Pack: A4

Module 2

Personality
Ms Stephanie Bugeja
Dr. Olivia Galea Seychell
Dott. Mireille Vila
Dr. Miriam Geraldi Gauci
1

Additional
Compulsory
Reading
Book: Simply Psychology
Chapter: 18
Title Personality
2

Cohort 2020-2022 1
 Pack: A4

What is Personality?

“The more or less STABLE, INTERNAL factors that make one

person’s behaviour CONSISTENT from one time to another and
DIFFERENT from the behaviour other people would manifest in
comparable situations”
(Child,1968, p. 83).

Does this view of personality vary across different cultures?

Yes. Studies indicate that the culture we belong to, especially whether it is individualistic or
collectivistic, will have a huge impact on how personality is perceived and the expectations we
have of it.
Collectivistic cultures ‘tend to see people as
Individualistic cultures ‘tend to conceive of
connected with others and embedded in a
people as self-directed and autonomous, and
broader social context – as such, they tend to
they tend to prioritize independence and
emphasize interdependence, family
uniqueness as cultural values’
relationships, and social conformity’
(https://www.psychologicalscience.org; n.d.)
(https://www.psychologicalscience.org; n.d.)

• Personality is stable • Personality is flexible and described according to

• People focus more on the self & on ‘personality social expectations
characteristics (e.g., I am an introvert, I am open to • People describe themselves in terms of social roles
new experiences) (I am a brother, I am a nurse)
4

Cohort 2020-2022 2
 Pack: A4

Personality assessment
Why and how do we assess personality?

Why do we assess people’s personality?

Personality Assessment is a type of specialised knowledge in the psychology

profession that ‘involves the administration, scoring, and interpretation of
empirically supported measures of personality traits and styles in order to:
• Refine clinical diagnoses;
• Structure and inform psychological interventions; and
• Increase the accuracy of behavioral prediction in a variety of contexts and
settings (e.g., clinical, forensic, organizational, educational)’.
(APA.org; n.d.)

Cohort 2020-2022 3
 Pack: A4

Personality assessment tools

» Psychologists have a number of assessment tools at their disposal to study personality.
» These include observations, interviews and clients’ past records (medical, employment or
school). In addition, they often also make use of standardised personality
questionnaires.
» A personality questionnaire is a type of self-report scale. This means that the person
whose personality is being assessed will be reporting first-hand on his/her thoughts,
behaviours and feelings.
This refers to tests that would have been given to a large
representative number of people in order to establish the
meaning of a particular score. ’For example a score of 19 on
a test of extraversion has no meaning on its own but
becomes meaningful if we know they’re only 10% of the
population have such a high score.’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.280)
7

Personality assessment tools cont…

» Sound personality assessments stand the test of reliability and validity. These two
concepts are further explained in Research Methods.
• Reliability refers to the extent to which the personality assessment produces consistent results
across various situations over time
• Validity refers to which a test is truly assessing particular aspects of personality

» There are both advantages and disadvantages associated with these questionnaires:
• Advantage: it is assumed that you are the expert about your own life, thoughts, behaviours
and feelings
• Disadvantage: very often we want to come across as social desirable individuals to appear in a
better light either intentionally (when you want to give a positive impression of you) and
unintentionally (when you are not aware of the ‘bias’ yourself (Paulhus, as cited in Eysenck,
2018)
8

Cohort 2020-2022 4
 Pack: A4

Personality assessment tools cont…

Are human beings really that inclined to make themselves appear social desirable?

In one study using the bogus pipeline technique, participants who thought that they were
attached to a lie detector, described themselves less defensively whilst answering a personality
questionnaire then during a normal condition (Derakshan & Eysenck, as cited in Eysenck 2018,).

A useful and common method for exposing the social desirability bias, is to ‘use a Lie scale
consisting of items were the socially desirable answer is very unlikely to be the honest one (e.g.,
‘do you ever gossip?’; “do you know anyone you really dislike?”). It is assumed that someone
who answers most such questions in the socially desirable direction is faking their responses
(Eysenck, 2018; p.280)
9

Theories of Personality

• Freud’s psychoanalytic approach

• Trait theories
• Social cognitive theory

10

10

Cohort 2020-2022 5
 Pack: A4

Freud’s
psychoanalytic
approach

11

11

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality & the unconscious

The Unconscious, in Freud’s view is like a reservoir of thoughts, wishes, feelings,

memories, that are hidden from awareness because they feel unacceptable.

Personality develops from the efforts of our ego, our rational self, to resolve tension
between our id, based in biological drives, and the superego, society’s rules and
constraints.

The Mind is mostly below the surface of conscious awareness: it is mostly

unconscious

12

Cohort 2020-2022 6
 Pack: A4

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The role of childhood and the importance of parenting

» Although Freud’s psychoanalytic theory places a lot of importance on nature and human
beings’ innate instincts, it also highlights the importance of the environment (nurture),
particularly the impact of the relationship with one’s parents.
» He believed that events that occur in our childhood, especially with our parents, and the
way we interpret them will have a significant impact on who we become as adults: they
form our personality.
» Significant experiences and our interpretations of them will be stored in our
consciousness. The unconscious is the biggest part of our consciousness which, like a
cauldron attempts to relieve that energy when the material inside is ‘bubbling up’. This
Unconscios
usually leads a person to experience anxiety.

13

13

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality

» According to Freud, everyone’s personality is composed of three components: the id, the ego and
the superego. These three components are in constant dynamic relationship.

The id is the part of our personality, driven to satisfy basic biological drives. The sexual
or biological energy resulting from the id is called the libido. The more ‘gratified’ the
libido is, the more pleasure the person feels; the more frustrated the libido is, the more
tension, the person experiences (Greem, Lewis & Willerton, 2015). The id is driven by
the pleasure principle. It is the oldest part of our personality, with us since birth.

Example:
A test is coming up. The id may say something like:
“You’ve been wanting to watch the new season of this series for a long time. Watch it! Don’t study
now”.

14

Cohort 2020-2022 7
 Pack: A4

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality / cont. (1)

The superego develops around the ages of 4 or 5. It is like a conscience, making us feel
bad when we think of or actually disobey social rules. It develops as a result of rules
that parents and significant people teach us, which we later unconsciously adopt as
our own. It also predicts a rigid ideal of our ‘self’ in terms of good behaviour and
punishes us with bad thoughts and feelings when we neglect this ideal. It follows the
morality principle.

Example: The superego would say “you must study all night. You cannot watch anything
until the test it over. Only bad students would waste time”.

15

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality / cont. (2)

The ego develops when we are about 2-years old and we realise that, although we are
autonomous, we have to fit in a social context. This means that we cannot always get
what gives us pleasure. In this way, the ego mediates between the demands of the id
and the pressures of external reality (later becoming the superego). It follows the
reality principle.

Example: The ego would say ‘study now, whilst you have enough energy. Then you
watch an episode whilst you have a break’

16

Cohort 2020-2022 8
 Pack: A4

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The role of defence mechanisms

» Does the ego always manage to strike a balance between the ego and the superego?
No. Sometimes, the ego and superego are too strong for the ego. According to Freud,
when this happens, people experience defence mechanisms.

» Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies, used by the ego, to defend against the
anxiety that someone experiences when the ego does not manage to mediate
successfully between the id and the superego. According to Freud, in such cases, the
individual’s ego develops these strategies that stop him or her from becoming consciously
aware of any thoughts or feelings related to the traumatic situation (Cardwell & Flanagan,
2015).
» There are a number of defence mechanisms. For examples, refer to the additional notes
for this topic.
» Let us take one of them to see how it works…
17

17

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The role of defence mechanisms / cont…

» An example of regression.
» Explanation: ‘retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic
energy remains fixated)’ (Myers, 2013; p.518)
Jane wants to be the centre of
attention all the time. One day she was
sick and her friends went to a party
without her. She unconsciously did not
want them to have fun without her.
The id: Regression:
‘They should stay at Jane starts having a tantrum at
home since I cannot go. home. She starts crying
uncontrollably and holding her
They cannot have fun
breath until she faints.
without me’
The ego: She makes sure that her
Maybe they can tell me friends know that it’s their
what they did and how fault she fainted.
it went
This way, next time they will
But this time, the id think twice before doing
is too strong and something without her
overwhelms the ego
18

18

Cohort 2020-2022 9
 Pack: A4

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: other types of defence mechanisms

Freud believed that we are anxious about our unacceptable wishes and impulses, and
we repress this anxiety with the help of the strategies below.

19

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The psychosexual stages

» According to Freud, psychological development in childhood takes place in a series of

fixed stages, which he calls the psychosexual stages: as a person grows physically certain
areas of their body become important sources of potential frustration, pleasure or both.
» Each stage represents the fixation of libido (sexual drives or instincts) on a different area
of the body.
» People feel shame about these needs and can get fixated at one stage, remaining stuck in
that phase and never resolving the dilemmas of a particular stage.
» Freud considered the first 3 to be crucial for the development of personality.
» If children receive too much or too little gratification in any of these stages, they are at
risk of fixation (arrest in development). Therefore, they may need help.

20

20

Cohort 2020-2022 10
 Pack: A4

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The psychosexual stages / cont (1)

Genital
Latency Stage
Phallic Stage
Anal Stage
Oral Stage
Stage Freud considered the
first 3 to be crucial
for the development of
personality
21

21

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The 1st psychosexual stage – The Oral stage (0-18 mts)

» In the first stage of personality development, gratification is hypothesised to be achieved

primarily through oral activities (the libido is centered in a baby’s mouth).
» At this stage in life everything is oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting and
breast-feeding.
» The baby is believed to get a lot of satisfaction (gratification) from putting all sorts of
things in its mouth to satisfy libido, and thus the demands of the id.
» Freud believed that fixation at the oral stage can stem from weaning that is too early or
too late and that this may result in adult characteristics ranging from overeating or
childlike dependence (late weaning) to the use of “biting” sarcasm (early weaning).

22

22

Cohort 2020-2022 11
 Pack: A4

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The 2nd psychosexual stage – The Anal stage (18mts – 3.5 yrs)
» The second stage of psychosexual development – the child’s ego develops to cope with parental
demands for socially appropriate behaviour.
» Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to full force in potty training.
» The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring
them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego has developed).
» The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all
forms of authority.
» Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates
mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. This is all related to pleasure derived
from holding on to their feces when toddlers.
» The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal
stage. In adulthood the anal expulsive is the person who is disorganized, messy, careless and
rebellious.

23

23

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The 3rd psychosexual stage – The Phallic stage (3.5yrs – 6yrs)

» Both boys and girls begin by loving their mother, because she satisfies their needs, and
by seeing their father as a rival for the mother’s affections.
» Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals: the child becomes aware of
anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the Oedipus complex (in boys) and
the Electra complex (in girls).

24

24

Cohort 2020-2022 12
 Pack: A4

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The Phallic stage - The Oedipus Complex
Freud named the
§ According to Freud, between the ages of 2 and 5 a boy wants to possess
crisis that boys face
during the phallic his mother exclusively and as a result get rid of his father.
stage, Oedipus
complex for the
§ The boy imagines that if his father had to find out about all this, he
legendary king of would cut off the boy’s genitals as punishment for desiring the mother.
Thebes whose murder Thus the boy develops castration anxiety.
of his father and
marriage to his § The boy sets out to resolve his anxiety by imitating, copying and joining
mother form the
dramatic plot of the in masculine dad-type behaviours. This is called identification.
play Oedipus Rex. Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes and
behaviours of another person.
§ By identifying with his father, the boy gets vicarious satisfaction of his
sexual impulses toward the mother. At the same time he represses his
dangerous feeling for her and converts it into tender affection.
§ The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role
and the boy’s Oedipus complex is then said to have been resolved. 25

25

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The Phallic stage - The Electra Complex

In Greek mythology,
Electra was the
§ According to Freud during the phallic stage the girl desires the father,
daughter of the king but realizes that she does not have a penis.
Agamemnon. She
longed for him after § She believes that her lack of a penis is her mother’s fault. As a result
his death and sought her love towards her mother turns to anger and she chooses her
revenge against his
killers -her mother father as a sexual object because he has the penis she wants.
and her mother’s
lover.
§ This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a
boy.
§ The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and
identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role and
displaces her feelings for her father onto other men.

26

26

Cohort 2020-2022 13
 Pack: A4

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The Phallic stage - Conclusion

» Therefore, the phallic stage is resolved through the process of identification, which
involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.
» Freud believed that unresolved conflicts from the phallic stage can lead to many
problems in adulthood, including difficulties in dealing with authority figures and an
inability to maintain a stable love relationship.
» As the phallic stage draws to a close and its conflicts are dealt with by the ego, an
interval of psychological peace occurs - the Latency Period.

27

27

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The 4th psychosexual stage – The Latency stage (6/7 yrs - puberty)

» Latent means hidden. In this stage the libido is dormant.

» During this period, which lasts through childhood, sexual impulses stay in the
background as the child focuses on education, same sex play and the development of
social skills.
» Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latency stage and
sexual energy can be sublimated (defence mechanism) towards school work, hobbies
and friendships.
» Much of the child's energies are channelled into developing new hobbies and acquiring
new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same sex.

‘[an] unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression
and redirected into new, learned behaviors, which indirectly provide some satisfaction for the original drives’
(APA dictionary) 28

28

Cohort 2020-2022 14
 Pack: A4

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:

The 5th psychosexual stage – The Phallic stage (from puberty onward)

» In the genital stage, which begins at about age 12, people begin to love others for
altruistic motives. The driving forces of previous stages are self-oriented.
» Latency is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of
which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship.
» Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure during the
phallic stage.
Gradually as people participate in group activities and prepare for work and marriage they
change into socialised adults
» For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse.

29

29

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: How does it work in practice?

Psychoanalytically-trained psychologists help people in therapy by looking at how

childhood experiences (especially traumatic ones) are having an impact on the client’s
current problems and trying to learn more about the content of their unconscious. They
do this by using the following techniques:
o Free Association (express whatever comes to mind without censoring)
o Dream Analysis (actual content and symbolic elements).
o Projective Techniques (what a person sees in an ambiguous figure reflects his/her
personality).
o Analysis of defense mechanisms

30

30

Cohort 2020-2022 15

Evaluating Freud’s psychoanalytic approach
Strengths
• It is the first comprehensive
psychological theory of human
nature and the first to
demonstrate that some
behvioural problems can be
treated psychologically
• It emphasised the role of
childhood on later life
development
• It identified unconscious
processes as possible motivators
of behaviour
31
Trait theories
32
Cohort 2020-2022
Pack: A4
Weaknesses
• It overemphasised the importance
of childhood sexuality
• There is little research evidence
about the unconscious
• It is based on Western culture – it
may not be relevant to non-
Western communities
31
32
16
 Pack: A4

Trait Theories

» Traits are relatively permanent and identifying characteristics of each of us. They
become evident as we interact with others and with our environment.
» Trait theorists do not assume that some people have trait and others do not; rather, they
propose that all people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a given trait
applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified.
» ‘One of the goals of trait theorists is to provide a comprehensive description that
includes all the major personality traits’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.282).

Can we ever manage to capture all personality traits?

Unfortunately, this is quite difficult. However, a hypothesis developed by Galton in 1884 called
the ‘fundamental lexical hypothesis’, suggests that a ‘significant individual difference, such as a
central personality trait, will be encoded into the natural-language lexicon; that is, there will be a
term to describe it in any or all of the languages of the world’ (APA dictionary).

33

Trait Theories / cont…

» Trait theories place a lot of importance on genetic factors in shaping personality

» Supporters of Trait theories suggest two methods of assessment:
a) Answering questionnaires: the person describes himself/herself by answering according to
his/her attitudes, feelings, and behaviours. This method is very common and is considered
valid and reliable (Eysenck, 2013). At the same time, it is susceptible to the social
desirability bias.
b) Someone else (usually a trained professional such as a psychologist) evaluates the person's
traits either from what he knows about the individuals or from direct observations of
behaviour.
» Trait theories
• are typically less interested in development and with predicting a person's behaviour;
• are interested in the comparison of people, and the degrees to which they vary on
particular traits; and
• do not inherently provide a medium of personality change.
» Let us look at three of the most popular trait theories…

34

Cohort 2020-2022 17
 Pack: A4

The trait theory of

Raymond Cattell

35

35

Cattell’s trait theory

» According to Cattell's research (1949), human personality traits could be summarised in

16 personality factors or main traits.
» He came to this conclusion through an assessment device known as the 16 Personality
Factor Questionnaire (16PF) and by analysing data from report cards of students,
evaluations from employees, etc.,
» He described these 16 traits on a continuum; in other words, everybody has some
degree of every trait, according to Cattell.
» The key to assessment is determining where the individual falls on the continuum.

36

36

Cohort 2020-2022 18
 Pack: A4

Cattell’s trait theory cont…

• The 16PF is very well known and quite a popular assessment of personality.
• However, further investigations about this personality assessment highlight its
limitations, especially the high overlap that exists between the different factors.
• Research has indicated that, in reality, there are only between 7 and 9 personality
factors, rather than the declared 16 (Barrett & Kline, as cited in Eysenck, 2018)

37

37

The trait theories of

Hans J. Eysenck & Jeffrey A. Gray

38

38

Cohort 2020-2022 19
 Pack: A4

Eysenck’s trait theory

» Hans J. Eysenck believed that, rather than

concentrating on a number of personality traits
that overlap between them, it is best to ‘focus on a
small number of uncorrelated or independent
factors entirely separate from each other’
(Eysenck, 2018; p. 284).
» He developed a model of personality based on just
three universal traits. Many of the particular
characteristics of individuals can be seen as a
combination of these factors together.

Source: Eysenck, 2018 39

39

Eysenck’s trait theory – the three universal traits

Introversion
involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention
outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet
and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.
Neuroticism/Emotional Stability
related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s
tendency to become upset, anxious or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to
remain emotionally constant.
Psychoticism
Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be
antisocial, hostile, non empathetic and manipulative.
40

40

Cohort 2020-2022 20
 Pack: A4

• According to Eysenck, our personality is made up of a combination of the factors.

• Psychoticism is not mentioned here as Eysenck developed it later. Research has also
suggested that it is not a major personality trait (Eysenck, 2018). Besides,
researchers believe the name given by Eysenck is not accurate as it seems to be
closer in meaning to anti-social personality disorder than psychotic disorders (Corr,
cited in Eysenck, 2018)

41

41

Eysenck’s trait theory: the way our genes have an impact on our brain chemistry

» Eysenck suggested that most personality differences (60-

80%) are attributable to one’s genetic make-up which, in
turn, has an impact on how our body works and on the
type of chemicals are released and absorbed in the brain
(Eysenck, 2018). He also acknowledged the role of the
environment in how these biological processes are
expressed (nurture).
» He explains that variations in personality are the result of
distinctive levels of arousal of different brain systems.

‘Eysenck proposed that extroversion was caused by variability in cortical arousal, with introverts
characteristically having a higher level of activity in this area than extroverts. He also hypothesized that
neuroticism was determined by individual differences in the limbic system, the part of the human brain
involved in emotion, motivation, and emotional association with memory.’
(Taken from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/trait-perspectives-on-personality) 42

42

Cohort 2020-2022 21
 Pack: A4

Jeffrey A. Gray’s perspective on Eysenck’s trait theory

» Gray studied with Hans Eysenck and developed his theory further. Gray
suggested that part of the brain susceptible to rewards and punishment:
‘trait anxiety (consisting mainly of neuroticism but also including
introversion) is associated with brain systems concerned with susceptibility
to punishment. In contrast, extraversion (especially impulsivity) is
associated with brain systems concerned with susceptibility to reward.’
(Eysenck, 2018; p284)
» Research suggests that Gray’s perspective is a valid one.

43

43

The big five model

by McCrae & Costa

44

44

Cohort 2020-2022 22
 Pack: A4

The Big Five model of personality

» McCrae and Costa expanded Eysenck’s theory further by coming up with a model of
personality with five overarching personality traits:
» The five personality factors are distinct from one another (even though research
suggests that they are also related).
» McCrae and Costa support the idea that the personality factors are related to one’s
genetic make-up.

45

Practical Imaginative
Prefers routine Openness Prefers variety
Conforming Independent

Disorganised Organised
Careless Conscientiousness Careful
Impulsive Disciplined

Retiring Sociable
Sober Extraversion Fun-loving
Reserved Affectionate

Ruthless Soft-hearted
Suspicious Agreeableness Trusting
Uncooperative Helpful

Calm Anxious
Secure Neuroticism Insecure
Self-satisfied Self-pitying

Source: McCrae & Costa, cited in Myers 2013

46

Cohort 2020-2022 23
 Pack: A4

The Big Five model of personality /cont…

» McCrae & Costa found evidence supporting the cross-cultural relevance of this model. Besides,
Gosling and John (1999) also found that ‘the personality dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism,
and agreeableness have been identified in several species’ (Eysenck , 2018; p. 287)
» Each of the factors identified by the Big Five has relevance for society. In order to live
comfortably in a community, degrees of agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness,
extraversion are very helpful. At the same time, high levels of neuroticism (which is not highly
favourable for communal living), is associated with low scores on the other four factors.
» Research also suggests that these factors are predictable of people’s everyday life behaviour. For
example, people who score highly on introversion are more likely to be comfortable using e-mail
rather than face-to-face conversations (Hertel et al., 2008)
» Some of the factors of the Big Five seem to be common amongst people with a mental health
disorder. For example, a study by Kotov et al. (2010), indicated that ‘ patients suffering from a
wide range of mental disorders were high on neuroticism and low on conscientiousness, and also
tended to be low in extraversion’ (Eysenck, 2018; p. 287)
47

47

Evaluating trait theory

Strengths
• Trait theories are based on research
and therefore there is support for the
theory, especially in view of how traits
are related to mental health
• Assessment of personality based on
trait theories can help explain some
behaviour and compatibility between
people (e.g., they can shed light on
why a couple may be experiencing
problems of incompatibility)
Weaknesses
• Traits may change over time. This
means that personality assessments
based on trait theory may be unable to
predict behaviour in the long run.
• Very often, we can identify a trait but
different individuals may express their
trait very differently in their behaviour.
• The cognitive element (and therefore
people’s intentional behaviour) is not
taken into consideration
• Different environments may trigger
different behaviours from people,
notwithstanding their traits. 48

48

Cohort 2020-2022 24
 Pack: A4

Social Cognitive
Theory
Albert Bandura’s theory

49

49

The Social Cognitive Theory

» As a behaviourist, Albert Bandura, agreed that our personality is the product of our
environment, but he also placed a lot of importance on our cognitions: what goes on in our
mind.
» He ‘assumed that personality, behaviour and the environment influence each other in
complex ways. The environment influences our behaviour, but our personality and
behaviour also help to determine the environment’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.288).

Comparison: Trait theories suggests that personality influences behaviour, and some of them also
consider how the environment influences behaviour. But they do not consider other possibilities.

50

Cohort 2020-2022 25
 Pack: A4

The Social Cognitive Theory – The triadic reciprocal model

» Bandura called this the triadic reciprocal model to emphasise how these three elements are
interlinked and therefore influence each other.
» He also stressed the importance of the environment, not simply in terms of our conditioning
or reinforcement as we are growing up (traditional behaviourist view), but also in terms of the
specific situation we find ourselves in.
» Above all, Bandura emphasised the importance of cognition and explained that people’s
perceptions of what they are experiencing may be more significant than the reality of that
experience.
» In fact, he also mentions the importance of self-regulation and how this has an impact on our
behaviour.
» He stated that people do not only learn from experiencing things first-hand but also through
observing whether other people and being rewarded or punished for specific behaviour.
‘The idea that individuals learn to reward and punish themselves internally to regulate their own
behaviour and achieve the desired outcomes’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.290)

51

The Social Cognitive Theory – The role of self-efficacy

» Self-efficacy is ‘Bandura’s term for an individual’s sense of their abilities, of their
capacity to deal with the particular sets of conditions that life puts before them’ (Penguin
dictionary of Psychology, 1995)
» In most cases, the stronger the sense of self-efficacy, the more confident one feels to
deal with a situation and therefore, the more motivated one feels to face it.
Bandura (1994) suggests that there are four sources of self-efficacy:
Previous success in facing issues, especially successes that require effort

Seeing other succeed whilst facing similar issues (vicarious learning)

Social persuasion – others convincing you of your ability to deal with the issue successfully

Reducing the reactions of stress and anxiety when facing a difficult situation

52

Cohort 2020-2022 26
 Pack: A4

The Social Cognitive Theory – Evaluating the role of self-efficacy

» A study (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998) suggests that self-efficacy has a significant impact
on people’s performance. This study found that having a sense of self-efficacy
increased work-performance by 28%.
Interestingly however, the study suggested that ‘self – efficacy was more strongly
associated with high task performance on easy rather then complex tasks, and the
strength of the association was higher in laboratory settings than in more naturalistic
ones’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.289).

Why is this so?

One needs to consider that real-life (naturalistic) tasks requiring high performance are more
complex and less predictable (Eysenck, 2018). This means that the person facing such
issues is usually less equipped with information about how to deal with the task itself.

53

The Social Cognitive Theory – Evaluating the role of self-efficacy cont…

» Another study explored the relationship between self-efficacy and academic

performance. In this case researchers, studied participants over a 5-year
period. The findings indicated that although self-efficacy beliefs were found to
predict subsequent academic performance, past academic achievement
predicted more strongly subsequent self-efficacy beliefs (Eysenck, 2018).
» This suggests that self-efficacy (cognitive element) may be less powerful than
other elements such as previous experience and behaviour, in predicting
performance.
» Other studies in fact indicate that, although self-efficacy may be important in
predicting performance, other identified traits, such as the degree of
conscientiousness and level of intelligence seem to be more pivotal.

54

Cohort 2020-2022 27

Evaluating social cognitive theory
Strengths
• This theory focuses on various
elements that help explain why people
are so different. It does not only focus
on internal but also external factors
that could explain our behaviour.
• By focusing on self-efficacy and self-
regulation, social cognitive theory may
explain the different levels of
motivation people may have towards
adopting healthy lifestyles.
55
Humanism
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
George Kelly
56
Cohort 2020-2022
Pack: A4
Weaknesses
• This theory dismisses the role of
emotional factors in explaining
behaviour and motivation.
• Research suggests that levels of self-
efficacy are related to one’s genetic
make-up. This theory does not take
this into consideration.
• This theory can help explain why
people behave the way they do in
specific situations but, unlike other
theories, it does not explain why some
behaviours are adopted ‘generally’ in
people’s lives.
55
56
28
 Pack: A4

Humanism

» Humanistic theories give prominence to the free will of people: they stress that human
beings have conscious control over their destiny.
» They also stress the overall dignity and worth of human beings and their capacity for self-
actualisation. They also emphasise conscious experience and each individual’s
perception and experience of their world (phenomenology).
» Humanists oppose what they see as pessimism in the psychoanalytic perspective and the
robotic conception of humanity offered by behaviourism.
» They has a more positive perception of human beings and tend to view people as beings
who are creative and growth-oriented.
» Humanism was mainly developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers in the United
States in the 1950s, although George Kelly made useful contributions.

57

The humanistic theory of Abraham Maslow

» In line with the main ideas of humanism, for Abraham Maslow, people are motivated by a
conscious desire for personal growth, not by sexual and aggressive instincts
(psychoanalysis).
» Maslow believed that we are separated from other animals by our capacity for self-
actualisation, or self-initiated striving to become what we believe we are capable of
being.
» He organised human motivational needs into a hierarchy where ‘each level must be
fulfilled [to some degree] before a person can move up to a higher need. Maslow believed
the more basic the need, the more powerfully it is experienced’ (Cardwell & Flanagan,
2015; p.136).
» When human beings reach self-actualization, they are likely to experience peak
experiences: profound moment[s] in a person’s life, an instance when they feel in
harmony with all things, clear, spontaneous, independent and alert’ (Dictionary of
Psychology, 1995).

58

Cohort 2020-2022 29
 Pack: A4

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Self-fulfilment
Growth needs
needs

Psychological
Deficiency needs
needs

Basic needs

59
Adapted from: http://blog.idonethis.com/management-maslows-hierarchy-needs/

59

The humanistic theory of Carl Rogers

» Carl Rogers developed his theory of personality whilst working therapeutically with
people. He emphasized the human being’s capacity for personal growth and
development.
» Rogers saw people as basically good and healthy and saw problems occurring only
because of particular experiences and the negative influence of others.
» He believed that we hurt others or act in antisocial ways only when we are frustrated
in our efforts to develop our potential. He explained that, anxiety often stems from
recognition that we have feelings and desires that are inconsistent with our distorted
self-concept.

60

60

Cohort 2020-2022 30
 Pack: A4

Carl Rogers – The focus on the self

» Carl Rogers developed further the idea of the self-concept and how this can have an
impact on the way we see ourselves and on the way we present ourselves to others.
» He claimed that human beings have two essential needs:
• To be accepted by others unconditionally (unconditional positive regard). This is important
throughout our lives: from childhood to old age.
• Self-worth. This refers to the way we see ourselves as worthy of other people’s acceptance
and positive regard.
Self-worth depends on unconditional positive regard. Feelings of self-worth start developing early
on in childhood and are very much dependent on how older people, especially parents, treat
us.

61

61

Carl Rogers – The focus on the self/cont

» Carl Rogers did not support the idea of laissez-faire parents. He suggested that if children
misbehave, parents should show disapproval for the behaviour but they should not reject
the child or make them feel that they are unworthy of love.
» He believed that when children are treated with unconditional positive regard, they will
grow to have high self-esteem (the degree to which ones values oneself).
» To grow, children also need an environment that provides them with genuineness, and
empathy (grown ups should be able to see the world through their eyes).
» If this is not provided, children will develop conditions of worth, the conditions that they
perceive are important for others and that will allow them to be accepted. This can be
seen more obviously in those of us who can only feel loved and accepted if others agree
with them or complement them.

62

62

Cohort 2020-2022 31
 Pack: A4

Carl Rogers – The idea of Congruence

» According to Carl Rogers, a healthy personality is one where there is congruence between
the perceived self (one’s self image) and the ideal self.

The The closer these two are, the The

perceived
self
The way we think
about ourselves.
Who we perceive
ourselves to be.
more congruent the person
feels and the more ideal
psychologically healthy s/he is. self
The further they are, the more
incongruence is experienced
The way we think
and the more pronounced the
feeling of psychological we should be or
discomfort is. would like to be.

63

63

Humanistic theory: How does it work in practice?

Psychologists using the humanistic approach work with clients to help them discover their
potential and get closer to their self-actualization needs, after dealing with lower level needs.
Similar to what Rogers’ suggested for good parenting, humanistic psychologists try to provide
clients with acceptance (unconditional positive regard) through being genuine and empathic in
their approach.

Rogers also developed the Q-sort method to measure the self-concept. This involves presenting
a client with a pile of cards which contain personal statements (e.g., “I am a friendly person”).
The client is encouraged to decide which statements best describe him/her – self-concept. The
same procedure is used for him/her to describe the ideal self. The gap between the self-concept
and the ideal self is worked out in therapy

64

64

Cohort 2020-2022 32
 Pack: A4

The humanistic theory of George Kelly

» George Kelly’s ideas about personality merged together humanistic and social-cognitive
approaches.
» Similar to Rogers and Maslow, Kelly believed that in order to get to know someone’s
personality, one needs to learn about how s/he understands the world (humanism). At
the same time, Kelly admits that ‘understanding’ requires cognitive processes, or
personal constructs. These are ways or lenses through which people perceive,
understand and predict and control reality (Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 1995).

65

65

The humanistic theory of George Kelly

» ‘Each of an individual’s personal constructs functions like hypothesis, a possible way of

constructing the physical and social environment. They may be altered if conflicting
information is perceived [from the environment] or become fixed and incorporated as
basic aspects of one’s personality’ (Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 1995; p.554)
» Constructs are often polar in that they have opposites, e.g., the construct of good implies
another of bad. Polar constructs create one another: thus 'good' cannot exist without
'bad'.

66

66

Cohort 2020-2022 33
 Pack: A4

Evaluating humanism

Strengths Weaknesses
• Research with adolescents suggests • The concepts utilised by humanists
that when they are brought up with are difficult to study, so research
conditions of worth, they are more about them is lacking
likely to change their behaviour • The positive outlook that human
according to what they think others beings being intrinsically good is
expect of them. This usually has a sometimes questionable
negative impact on their own self- • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or
esteem and mental health Rogers’ idea of conditions of worth
• The hierarchy of needs seems to be may not be transferable notions
relevant on a social level. Poorer across different cultures.
countries are more characterised by
lower level needs.
67

67

The End!

68

68

Cohort 2020-2022 34