facts.
The central core of New Institutional Economics does lack adequate models
Certainly, developing more adequate models is a priority in New Institutional
Economics
Most New Institutionalists are optimistic about the possible contribution of game
theory, in analysing the nature of complex governance structures or economic
behavior.
Another possibility lies in the development of experimental economics
So far, the field seems to have expanded largely in testing rationality hypotheses and
in elaborating complex schemes for resolving the resulting paradoxes.
Further developments may provide new insights better adapted to the understanding
of how institutions actually shape beliefs and choices.
TESTING:
When it comes to empirical testing and analysis, New Institutional Economics is a
“success story”, as noted by Joskow (1991) and emphasized continuously by
Williamson.
Indeed, there have been hundreds of tests of transaction cost economics over the last
two decades.
This is quite paradoxical, if we consider the small number of models available
Availability of data was a major challenge for NIE in the 1980s.
The development of a new theory always requires the collection of new data that will
be adequate for new tests.
New Institutional Economics is no exception and the pioneers of empirical studies
(Anderson, Demsetz, Joskow, Palay, Masten, North and Wallis, and others) had to
build new sets of data from scratch.
A body of evidence for NIE is progressively building but there are 2 major issues.
One is the collection of data, since so much is required both at the micro and
institutional level.
Second is the collection of relevant data relating to the analysis of contracts, for
measuring the degree of specificity of assets involved in transactions, for
determining the degree of uncertainty surrounding transactions etc.
NIE is evolutionary, with rapid changes occurring, and it is progressive.
The building blocks have a cumulative effect, with each part helping to better
understand other parts.
Like any new research program, it confronts difficult methodological issues.
This is because it “de-isolates” questions that were set aside by mainstream
economics ( e.g. the concept of the firm as a governance structure rather than a mere
production function, and the concept that the institutions of exchange have positive
transaction costs).
Another difficulty arises from the search for more realistic assumptions about
economic behavior, which makes model building much more difficult.
MARXIAN ECONOMICS
https://www.economics.utoronto.ca/wwwfiles/archives/munro5/MARXECON.htm
“Workers of the world, UNITE; for you lose nothing but your chains”- Karl Marx
Classicism
Hegelianism
Materialism
Contemporary history
Socialism
Class Struggle
Marx believed that the basic disparity between the evolving powers of
production and outdated institutions would express itself in “class struggle”.
While classical economists believed in the harmony of interest, Marx made
class conflict the dominant feature of social life.
In Marx’s view, “All history is the history of class struggle”.
In ancient times, there was the struggle between the master and the slave.
Under feudalism, it was between the lord and the serf
Under conditions of modern capitalism, the struggle is between the capitalists
and the workers.
The capitalists control the means of production and the workers depend on the
capital for work.
Exploitation is inherent in the capitalist system.
As exploitation increases, the society is polarized into 2 classes- the capitalists
and the proletariat.
In course of time, the conditions will become ripe for the overthrow of
capitalism by the united proletariat.
In fact, capitalist itself will sow the seeds of its destruction.
Concentration of Capital
Marx believed that there was a tendency for capital to be concentrated in large
scale production.
Competition compels the capitalist to cheapen their commodities and this is
done by using capital intensive technology.
Capital would be concentrated in the hands of a few persons and the large
scale units will have superior competitive ability.
Small scale capitalists are now driven out of business and they join the ranks
of the proletariat.
Polarization becomes sharp and the society gets divided into two classes.
Economic Crisis
Cyclical fluctuations in the form of prosperity and depression were inherent in
the capitalist system.
Marx gave 3 reasons for the economic crisis: disproportionality in the level of
production, under consumption & falling rate of profits.
All of the above, mechanization, misery of labourers, falling rate of profit,
crises and concentration of capital, intensified the class struggle.
The laborers would unite into a force capable of revolutionary action.
The capitalists, on the other hand, forced by falling rates of profit and
economic crisis try to exploit labor as much as possible.
Then comes revolution - overthrowing the capitalists using force.
UNIT 2
Behavioral Economics
it is a combination of psychology and economics that investigates what happens in
markets in which some of the agents display human limitations and complications. As
can be seen from both given definitions behavioral economics is concerned about the
human aspect in decision making as well as economic issues which are relevant.
The father of behavioral economics - Richard Thaler, the University of Chicago
professor who just won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
Combines insights from psychology, judgment, and decision making, and economics
to generate a more accurate understanding of human behavior.
Explores why people make irrational decisions, and why and how their behavior does
not follow the predictions of economic models.
Because humans are emotional and easily distracted beings, they make decisions that
are not in their self-interest and are not the result of careful deliberation.
According to BE, people are not always
self-interested,
benefits maximizing,
costs minimizing individuals,
with stable preferences.
Prospect/Loss-Aversion Theory
Prospect theory was first introduced in 1979 by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman.
If two choices are put before an individual, both equal, with one presented in terms of
potential gains and the other in terms of possible losses, the former option will be chosen.
The underlying explanation for an individual’s behavior is that because the choices are
independent and singular, the probability of a gain or a loss is reasonably assumed as being
50/50 instead of the probability that is actually presented. Essentially, the probability of a
gain is generally perceived as greater.
The certainty effect leads to individuals avoiding risk when there is a prospect of a sure gain.
It also contributes to individuals seeking risk when one of their options is a sure loss.
The isolation effect occurs when people have presented two options with the same outcome,
but different routes to the outcome. In this case, people are likely to cancel out similar
information to lighten the cognitive load, and their conclusions will vary depending on how
the options are framed.
The prospect theory is part of behavioral economics, suggesting investors chose perceived
gains because losses cause a greater emotional impact.
Example -> A = Rs. 50; B = Rs. 100 – Rs. 50 = Rs. 50 => People would choose option A.
The pain of loss > The happiness of gain.
Prospect Theory: An Overview
Mental Accounting
The concept was first named by Richard Thaler.
Mental accounting refers to the different values a person places on the same amount
of money, based on subjective criteria, often with detrimental results.
Individuals should treat money as perfectly fungible when they allocate among
different accounts. (Money is fungible).
Thaler observed that people frequently violate the fungibility principle.
Ex. Tax Refund is mostly treated as a gift rather than something that they already owed, and
therefore people choose to spend it in a careless way.
Dual-system Theory
This is a concept that individuals have two different sets of decision-making processes.
Firstly, impulsive, fast, emotional and acts without thinking – but relies on heuristics
and past knowledge/experience.
Secondly, a more cognitive, deliberate, thinking process which can take in a greater
range of data than just our own experience.
Daniel Kahneman - “Jumping to conclusions is efficient if the conclusions are likely to be
correct and the costs of an occasional mistake acceptable. Jumping to conclusions is risky
when the situation is unfamiliar, the stakes are high and there is no time to collect more
information”
Thinking fast and slow: For important purchases and decisions, it may be important to
make sure we engage both aspects of our decision-making process.
Inherent optimism bias: Kahneman notes that our quick decision-making mind often
bases its decisions on past experiences. Weighing up the costs and benefits will lead
to different decision making than relying on the non-thinking aspect. Ex. The
optimistic mind thinks accidents can’t happen to us as it didn’t happen earlier.
Government nudges: Given that consumers may purchase expensive products under
impulse purchase, many have a mandatory cooling off period where a consumer can
change his/her mind.
Nudge Theory
Any aspect of the choice architecture that alters people’s behavior in a predictable way
without forbidding any options or significantly changing their economic incentives. - Thaler
and Sunstein
Proponents of nudge theory suggest that well-placed ‘nudges’ can
reduce market failure,
save the government money,
encourage desirable actions,
help increase the efficiency of resource use.
There is a difference between nudging a certain behavior and compelling a certain choice. A
good nudge is:
Transparent, not hiding costs / other options.
Choice is retained.
Good reason to believe that the nudge is warranted.
Example - Putting the fruit at eye level counts as a nudge. Banning junk food does not.
A few practical ways of implementing nudge theory is given below: -
Up-sell: Offering extra options. Example - ‘drinks, extras and deserts’ with meal.
Product placement: Related to ‘choice architecture’ – the idea that if goods are
presented in a different way, it can help ‘nudge’ people’s consumption to the desired
option. Example -school lunches could be carefully monitored to reduce unhealthy
options.
Default options: Setting the desired outcome as the default option.
Save more tomorrow: Economists Richard Thaler and Shlomo Benartzi developed this
program to nudge people into taking private pension plans. It uses the default choice
of enrolling people in a pension scheme, with the added proviso they only start off
making small contributions which will rise with their wages.
Calorie/sugar counts: To discourage unhealthy eating, the amount of sugar can be
included prominently on the packaging. Example - By labelling a muffin as 450
calories.
Use of technology: Technology can be left to make better decisions for people.
Example - the UK behavioral team trialed the use of automated technology, which
was much more successful than educating people about it.
Irrational Decision Making
Irrational means poorly adapted to goals. Rational and nonrational decisions are thought out
with common sense, irrational is not. An irrational decision is a decision that goes against or
counter to logic.
Rationality: Pursuing enlightened self-interest.
When any of these three things are violated, it is an irrational decision.
“… we are not only irrational, but predictably irrational … our irrationality happens the
same way again and again.” — Dan Ariely
Herbert Simon recognized that the individuals mostly do not have complete information and
the mental capacity to process all of the available data.
"Bounded rationality” - Herbert Simon introduced it. The limitation on the ability of
individuals to make entirely rational decisions.
Individuals can make decisions based on heuristics – these are simple efficient rules
of thumb.
It places a check on economic theory which assumes firms and consumers are
perfectly rational.
However, supporters of rational choice theory, assume that if many thousands of
people are making decisions from bounded rationality, then the economic average will
lead to rational behavior, even if not everyone makes ‘perfect decisions.’
Also, supporters of the rational choice theory argue that in many cases, it is rational to
use rules of thumb. Because the rational choice can often be not to worry about
making ‘optimal choice’ but make life easy.
“Satisficing”- According to Simon, individuals don’t make decisions that maximize utility,
but those that best satisfy their decision criteria in the given situation. Simon called this
behavior
Satisficing is a decision-making process that strives for adequate rather than perfect
results.
Satisficing aims to be pragmatic and saves on costs or expenditures.
Customers often select a product that is good enough, rather than perfect, and that's an
example of satisficing.
A limitation of satisficing is that there is no strict definition of an adequate or
acceptable outcome.
Demerit goods: Demerit goods are damaging to individuals, but people continue to consume
– either unaware or ignoring their harmful effects. Example - Heavy drinking.
UNIT 3
Asymmetric Information/Information Failure
Def: When one party in a transaction is in possession of more information than the other.
Often, sellers can take advantage of buyers because asymmetric information as the seller has
more knowledge of the good being sold. The reverse can also be true.
Advantage of AI -
A more desirable healthy market economy: As workers strive to become increasingly
specialized in their chosen fields, they become more productive, and can consequently
provide greater value to workers in other fields.
Disadvantage of AI -
Adverse selection: A phenomenon where an insurance company encounters the
probability of extreme loss due to a risk that was not divulged at the time of a policy's
sale.
Prevention of Frauds: Financial markets often rely on reputation mechanisms. Financial
advisors and fund companies that prove to be the most honest and effective stewards of their
clients' assets tend to gain clients, while dishonest or ineffective agents tend to lose clients,
face legal damages, or both.
Adverse Selection
It is a case where asymmetric information is exploited.
Seller as the more knowledgeable party: A seller may have better information than a buyer
about products and services being offered, putting the buyer at a disadvantage in the
transaction.
Buyer as the more knowledgeable party: In the case of insurance, adverse selection is the
tendency of those in dangerous jobs or high-risk lifestyles to purchase products like life,
health or disability insurance. If the company charges an average price but only high-risk
consumers buy, the company takes a financial loss by paying out more benefits or claims.
In the case of insurance, avoiding adverse selection requires identifying groups of people
more at risk than the general population and charging them more money by raising their
premium.
The lemon Problem: Refers to issues that arise regarding the value of an investment
or product due to asymmetric information possessed by the buyer and the seller.
This theory was put forward in a 1970 research paper titled, “The Market for
'Lemons': Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism”, written by George A.
Akerlof.
Akerlof examined the used car market and illustrated how the asymmetry of
information could cause the market to collapse, getting rid of any opportunity for
profitable exchange and leaving behind only "lemons"(poor products with low
durability).
Akerlof's original example noted that the buyer may be willing to pay no more
than an average price, which they perceive as somewhere between a bargain price
and a premium price. This may appear to offer the buyer some degree of financial
protection, it actually favors the seller, as an average price would still be more if
the buyer knew the car was a lemon.
Ironically, it creates a disadvantage for a premium vehicle seller, since the
potential buyer's resulting fear of getting stuck with a lemon means they will
avoid a premium price for a superior vehicle.
Solutions to lemon problem:
Strong warranties: Akerlof proposed strong warranties as one means of overcoming
any negative consequences of buying a lemon.
Internet: Another solution that Akerlof knew nothing about in 1970 is the explosion
of readily available, widespread information through the Internet.
Lemon Laws: Lemon laws are regulations that attempt to protect consumers in the
event that they purchase a defective vehicle or other consumer products or services
that do not meet their purported quality or usefulness.
Lemon laws have been enacted in every U.S. state and the District of Columbia as
well as at the federal level.
The kinds of goods lemon laws cover and how far consumers are protected
depends on the jurisdiction of the law, but the term "lemon law" originally
referred to defective automobiles that were called lemons.
Lemon laws are generally used to legally hold manufacturers to reasonable
implementation of their warranties.
No lemon law for India. No law compels a vehicle seller to offer warranty to the
buyers.
Moral Hazard
Moral hazard is the risk that a party
has not entered into a contract in good faith, or
has provided misleading information about its assets, liabilities, or credit capacity, or
can take risks without having to suffer consequences.
A moral hazard occurs when one party in a transaction has the opportunity to assume
additional risks that negatively affect the other party. The decision is based not on what is
considered right, but what provides the highest level of benefit, hence the reference to
morality.
Moral hazard is common in
lending industries
insurance industries
employee-employer relationships.
Leading up to the 2008 financial crisis, the willingness of some homeowners to walk away
from a mortgage was a previously unforeseen moral hazard.
When moral hazards in investing lead to financial crises, the demand for stricter government
regulations often increases.
Principal-Agent Problem
The principal-agent problem occurs when a principal delegates an action to another
individual (agent), but
Firstly, the principal does not have full information about how the agent will behave.
Secondly, the interests of the principal diverge from that of the agent, I.e., the agent
does not share the same interest in maximizing profits as the principal.
Requirements of principal-agent problem: -
Multiple actors who have a different set of objectives.
Asymmetric information (the agent having more information than principle).
Examples of principal-agent problem: -
Shareholders and managers of a company.
Landlord and tenant.
Sub-contracting essay. (A lazy student paid a random stranger to write a dissertation.
Apart from being cheating, the person writing the essay in anonymity has not the
same motivation and may not care about the quality.)
Costs of Principal-Agent Problem: -
Agency costs: Due to information asymmetries, principals may be unaware of how
much a contract has been fulfilled or to enter into a contract at all for the fear that they
will not know what is going on.
Inefficiency: It enables agents to produce sub-optimal work.
Cost of monitoring/incentives: The principal will have to spend money on monitoring
and providing incentives for workers to avoid this.
“However, it is generally impossible for the principal or the agent at zero cost to ensure that
the agent will make optimal decisions from the principal’s viewpoint.” - Jensen and Meckling
(1976)
Overcoming this problem: -
Tipping: Waiters who rely on tips for pay will have their interests more aligned with
owners (principals).
Performance Related Pay: Giving agents an incentive to work hard by proper
implementation.
Different workplace environment: A management structure which encourages
independence and workers taking responsibility for work can be more effective than
crude pay bonuses.
Game Theory
Game study is the study of strategic interaction where one player’s decision depends on what
the other player does. What the opponent does also depends upon what he thinks the first
player will do.
All models of game theory only work if the players involved are "rational agents".
Prisoner’s Dilemma
Here, both parties choose to protect themselves at the expense of the other. As a result, both
participants find themselves in a worse state than if they had cooperated with each other in
the decision-making process. This is a situation where individual decision makers always
have an incentive to choose in a way that creates a less than optimal outcome for the
individuals as a group.
Nash Equilibrium
Nash Equilibrium is:
1. a stable state of a system
2. that involves several interacting participants
3. in which no participant can gain by a change of strategy
4. as long as all the other participants remain unchanged.
It was introduced by John Forbes Nash, Jr. in 1950 and was republished in 1952.
No actor has an incentive to change from their chosen strategy, taking all factors
constant.
Players in this outcome must consider the affairs of the other. The alternative leaves
either of the players in a lesser preferred state.
The primary limitation of the Nash equilibrium is that it requires an individual to
know their opponent's strategy.
Dominant Strategy
The dominant strategy in game theory refers to a situation where one player has a superior
tactic regardless of how the other players act.
The Nash Equilibrium is an optimal state of the game, where each opponent makes optimal
moves while considering the other player’s optimal strategies.
There are four probable outcomes in game theory – the strict dominant, the weak dominant,
the equivalent, and the intrusive.
A Nash equilibrium describes the optimal state of the game where both players make optimal
moves but now consider the moves of their opponent.
Pollution Permits
Pollution permits involve giving firms a legal right to pollute a certain amount. Ex -
100 units of Carbon Dioxide per year.
If the firm produces less pollution, it can sell its pollution permits to other firms.
However, if it produces more pollution it has to buy permits from other firms or the
government.
This creates a market for pollution permits with the price set by demand and supply.
The aim:
to provide market incentives for firms to reduce pollution and reduce the external
costs associated with it.
to make the price of pollution permits as close as possible to the social marginal cost.
a way for the government to raise revenue by selling firms these permits.
HAS A BUNCH OF GRAPHS LIKE I’M DEAD💩
Pollution permits and social efficiency
If firms produce carbon as a side-effect of production - negative externality. (the social
marginal cost of the polluting industry > private marginal cost).
In a free market, we get over-production of pollution and social inefficiency.
Property Rights
Property rights define the theoretical and legal ownership (by individuals, businesses, and
governments) of resources (tangible or intangible) and how they can be used.
They are:
secured by laws that are clearly defined and enforced by the state.
define ownership and any associated benefits that come with holding the property.
generally owned by individuals or a small group of people.
can be extended by using patents and copyrights to protect:
Scarce physical resources such as houses, cars, etc.
Non-human creatures like dogs, cats, etc.
Intellectual property such as inventions, ideas, etc.
give the owner or right holder the ability to do with the property including
holding on to it,
selling or renting it out for profit,
transferring it to another party.
Excludability
Property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it
Excludable: MOS rice burgers, Wi-Fi access
Not excludable: radio signals, national defense
Rivalry in consumption
Property of a good whereby one person’s use diminishes other people’s use
Rival: MOS rice burgers
Not rival: An MP3 file of David Tao’s latest single
Public Goods
Def: A commodity or service that is made available to all members of a society.
Must be non-rivalrous and non-excludable.
Typically, these services are administered by governments.
Are paid for collectively through taxation.
Free rider: -
Person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it.
The free-rider problem: - Prevents the private market from supplying the
goods (leading to Market failure).
Ex - People who do not pay taxes, for example, are essentially taking a "free
ride" on revenues provided by those who do pay them.
The opposite of a public good is a private good.
“Quasi-public” goods: -
Not fully non-rivalrous and non-excludable.
Although they are made available to all, their value can diminish as more people use
them.
Ex - the post office (using it does require some nominal costs, such as paying for
postage.)
Ex - a country’s road system (their value decline when they become congested during
rush hour.)
Common Resource/ Open-Access Resource
Def: A common resource (or the "commons") is any scarce resource that provides
users with tangible benefits but which nobody in particular owns or has exclusive
claim to.
A major concern is overconsumption, under-investment, and ultimately depletion in
long-term. (Tragedy of commons)
Generally, the resource of interest is easily available to all individuals.
Tragedy of Commons
Although technically created by Garrett Hardin, 'the tragedy of the commons,'
originated with Adam Smith.
Due to interplay of individuals and private economic agents exploiting scarce and
rival common resources (environmental) for their own rational, self-interested
purposes
leading to over-production and, ultimately, the possibility of an irreversible depletion
of them.
As consumers do not own common goods, they have little incentive to preserve or
multiply them, but rather to extract maximum personal utility or benefit while you
still can.
Happens especially when there are poor social-management systems in place to
protect the core resources.
Proves that 'invisible hand' doesn't always reach for self-interested, rational actions to
socially optimal outcomes.
1. Regulatory Solutions
Direct Control: Top-down government regulation or direct control of a common-pool
resource by regulating consumption and use, or legally excluding some individuals.
Ex - setting limits on how many cattle may be grazed or issuing fish catch
quotas.
Tend to suffer from the well-known rent-seeking, principal-agent, and
knowledge problems that are inherent in economic central planning and
politically driven processes.
Assigning Private Property Rights: Assigning such over resources to individuals and
effectively converting a common-pool resource into a private good.
Institutionally this depends on developing some mechanism to define and
enforce private property rights.
Technologically it means developing some way to identify, measure, and mark
units or parcels of the common pool resource off into private holdings.
Problem: government forcibly assuming control over a common-pool resource
and then assigning private property rights over the resource to its subjects
based on a sale price or simple political favor.
2. Collective Solutions
It is about co-operative collective action (as described by economists led by Nobelist
Elinor Ostrom.)
By limiting use to local farmers and herders, managing use through practices such as
crop rotation and seasonal grazing, and providing enforceable sanctions against
overuse and abuse of the resource.
Can be useful in situations where technical or natural physical challenges prevent
convenient division of a common-pool resource in to small private parcels.
Often this also involves limiting access to the resource to only those who are parties
to the collective action arrangement, effectively converting a common pool resource
in to a kind of club good.
UNIT 5
Transition Cost
A transaction cost is any cost involved in making an economic transaction other than the
money price that are incurred in trading goods or services.
High transaction costs are very often at the root of externalities, especially in those situations
where the external costs or benefits accrue to very large numbers of third parties.
Internal transactions
Transaction costs still occur within a company, transacting between departments or business
units.
The degree of impact of the three variables that leads to a precise determination of the degree
of monitoring and control needed by senior management: -
1. Asset specificity: amount the manager will personally gain.
2. Certainty: or otherwise of being caught.
3. Frequency: endemic nature of such action within corporate culture
Coarse Theorem
Developed by economist Ronald Coase regarding property rights.
The Coase Theorem is applied when there are conflicting property rights.
Def: The Coase Theorem states that under ideal economic conditions, where there is a
conflict of property rights, the involved parties can bargain or negotiate terms that will
accurately reflect the full costs and underlying values of the property rights at issue,
resulting in the most efficient outcome.
Conditions for it to apply:
competitive markets must be in place
zero transaction(bargaining) costs (information must be free, perfect, and
symmetrical.)
Perfect information.
No market power difference.
Efficient markets for all related goods and production factors.
involved parties do not consider issues such as personal sentiment, social
equity, or other non-economic factors.
Applied to situations where the economic activities of one party impose a cost on or
damage to the property of another party.
Based on the bargaining during process, funds may either be offered to compensate
the damage bearing party or to pay the party inflicting damages to stop that activity.
Real World Application
Because the conditions necessary for the Theorem to apply in real-world
disputes over the distribution of property rights virtually never occur outside
of idealized economic models, its relevance is questionable.
Can be viewed as a prescription and not an explanation to these real-world
shortfalls.
Bounded Rationality
Def: The idea that the cognitive, decision-making capacity of humans cannot be fully
rational because of a number of limits.