Mr.

Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing

ETME 403

There are hundreds of jobs out there that you may be surprised to learn about. When you are
looking for the perfect career for yourself, you should look in unexpected places and consider
various paths so that you can find something truly interesting, such as CNC Machining.

With the increased activity in the American manufacturing industry comes an increase in job
opportunities. Employers are projected to add more than 40,000 jobs for skilled CNC
Machining technicians over the next seven years*, making this a prime time to explore this
exciting, rewarding career path!

What is CNC Machining?

Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) Machining is a method used to perform a wide

range of manufacturing tasks, which are all carried out by computerized devices. With the
help of Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Machining (CAM) in the late
1970s, CNC machines replaced the old-school manual machines.

The new CNC machines were able to be controlled by programming language to carry out a
wider variety of tasks with greater accuracy. These machines also allow for a more automated
control, which improves productivity.

Why is CNC Machining necessary?

CNC machine operators work in a wide variety of fields. People from all different pursuits,
such as hobbyists and even military groups, take advantage of the cost savings accrued by
using CNC machines to turn raw materials into final products. The machines are faster, more
efficient and safer, too.

CNC Computer Numerical Control machines are widely used in manufacturing industry.
Traditional machines such as vertical millers, centre lathes, shaping machines, routers etc....
operated by a trained engineer have, in many cases, been replaced by computer control
machines.

ADVANTAGES
1. CNC machines can be used continuously 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and only
need to be switched off for occasional maintenance.
2. CNC machines are programmed with a design which can then be manufactured
hundreds or even thousands of times. Each manufactured product will be exactly the
same.
3. Less skilled/trained people can operate CNCs unlike manual lathes / milling machines
etc. which need skilled engineers.
4. CNC machines can be updated by improving the software used to drive the machines.
5. Training in the use of CNCs is available through the use of ‘virtual software’. This is
software that allows the operator to practice using the CNC machine on the screen of
a computer. The software is similar to a computer game.
6. CNC machines can be programmed by advanced design software such as
Pro/DESKTOP®, enabling the manufacture of products that cannot be made by
manual machines, even those used by skilled designers / engineers.

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7. Modern design software allows the designer to simulate the manufacture of his/her
idea. There is no need to make a prototype or a model. This saves time and money.
8. One person can supervise many CNC machines as once they are programmed they
can usually be left to work by themselves. Sometimes only the cutting tools need
replacing occasionally.
9. A skilled engineer can make the same component many times. However, if each
component is carefully studied, each one will vary slightly. A CNC machine will
manufacture each component as an exact match.

DISADVANTAGES

1. CNC machines are more expensive than manually operated machines, although costs are
slowly coming down.
2. The CNC machine operator only needs basic training and skills, enough to supervise
several machines. In years gone by, engineers needed years of training to operate centre
lathes, milling machines and other manually operated machines. This means many of the
old skills are been lost.
3. Less workers are required to operate CNC machines compared to manually operated
machines. Investment in CNC machines can lead to unemployment.
4. Many countries no longer teach pupils / students how to use manually operated lathes /
milling machines etc... Pupils / students no longer develop the detailed skills required by
engineers of the past. These include mathematical and engineering skills.

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CNC WORK - AN INTRODUCTION

In Industry it is not efficient or profitable to make everyday products by hand. On a CNC

machine it is possible to make hundreds or even thousands of the same item in a day. First a
design is drawn using design software, then it is processed by the computer and manufactured
using the CNC machine. The machine featured below is the BOXFORD DUET. This is a
small CNC machine and can be used to machine woods, plastics and aluminium. In industry,
CNC machines can be extremely large. The Duet is one of the smaller CNCs and is ideal for
use in schools.

Have a look at the photograph on the right. Can you imagine

how long it would take a skilled worker to ‘carve’ this shape
out of wood or a soft material - it would probably take a full
day. We will be going through its manufacture, one step at a
time using a CNC machine (next page). How long do you
think manufacturing this product with a CNC machine will
take ?

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THE CNC MACHINE

The VICE: This holds the material to be cut or shaped. Material must be held securely
otherwise it may 'fly' out of the vice when the CNC begins to machine. Normally the vice
will be like a clamp that holds the material in the correct position.

The GUARD: The guard protects the person using the CNC. When the CNC is machining the
material small pieces can be 'shoot' off the material at high speed. This could be dangerous if
a piece hit the person operating the machine. The guard completely encloses the the
dangerous areas of the CNC.

The CHUCK: This holds the material that is to be shaped. The material must be placed in it
very carefully so that when the CNC is working the material is not thrown out at high speed.

The MOTOR: The motor is enclosed inside the machine. This is the part that rotates the
chuck at high speed.

The LATHE BED: The base of the machine. Usually a CNC is bolted down so that it cannot
move through the vibration of the machine when it is working.

The CUTTING TOOL: This is usually made from high quality steel and it is the part that
actually cuts the material to be shaped.

1. Draw a small CNC machine and label the most important parts.

2. List the safety factors that people must be aware of before they operate a CNC or similar

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machine.
WHAT DOES CNC MEAN ?

CNC means Computer Numerical Control. This means a computer converts the design
produced by Computer Aided Design software (CAD), into numbers. The numbers can be
considered to be the coordinates of a graph and they control the movement of the cutter. In
this way the computer controls the cutting and shaping of the material.

HOW THE COORDINATES WORK?

The way coordinates are used can

be seen opposite. The X, Y and Z
axis control the movement of the
cutter on a 3D CNC machine.
This allows materials to be
machined in three directions (3D
manufacture).

 The plastic block shown below has been shaped on a CNC machine. It started as a
cube.
 The design (produced on CAD, Computer Aided Design software) has been converted
into coordinates. The cutter is instructed to go from one coordinate to another. A
simple plastic block such as this may have a thousand coordinates.
 For example, point ‘A’ on the plastic block has coordinates 18, 8, 23 (see diagram).
The block is composed of thousands of coordinates and the cutter goes from the first
set of coordinates to the second set to the third set and so on, until it has completed
the thousand coordinates. As the cutter is spinning at high speed, and travels through
all the sets of coordinates, it cuts and shapes the block, as it goes along.

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The animation below shows how the coordinates change as the cutter moves across the block
of material. The 'Z' coordinate does not chnage as the cutter remins at the same height,
despites its movement on the X and Y axis.

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CNC - STAGES IN CNC WORK

HOW TO USE A TYPICAL CNC MACHINE

1. The design is loaded into the computer which is

attached to the CNC machine. The computer
changes the design into a special code (numerical)
that controls the way the CNC cuts and shapes the
material.

2. The material to be shaped is taped on to a block

with double sided tape. This must be done carefully
so that it does not come off the block during
machining.

3. The block is then placed in the vice, inside the

CNC. It must be tightened up carefully. If it is not
secure when the machine starts to cut the material it
can come away from the vice. When the machine
starts working, the vice moves up, down, right and
left according to the design.

4. The guard is placed in position. It protects the

machine operator in case the material is pulled out of
the vice by the power of the cutter. For safety
reasons, if the guard is not in position the motor will
not start.

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5. The CNC is turned on and the shape is cut from

the material. When the cutter has stopped the shaped
material can be removed from the vice. Total time -
for simple designs - 15 minutes.

In your own words and with the help of diagrams, explained the stages involved in the use of
a CNC machine such as the one shown above.

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INDUSTRIALPRODUCTION FLOWCHART AND QUALITY CONTROL

A production flow chart is very important when planning the manufacture of a product.
Although CNC products can be small, quality in manufacture is crucial. Draw a flowchart
similar to the one below. This should explain every stage of the manufacture of a product you
have produced through the use of a CNC machine. Include a number of quality checks.
Quality control is an essential part of any project and at any stage the product may be
rejectedif a fault or inaccuracy is found.

To help you create your production flow chart the stages involved in the manufacture of a
CNC project are listed on the previous page. Also a photograph of the product, with details
are shown below. Remember to include quality control.

CNC PROJECT:

This is a small trophy for a cyclist. The part

manufactured through CNC is the
rectangular clear plastic piece. This has been
engraved using a CNC machine. The trophy
also has an MDF back which has been
coloured to provide scenery and a small
green plastic front shaped to give the
illusion of grass.

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CNC MACHINE - INPUT, PROCESS, OUTPUT

A CNC production facility needs three pieces of equipment:

A Computer:

The computer is used to draw the design. CAD - Computer Aided Design software is used for
this purpose. However, the design is only a picture and the CNC machine cannot use this to
manufacture the product. The computer software must also convert the drawing into numbers
(coordinates) that the CNC machine can use when it starts to cut and shape the material.

An Interface:

A computer cannot be directly connected to a CNC machine. The computer is connected to

an interface. Modern CNC machines have a ‘built in’ or integral interface, which appears part
of the CNC machine. This circuit converts the signals from the computer to a form that the
CNC machine understands. Older CNC machines have a separate ‘box’ called the interface.
The signals are in the form of digital signals when they are sent to the CNC machine.

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Machine:

The signals from the interface control the motors on the CNC machine. The signals determine
the way the vice moves. The vice moves in three directions X, Y and Z. (Horizontally,
vertically and depth). The signals also control the speed of the cutting tool.
The whole process of designing and making an item on the CNC machine can be split into
three aspects INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT. The diagram below explains this system.

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CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOL

(1) Based on the motion type ' Point-to-point & Contouring systems:

There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with them
differ because of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be controlled. They
are known as point-to-point and contouring controls.

Point-to-point systems:

Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the cutter
and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which they must remain
while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines as
shown in figure 22.1 (a) and the control equipment for use with them are known as point-to-
point control equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed. In theses machine tools,
each axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control system, the dimensional information
that must be given to the machine tool will be a series of required position of the two slides.
Servo systems can be used to move the slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until
the cutter has been retracted back.

Contouring systems (Continuous path systems):

Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while
cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc.
and are known as contouring machines as shown in figure 22.1 (b) and the controls required
for their control are known as contouring control.
Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be
uneconomical to use them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring operation
to be performed on it. These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In contouring
machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should be continuously controlled.
The control system must be able to accept information regarding velocities and positions of
the machines slides. Feed rates should be programmed.

(a) Point-to-point system (b) Contouring system

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(c) Contouring systems

(2) Based on the control loops ' Open loop & Closed loop systems

Open loop systems:

Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These
instructions are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the
servo amplifier to energize the servo motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop system
is that there is no feedback system to check whether the program position and velocity has
been achieved. If the system performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity, or
lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired output. For these reasons the
open -loop system is generally used in point-to-point systems where the accuracy
requirements are not critical. Very few continuous-path systems utilize open-loop control.

(a) Open loop control system (b) Closed loop control system

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Figure 22.2 (c) Open loop system

Closed loop systems:

The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct
any discrepancy from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity
feedback. The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog systems measure
the variation of physical variables such as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels.
Digital systems monitor output variations by means of electrical pulses. To control the
dynamic behavior and the final position of the machine slides, a variety of position
transducers are employed. Majority of CNC systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed
loop principle. If a discrepancy is revealed between where the machine element should be
and where it actually is, the sensing device signals the driving unit to make an adjustment,
bringing the movable component to the required location.

Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate because they are capable of
monitoring operating conditions through feedback subsystems and automatically
compensating for any variations in real-time.

(d) Closed loop system

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(3 ) Based on the number of axes ' 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines.

2& 3 axes CNC machines:

CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines. There will be two axes along which
motion takes place. The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the
cross slide moves transversely on the saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will be
one more axis, perpendicular to the above two axes. By the simultaneous control of all the 3
axes, complex surfaces can be machined.

4 & 5 axes CNC machines:

4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-
axis CNC tool path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the
A axis which is rotary tilting of the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.

Fig. Five axes CNC machine

Importance of higher axes machining :

Reduced cycle time by machining complex components using a single setup. In addition to
time savings, improved accuracy can also be achieved as positioning errors between setups
are eliminated.

 Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting the tool to maintain optimum tool to
part contact all the times.
 Improved access to under cuts and deep pockets. By tilting the tool, the tool can be
made normal to the work surface and the errors may be reduced as the major
component of cutting force will be along the tool axis.
 Higher axes machining has been widely used for machining sculptures surfaces in

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aerospace and automobile industry.

Turning centre :

Traditional centre lathes have horizontal beds. The saddle moves longitudinally and the cross
slide moves transversely. Although the tools can be clearly seen, the operator must lean over
the tool post to position them accurately. Concentration of chips may be creating a heat
source and there may be temperature gradients in the machine tool. Keeping the above points
in view, developments in the structure of the turning centers lead to the positioning the saddle
and the cross slide behind the spindle on a slant bed as shown in the figure 22.4. Chips fall
freely because of slant bed configuration which is more ergonomically acceptable from
operator's point of view.

Fig. Slant bed turning centre

(4) Based on the power supply ' Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems:

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to
mechanical power which may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part of
machine tool. The input power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.

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Electric systems:

Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring machines. They
may be either a.c. or d.c. motor and the torque and direction of rotation need to be controlled.
The speed of a d.c. motor can be controlled by varying either the field or the armature supply.
The clutch-controlled motor can either be an a.c. or d.c. motor. They are generally used for
small machine tools because of heat losses in the clutches. Split field motors are the simplest
form of motors and can be controlled in a manner according to the machine tool. These are
small and generally run at high maximum speeds and so require reduction gears of high ratio.
Separately excited motors are used with control systems for driving the slides of large
machine tools.

Hydraulic systems:

These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning and contouring machine tools of all
sizes. These systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic motors are
smaller than electric motors of equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic motors.
The advantage of using hydraulic motors is that they can be very small and have considerable
torque. This means that they may be incorporated in servo systems which require having a
rapid response.

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