> aa A ntRopucrion Sani ‘eat Is an invisible form of energy that can produce the sensation of heat or cold, The property that tes | He. hot or cold a particular body is called its temperature, ie, the degree of hey is ‘away from a body, its temperature decreases, The heat energy can be transformed into other forms Ms | lke electrical, mechanical, ight, etc, by suitable methods, Heat energy can bring about changes in the pra dimensions, state and the chemical properties of a substance, Heat energy can also be defined as i ‘of potential and Kinetic energy of molecules, Temperature can also be defined as the average finedc car of molecules. IA FLOW OF HEAT ENERGY AND THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM We know th ways flows from a higher level to a lower k ‘ee fe know that water always flows from a higher level to a lower level, similarly heat energy is always transferred f a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature till a quilibrium is attained. Hence, heat Tost a body at higher temperature is equal to heat gained by a body at lower temperature. Hence, temperature & a physi quantity which determines the direction of the flow of heat between two bodies. : The flow of heat continues till both the bodies attain the same temperature. This temperature is called equilibrium ne temperature in which there is no net flow of heat energy between thea temperature, The state of two bodies atthe s is called state of thermal equilibrium 8 A Figure 41 Direction of flow of heat energy Table 6.1 Difference between Heat energy and Temperature Heat energy is the cause Temperature is the effect A calorimeter is used to measure heat A thermometer is used to measure energy. temperature. The Si. unit of heat is joule. The S.. unit of temperature is kelvin It is the sum of the potential and the kinetic It is the average kinetic energy of the ‘energy of the molecules of the substance. _ molecules, Heat energy lost by a hot body is equal to The increase in temperature of a cold the heat energy gained by a cold body. body need not be equal to the decrease in temperature of the hot body. Measurement of Temperature A device used to measure temperature is called thermometer. Generally thermometers are based on the principle thal matter expands on heating. For example, the volume of a liquid increases with increase in temperature. Depending 0 type of matter used, we have solid thermometers, liquid thermometers and gaseous thermometers.anna ee Oe Se ete mpc 8s vlan than wae ith lowe temperate, This propery hi inciy Is Cor old thermometer are cot Pd on heat * Me Principle on which a liquid thermometer the Constructed. This property is the principle on which the gas thermometers and arel PHPO'S Wut lid thermamst? OPA the mont on heating, pu thermometers Ae mo sense For Some other propertics dermometers. You wil eure. besmudying about sent ett with an increas in temperature can ako be wsed fo construct Heat energy is measured in offbeat energy required 0 raise the een aoe Of heat energy is defined asthe amount one caloric of heat energy 2 ve ge OF gram of water through 1°C However, e the temperature Of 1 kilogram of: = | Units of Heat: The experim, | tealorie of heat energy. Thus, sults show that 4.2 joules of mechanical work produces Tealorie = 4.2] I kilocalorie = 4200) PAE Coc = sro eat requredtin joe. such at ne amount of eat soumon ———@ required to heat certain amount of water is 8750 cal? Gren heat required by certain amount of water = 8750 cal = 8750 x 4.2 (1 cal = 4.2) = 36750) 0 36.750 Specific Heat Capacity Unit mass of different substances absorb different amounts of heat energy, for unit rise in the temperature. For example, tw mike the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1°C, 4186 J energy is absorbed by it whereas 1 kg of copper absorbs ‘3SJ of heat energy for a rise of 1°C. Thus, the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of unit mass of ferent substances is not equal as it depends on their nature. This energy is called specific heat capacity of a substance. ‘Thus, specific heat capacity of » substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through one degree celsius or one kelvin. The S.L. unit of specific heat capacity is J kg”! K~!. If heat energy is measured in cal or fecal, then the unit of specific heat capacity is given by cal g°! °C“ or kcal kg! "C™!. The heat energy absorbed by a given body increases in direct proportion to its mass (m) and rise in temperature (48). thus, the heat energy absorbed by a given body is given as paws Qa mx sx 38 : : where m is the mass, $ is the specific heat capacity and 8 is rise in temperature. Heat Capacity ‘ is heated, it absorbs certain amount of heat enengy for 1°C rise im is wee Ree eis known ain heat eapecty. Heat copays dented by e. ae moneraeyr= Te body absorb Q calories of heat energy and asa result, et is temperature rise by 40 °C. Then, the heat energy absorbed by the body is (Q/AQ, which by definition is the heat capacity. ‘The Suni of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J K-#) and general unit is cal°C~! oF keal°C-". The heap cry Q absorbed by 2 body is given by Q= m x 5 x A6, Dividing both sides ofthe above equation by AO, we get (2) ae Bus (Q/AQ) by definition isthe heat capacity. Therefore, the heat capacity is given by heat capacity = m x « Heat capacity and specific heat capacity depends upon the mass of a substance pocied apacity are different. Heat capacity dep heat capacity does not depend on mass. Heat capacity is not a fixed quantity. It increases with increase a foe the same material. Specific heat capacity isa fixed quantity fora given material. The specific heat capacity fae common materials ae given below. for ie ope Caco Igt°c Water 7.000 4186 Alcohol 0548 2294 Water is one of ce 0.500 21 the liquids he 30 high specific heat Steam 0.500 2093 capacity, Aluminium 0.214 900 The heat capacity of 80 kg lead is found to be 11.2 KI K". Find its specific Bl TE heat capact, —_— SOLUTION The heat capacity is given by the relation = m x:s, where m is the mass of the substance, sists specific heat capacity We are given that, m = 80 kg, and heat capacity = 11.2 WK"! ‘Substituting these values in the equation for heat capacity, we get 11200 = 80 x 11200 = = 140) kg" K-71 rao g +. The specific heat capacity of lead — Find the specific heat capacity of ice if 1.2 kg of ice absorbs 50.4 W) of betteniidietetiARM heat to raise its temperature from -20°C to °C —aaee SOLUTION Here we use the relation, Q = mx s x A@ ‘Substituting, Q = 50.4 ki = 50400 J 1405 kgo! K-* GAO = 2100) kat KC! mx 12x20tus cata «C4 9) UT env toc mientras eee ‘elation Welyeay Hiei spit Late? gouurion for boaly A, @ = 1 AN) “) po to WOU BO Hy Ay @) pwaing (1) by (2) pecitic heat of A Is less than that of B. this ahwows thal specific heat is inversely py * Advantages of High i ial 40 rive in temnperature The Specific Heat Capacity of Water ihe followings ate iny of water of te high specific heat cap Juni is heated to higher temperature than sea water as i Land Hrewsens During day ti itor The hot air above land vives up and causes decrease in pressure specific heat capacity ts ritieh lose dvan that Hut the presure oF alr ubove sen water te comparatively high as it cooler, Due to this difference in pressure over ring, Hight inte, land Cools faster than sea we it loses heat energy rapidly, in. comparison to sea water, The pressure cover land in called ta Use of Wat icreases and is tore (han pressure of wir aver the wea. ‘The air, thus, starts blowing, from land to sea, which 11 Vomentation is the process in vihich ewollen body parts of patients are maintained ing, from pain gets a lot of relief, F mune, around SOC, By fi fomnentation, hot water is used in bottles sin rei int of heat energy at relatively low ive to high specific heat capacity Water as Goulart: Owing to its high specific heat capacity, water can absorb a large amount of heat energy, without its temperature becoming too high. This property of water makes ita good coolant, Water is used as coolant le engines stich ns cars anid buses, in fin Use of Wat by circulating hot water thr In the Internal Heating of Buildings: In cold countries, the rooms in a building are kept warm wi carry « large amount of heat energy from the Conductors and Insulators of Heat Energy Heat energy passes caily and rapidly through some mater iy wre called yood conductors of heat and the materials throu through which tulle bad conductors of hewt, All metals are good conductors of heat, The specifi pacity of good conductors inductors of heat an {slow ‘The examples of bac otk, paper, mica, et Thermal Expansions in Solids Gevenly, the materlals expand on beating and contract on cooling, This is called thernrval exp sion and contract tepectively, Tliertnal expansion and contraction are sometines advantageous and, at other times, disadvantageous, ‘canbe explained below with the help of exanny Due to thermal expansion, a railway truck would bend, if no gaps are loft beeween two s dlck loves or yains ine due to thermal expansion or contraction of its length, However, the thermal expansion and contruction can be used advantageously as discussed below 1. Hixing » Plat fron Ring to a Wooden Cart Wheel: The iron ring js made such that its diameter is just lees than the diameter of the wooden cart wheel, The flat iron ring is heated to red hot and then carefully slipped on to the cart wheel, On pouring water, it contracts and grips the wooden wheel rightly,REI 2, Riveting: A rivet is nail or bolt used for holding metal plates together firmly, In the construction of ships and boilers, there is a need to fix steel plates firmly, The heated rivet is passed through the holes whieh are made the steel plates, The hot rivet is then hammered to fix it firmly, When itis cooled, it contracts and holds the met plates together more firmly 3, Bimetallic Strip: A bimetallic strip is made up of strips of two different metals joined together by riveting, When it is heated, it bends due to unequal expansions of two metallic strips. On cooling, the bimetallic strip bends inthe opposite direction to that when heated, ‘The bimetallic strips are used in fire mal switehes such as thove used in refrigerators, bimetallic thermometer, etc IA THERMOMETER By touching, we can compare the temperatures of two given bodies but we can not say their exact temperatures, The instrument used to measure temperature accurately is called thermometer. ‘To measure temperature, some property of a substance that changes linearly with it is used. For example, a substance expands on heating, This property of expansion with rise in temperature can be used to measure the temperature. Of the three states of matter, gases expand maximum followed by liquids and solids. Wh of mercury is used to measure the temperature, the thes mometer and is called thermometric liquid. nometer is called mercury the A mercury thermometer consists ofa small cylindrical bulb made of glass and a long, narrow glass tube of uniform aret of cross section attached to it as shown in the Figure 6,2. ‘Figure 6.2. Calibration of a mercury thermometer in Celsius and Fahrenheit The bulb and certain length of the glass tube is the filled with mercury and the remaining part of the tube is evacuated and closed at the other end. The glass tube (also called stem) is calibrated according to suit able temperature seale, When the mercury in the bulb expands, the level of mercury in the glass tube rises, Types of Temperature Scales ‘The temperatures of certain substances are arbitrarily chosen as standard temperatures and a temperature scale is made, FoF example, in Celsius seale of temperature, the standard temperatures taken are meting point of ice asthe lower fixed poi (LEP) and boiling point of pure water as the upper fixed point (UFP), The temperature on Celsius scale is called dogeee celsius (°C). The temperature at lower fixed point is asigned the value 0°C and the temperature at upper fixed point © assigned 100°C. The distance between 0°C and 100°C on the thermometer is divided into 100 equal parts, I part corresponds to 1°C. and upper fixed point (UFP) is taken as boiling point of water which is assigned the value 212° The distance betwee® lower and upper fixed points on the thermometer is divided into 180 equal parts, Each equal part correspond to 1R—ee e EE—————————_—_£— n of Celsius Thermometer ha thin walled glass bulb at one end, Through samometer tube is a thick walled gls capillary with a d nomen A terme led with the help ofa funnel, Whale filling the tube with merc the glass bulb is placed in a hot oil bath ery © escapes in the form of bubbles. jtely filled with mercury afier that the bulb is cooled. constructio! | | | so that the bulb, and the tube are compl i removed and the open end is closed and some mercury also stands in the tube, Now the funnel Funnel Glass stom capitary tube Mercury J —§atass bud Figure 64 Celsius thermometer construction Marking of Fixed Points ‘fomark lower fixed point (LFP), the bulb of the thermometer the figure 6.4 is immersed in melting ice, taken in a funnel as shown in |—thormometer Molting point of ie ron stand |—Beaker Figure 6.4 Experimental arrangement to mark the fixed points of a thermometer -e, mercury in the bulb contracts and its level falls. The level of mercury is monitored Due to low temperature of ic 1, which is fora few minutes and when it remains steady, a mark of 0°C is made on the stem against the mercury level thelover fixed point. To mark the upper fixed point (FP), the thermometer bulb is held in a special instrument called ea wr such that the bulb is maintained at the boiling point of water, and does not touch water as shown in the We 65, Inthe hypsometer, pure water is boiled at standard pressure and the steam formed by the boiling water is used to ‘ie the temperature of the bulb. The mercury in the bulb expands and its level in the glass capillary rises, When thelvel remains steady fora few minutes, a mark of 100°C is made against the mercury level, which isthe upper bed point (UFP).<> oe The distance between 0°C and 100°C on the thermometer is divided into 100 equal parts. The ready for use. WILLE (Faure) Hypsometer ‘To measure the temperature of a soli i, the bulb of the thermometer is brought in contact with the solid. The of aliquid is measured by immersing the bulb in the liquid. Depending on the temperature of a substance, the mercury in the thermometer may rise or fall. When the mercury level remains steady, the marking on the stem mercury level gives the temperature of the substance. Bot soy forupratite scale the ratio! RE20E “LF emains constant. This fact can be sed vo convert thi UFP- LEP im one scale to another scale. The above equation can be used to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit scale. C-0 _ F-32 100-0 212-32 In case the temperature is measured with a faulty scale the following relation can be used to find the come temperature, 2 ( S-LFP | = ie UEP re a on iS = aoe - ‘At what temperature on the Fabrenheit scale is the reading five times the Bi MAAR reading on the Celsius scale? — SOLUTION Use the relation X_5x~32 ore 9x = 25x- 160 16x = 160=>x= oa = 10°C oe ‘The temperature in Fahrenheit scale is 5x = 5 x 10 = 50% :Pe ce and upper fixed points of a faulty thermometer are -2°C 2G, Teanecvey IF thettver omen reac SC°C on fi ter tee f n this thermometer, find the correct temperature on the celsius scale. aa SOLUTION ye relation to be used is -LFP ) (eeu? erect scale (e LEP. ) =( s-0 ) 50-(-2) UFP=LFP Jiasnysate (100-0) 102-(-2) 5 _ 52 00” 108 Clinical Thermometer 0 doctors use a special human body temperature Jinical thermometer. The sca ‘4 from 95°F to 110°E The normal human To measure Capitan tube — thermometer, called cl in clinical thermometer is marke ody temperature which is 98.4°F is marked with a red arrow Tianguiar stem —e] |} tose There is a constriction near the bulb thread to flow back into the bulb aa This prevents the mercury so that the doctor can read the temperature accurately at his Normal temperature _| fil en ave To take the next reading the thermometer is cof human body convenience so that the mercury in the tube falls back into the given a jerk bulb. Constition the thermometer is not placed in boiling water For sterilizing, de of thin glass. Instead beause the bulb may break as it is ma¢ fomaldchyde, which is a liquid, is used for sterilization Figuré’68! Clinical thermometer with its constriction Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer t consists ofa cylindrical Jy and B partially. The U hown by two light the maximum and minimum temperature of the day. I Bulb A is filled with alcohol complete :ximum and minimum temperature iss This thermometer automatically records anda spherical glass bulbs A and B conne tube is filled with mercury, as shown in the figure. eight dumbbell-shaped iron indices, Imax a4 Inin .cted by U tube The day’s m As the day’ n by means of small springs up but Inia Id in position pushes the index Ine uch the mercury surface and are he Jownward. This F Both the indices to temperature rises, the alcohol in A expands, pushing the mercury d remain unaffected Later in the day when temperature falls, the alcohol in A contracts and the index Inia # pushed up. The index place. Next day, the previous day's maximum and mini "e can be noted. To record y, the two indices are mercury with mum temperatur 1 brought down to the fax temains in its Maximum and minimum temperatures of the next da lbehelp of'a magnet. level of nAlcoho! oS888Ss Figure 6.7 Six's Maximum and Minimum Thermometer | Galileo's Thermometer Galileo was the first scientist to construct a thermometer based on the thermal expansion. He called his thermometer the thermoscope. In thermoscope, Galileo used the expansion of gas to measure the temperature The liquid level in the thermoscope rises or falls corresponding to the rise or | the fall in temperature of the surrounding. A scale is attached to the tube and is } caliberated t ad the temperature directh | Bee Lean ieae Figure 62) Galileo's Thermometer Galileo's thermometer was a crude instrument which could not be used to measure the temperature accurately MA CHANGE OF STATE ‘We know that matter exists in solid, liquid or gaseous state. Iron, stone, glass, wood, etc., are present in solid sate whereas kerosene, water, mercury, etc., are present in liquid state. The few examples of substances present in gaseous state are oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ete. The state in which a given substance is present is not permanest For example, water vapourizes at boiling point and gets converted from liquid to gaseous state. When it is cooled in reffigerator, it forms ice, which isin a solid state. Thus, every substance can be converted from one state to another stat by either heating or cooling. Determination of Melting Point of Wax When a substance changes state, its temperature remains constant. Ifthe substance is solid, the constant temperature Which the substance changes from solid state to liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure is called melting point & the given solid, For example, melting point of wax is 60°C which means that the wax is converted from is solid tat —- liquid state at the temperature of 60°C.2 me) peas melting point of wax, take a small ‘quantity of wax in a beaker and slowly heat the beaker by a candle aw a i i temperature of wax, say afer every 4 minute. The temperature of wax increas inially bus ones it Pe cca perature remains constant which is called its meling point. On further supplying heat the temperature esas CO" fang point until the whole of the wax is converted into liquid. petermination of Melting Point of Ice and Boiling Point of Water ‘aligaid changes into gaseous state at a constant temperature called its boiling point. For example, water is co joo vapours (gaseous state) at 100°C and so 100°C is its boiling point. uke a few bee, of ice at ~10°C into a beaker and heat the beaker with Bunsen burner. Note down its temperature, gy afer every half a minute. As ice is heated, its temperature rises till 0°C when it starts melting. The temperature remain until the whole ice melts into water. On further heating, the temperature of water increases till 100°C when it stars sing, The temperature remains constant at 100°C. The temperature of water increases only afterall the water i evaporated. We can draw a graph by taking time along x-axis and temperature of ice and water along y-axis. A curve as shown in ge figure 6.9 is obtained. Experiment to Determine the Melting Point of Ice and Boiling Point of Water ‘hecurve ABCDE is called heating curve. BC and DE portions of the heating curve represent constant temperature at the + ange of state. The temperature corresponding to BC is melting point and the one corresponding to DE is boiling point. Boting point 100° O Zp - Temperature Motting pont. O° 0 6 Figure 69) Temperature vs time graph of heat energy supplied Table 6.3 The table given below gives the melting point (M.P) and the boiling point (BP) of some substances. S.no Substan Lhd 1 Water orc 2 ‘Wax 60°C - 3 Mercury 39°C 357G 4 Ether 120°C 35°C = Glass 1127°C - 6 Iron 1537°C. Seite Latent Heat of Fusion The amount of heat energy absorbed by a solid substance to change it into the liquid without any rise in temperature is led latent heat of fusion. The value of latent heat of fusion of a given solid will be different for different mass of the ‘tid uken, Ifthe mass of the solid is more, the latent heat of fusion is also more. To find latent heat of fusion of a solid, tebtent heat required by unit mass of a substance is considered and this energy is called specific latent heat of fusion.ee et >>> Sie Specific Latent Heat of Fusion Specific latent heat of fusion is defined as amount of heat energy required to melt one kilogram of solid at its point, without any rise in temperature. Units of specific latent heat of fusion: In CGS. System cal g- In SJ. System ~J kg” Specific latent heat of ice is 3.36 %10° J kg (or) 336 J g°? or 80 cal gt Latent Heat of Vapourization The amount of heat energy absorbed by a liquid to change into its gaseous state, without any rise in temperature. The latent heat of vapourization of a given liquid is determined by the amount of liquid, hence, more the mass of a liquid, more is its latent heat of vapourization. Thus, latent heat of vapourization of same liquid is different depending upon its mass and is determined for a definite mass of the liquid known as specific latent heat of vapourization. Thus, specific latent heat of vapourization is the amount of hheat energy required to change unit mass of a liquid at its boiling point, without nay rise in temperature. info Bytest Specific latent heat of vapourization of steam is 226019" or 226 x 1944 kg" of 540 cal gt Units of specific latent heat of vapourization: In CGS. system ~ cal g In SL. system ~J kg 21 20% sch bate fal temper 40°C (lle space host. ————a of steam is 2250 g"') SOLUTION The relation to be used is Let mass of steam be m gm Heat given out by steam to form water at 100°C = m x 2250) g1 Heat given out by water at 100°C = ms, = m x 42 x (100-40) =252msg4 Total heat given out = 2250 m + 252 m 2502 mig Heat gained by water at 20°C = 60 x 4.2 x (40 - 20) = 50404 2. Heat lost by a body = Heat gained by a body 2502 m = 5040a PICT IE C2culate the amount of ice, which I euffcent to cool 45 9 of water, ‘contained at 30°C, such that the final temperature of the mirture ts 10°C. (Take specific latent heat of fusion of ice Is 336) 9-1) souTion ntmass of [oe be m g Heat gained by Kee to form water at O°C = m x 336 J Heat gained by Water formed from ice or) m* 42x (10-0) 2 a2m) tua heat gained = 336m + 42 m= 378m) Heat ost by water at 30°C = m0, 45 4.2 * (30-10) = 3780) Heat gained = Heat lost 378m = 9780 3780 45g 378 — Effect of Pressure and Soluble Impurities ‘he melting and boiling points of a given substance change in accordance with the external pressure and presence of soluble impurities, Pressure Cooker “The ime required to cook the food is greatly reduced, ifthe water is made to boil atahigher temperature than its boiling point, which is 100°C. The presure cooker ised to cook food faster as it raises the boiling point of water, upto 120°C. steam formed from the boiling water is not allowed re cooker Ina pressure cooker, tl toeape, The steam so formed increases the pressure andso the water boils at a higher temperature A presure cooker consists of a container and a lid, which fits firmly over the is made strong by using a thick stainles steel or aluminum. Figure’\10) Pressure Cooker er gasket, weight-valve and a safety valve. ide the pres ‘ontiner. The con The li is provided with a n ‘The rubber gasket does not allow the excess, then the steam escapes through the togooutofthe container. ff Whe steam pressure is vcight- valve, Ifthe steam pressure reaches dangerous level due to any teaion, then the steam escapes through the safety valve ‘high akitule regions such as mountains, the cooking offood becomes dificult as water boils at lower temperature due to lower atmospheric Jfesure, The problem can be solved by using a pressure cooker, Skating Slatng is a sport popular in regions covered with snow such as cold Countries, Himalayan mountains, etc. In this sport, a person uses shoes ath With wedge shaped soles and can move over ice rapidly, with high speed. Fas BARE Aid skating ‘When he stands on ice, the melting point of ice lowers due to increase in Imesure and it starts melting at lower temperature, thus forming water under the wedges. This way, the person moves for ‘pidy and attains high speed. Once he moves forward, the ice left behind him solidifies ob ae eae pressure