MODULE A :CHAPTER 1 LINGUA E TRADUZONE. LINGUA INGLESE It 19.0923 - order oP words make to sense need x - words need order +0 make sense v syntax studies how words combine 0 Porm phrases, and phrases combine +0 Formsentences. Inversion: is an untraditional way +0 say Something, i may be used £0 put emphasys on an element. syntax vs. crammar these terms are often used as equal, however they arenot the same. syntax Grammar -Pules and -rules oP a seructure oP particular language language -descriptive - Prescriptive -order op -icludes elements. morphological Peatures Phraseology - IdIOMS: PhraseOlogical units with @ Pigurative meaning - Proverbs: idiomatic expression, a complete Sentence, usually used £0 express popular wisdom. what is a text? A text iS everything that is meaningeulin a Particular situation. A text Needs an unit OF Coherence, WhichiS relationships or a connection. Arecipeis a text: an instructional text. we need +0 Consider even the genre, a recognisable communicative event characterised by a set Of Communicative purposes; highly structured and conventionalised with constrains. Language of news here can be Wo types OP newspaper: - Quality newspapers: broadsheets - Popular newspapers: tabloids Newspapers need to have: -novelty ~Recency Relevance - Negativity - Proximity - Personalisation Advertising It'S a creative language £0 promote a product, The creativity Can be phonological and lexical Business communication Teattraces readers: attention used Por mission statements. - usually uses very positive adjectives Te uses inpographie (genre)Morphology vs. syntax Morphology isthe study OP the Construction oF words, while syntax Studies how words combine. crammar - the Study OP the rule- based structure Grammar comprise inplectional morphology: inPlectional morphemes are bound monphemes used For grammatical meormations. 1.unear order syntagmatic relations, the order in Which words are combined 2.Hierarchical seructure words are organized into semantically coherent groups Tne order of words in a sentence helps tO determine wheter a sentence is grammatical or not and what the sentence means, Rule OP “well-Pormedness* Native spedkers OP a language instantly recognize something that is not well-Pormed, non-grammatical constituency (hierarchical seructure) sentences are not simply series OP adjacent words because they are semantically meaningeul groups. They have meanings OP their own and each Makes a. coherent contribution +0 the meaning oP the sentence: constituents TP.an element does not have a meaning on i®S OWN, then it's NOt CONStibUENt OF the sensence. LINGUA E TRADUZIONE: LINGUA INGLESE 202s Type op phrase Noun phrase (NP) - Verb phrase (vp) - adverbial phrase (advp) - Prepositional Phrase (PrepP) = Adjectival phrase (AdjP) 1) ANOUN phrase must have at least one noun, called head, it can have moaipiers or quatifiers. 2) Aver phrase must have a verb nas head, and it can have auxiliary andor conpletor, inrinite particie 0 3) AN adverbial phrase may modipie the Verb and describe the manner the verb isacted out 4) A prepositional phrase must have a NP 5) AN adjectival phrase is always part oF GNP, dnd it must have One adjective (head), and can have adverbs Constituents Tests TO determine wheter word groups are constituents or not we can run some eeSts: = Question test: CaN be answered with a question and make sense ~ Substitution test: can be Substituted byapro-rorm - Moving test: can be moved around without compromising sense Features OP syntactic constituents Recursion: the ability +0 place one Constituent mside another one oP the same kind LL _. canbeusea repeatedly- Dependency: now phrases are Formed is dependent onthe Other nearby phrases There are also some syntactic adaptions with Which Some elements Shift Prom one lexical category to another. Engish syntax is best understood as a Seb OF best rules, but they are adaptable according +0 particular needs and sebeings. There are also some syntactic eppects hat can Change the meaning oF a sentence, like Commas. €x: Tames, while TOhN had had "had", had inad “had had"; “nad had" had had a better CPRECE ON ENE LECCNE? ensinwesoncesrrecomarenn LINGUA E TRADUZONE: LINGUA INGLESE It 2.00.23 Tn english grammar, a constituent is linguistic part of alarger sentence, phrase or clause. For instance, all the words and phrases ‘hat Make up a Sentence are Sdid +0 be constituents OF that sentence. A constituent can be a morpheme, word, Phrase or clause. With sentence analysis we can identipy the subject or predicate or dipperent part oP speech using the process known as Parsing the Sentence into its constituents. Immediate constituents Analysis it gims at understanding the way Sentences are structured, as well as discover the deep meaning of the intended sentence and perhaps howit might be better expressed. The aims OF syntactic analysis - £0 identify Sentence constituent boundaries - #0 describe the COMposition OF the constituents - +0 underst and how the constituents Combine together and are related +0 each otner. There are £Wo types OF syntactic analysis: - Embedding - Tree diagrams EMBEDDING HOw similar phrases/ciauses Pit inside to Porm larger units: - Phrase: group OP words without subject and a verb. - Clause: group of words that contains a verb and other components. rt may Porm Part of a sentence or bea Complete Sentence initselr. - sentence: includes one or more Clauses and expresses a complete meaning Embeddings ra presented with parentheses and brackets: (Por phrases -CJPor clauses TREE DIAGRAMS: In+ree diagrams we: DousE Descriptive categories ppanaess eons} word DO NOT USE Functional categories Such as subjects, Objects, modipiers etc. all sentences must have at least one NP+ VP Incomy Sentences, PPS can be diagrammed as a separate con stituent. NP Tree Diagrams This kind OP diagram uses elements such ds determiners, adverbs, adjectives but most imporsantly it must have anoun:ex: Avery new wallet, VO a very new wallet vp Tree piagrams ‘This kind OF diagram uses elements such as auxiliaries verbs, completers but more importantly it must have a verb. EX: Might have been listening 7 S aux. ux. might have been listening Adj. Tree Diagrams Adjective phrases are usually part OP a NP, noun phrase. x: very environmentally sare Aayp. AvP. Adj. Ae. AW very environmentally sare PP Tree Di All PPS have a NP embedded inside them, EX: On the blue moon PP a Pp we / $y on +he blue moon The diagrams of a complete sentence have Pour levels: 1 First (bop) level: senvence (S) 2. second level: phrases 3, Third level: word classes 4, FOUrth (bottom) level: words LINGUA E TRADUZIONE; LINGUA INGLESE I 26,0923 1. one word, the head, controls over other words, the modipiers 2.words are grouped into phrases and that groupings bring together heads and modiriers. The head is the only word that has +0 occur in the phrase, the modifiers , occurring either before or aPter the head are optional. (we can have modiriers berore and apter the head). ‘The head OF a NP can be a noun, a pronoun or even an adjective. ‘he words preceding the head can be: -determiners numerals nouns -genitives Adverbs while she modiiers Polowing the heood of a NP-can be: - prepositional phrase -Pelative clauses - adverbs, adjectives, embedded noun phrase MOS¢ NPS With a Common noun as their head Need £0 begin with a determiner especially “he, whoSe Semantic role is NOt SO MUCH +0 dd detail of inPormation £0 the head, as +0 Specify how it refers to Something whether it has depinite or indepinite meaning. some sentences may be interpreted in more than one way, depending on how we intserpret sequences of words.€X: Larry raises miniature bonsai and cactus plants. this can mean that Lonny raises miniatures OP bonsai and miniaeures OP Plants, but aiso that he raises small bonsdi and Other plants OF any dimension. we can analyse these difrerent ways oF interpreting a Sentence through Tree diagrams. ‘The descriptive phrasal constituents can iso be analysed according to their Punctions in a sentence oF clausue Seructure. Basic Punctional categories: Subjects (Ss) -Predicate (P) complement (Cc) -Aqjuncts (A) ‘Subjects are typically NPS, but Can aiso be: ~anineiitive - Material that is quoted -agerund - an expletive Predicates ane verb Porms: - Transitive verbs require some type oP complement Directy Indirect Objects -TPound the page -. spc -Igaveher the book — spcc A subject complement tells more about the Subject, typically adjectives or nouns, used with copula verb £0 be and verbs like seem, become, appear. Adverbial complements are used with copular or similar verbs, it gives more mPormation about the predicate, oPten Prepps. ‘Object Complements give more imPormation about an existing direct object. Adjunces can be adverbialin Porm, but can also assume other Porms. They can be removed without grammatical damage. They give ddditionalineormation about the predicate that can be described in various ways: -Locative - Temporal -causal -agentive = conditional -concessive LINGUA E TRADUZIONE: LINGUA INGLESE CLAUSE: FORM OR STRUCTURE English is an svo language, because these three elements appears in that onder: 2709.23 ~ subject - Predicate -onject EX: The Cat Chased therat, Englishis classiPied as an svo language (order OF prototypical aprirmative sentences). ‘SENTENCE STRUCTURE: ALTERNATIVE DESCRIPTION S (Subject) - stays the same vcverb) -. istead oF P (Predicate) O (Object) — instead orc" Por directsinairect, ‘objects (Compliment) — used only For subject. complements A(Adjunct) stays the same =SVO_ > Peter pinished the DOOk -SVOA >Peter Finished it yesterday ~SVOO »Peber gave me the book -SVC_>Peter felt Sad ~SVCA » Peter Pelt Sad yesterdayTHE ADJUNCT AN Adjunct ddds +0 a clause an extra piece OP iNFOrMatiON about time, place, manner etc. we specify the structure OP a clause in ‘eerms OF SVO OF ASAVA. ‘THE COMPLEMENT Apter certains verbs, especially the verb 40 be, Gn NPiS NOt an Onject. Tnstedd, it 1s called complement. DEFINING SUBJECTS - Subjects precede the verb phrase ~ Subjects are noun phrases - ANOther thing £0 Notice is that iP the isa pronoun, it has 40 bein the correct Porm: 1, he, We Gnd they are used as subjects pronouns , while me, him, us and them are Used as object pronouns. Subjects are marked by Subject pronoun Porms? He Saw her, is correct, not Him Saw her. similarly, she Saw him, is grammatical, not Her sawhe. OBJECTS Like Subjects, objects are typically NPS. But, unlike Subjects, they are realised by she Object POM OF the pronoun, not the ‘Subject Porm. (Him, not he; me, not I) [cz (have been writingyAuntie Becky) (a +hank-youletter)] c direct object indirect object In this example, the indirect opject rerers 0 Someone WhOis indirectly aPPected by the writing action, and the direct object. refers £0 the thing arrected most Closely 0 my Action OF writing. Indirect objects : typically identiey people Who benePit ds aresult OP the action we KNOW that an element is an Object when it can be turned into the Subject OF a passive clause. MAKING STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS ETC... IMPERATIVE CLAUSES = DECLARATIVE : the Clause acts as a statement, or assertion, Claiming £0 tell something about the word oF reality. ~ INTERROGATIVE: the Clause Cts as a question. - IMPERATIVE: the Clause acts as a directive, like arequest, mstruction or suggestion. ~ EXCLAMATORY : the Clause acts as an expression of emotion. DECLARATIVE CLAUSES have G Subject and avP. INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES: have two grammatical signals: they begin with one oP ‘the question words, or they have an imversion oP the normal ordering, So that ‘the auxiliary precedes the subjects. Interrogaive clauses can be “wh- questions" or “ves-NO questions" (Subject-verb inversion or auxiliaries). ‘One seructuralrule says: auxiiaries are optional. AVP does not have £0 have any auxiiar verbs. In Pact, Most VP have N auxiliary. Reverse the order of the Subject and the auxiliary. >TO negate a main clause, we ddd the word not deter the auxiliary. what happens if there is no auxiliary in the corresponding positive clause ? ‘The guxiiary do" comes +0 the rescue!Positive: = The Taxi arrived lave = She knows the answer = SOME kidS like rugby Negative: = The taxi did No arrive late - She does not know the answer - Some kids don't like rugoy Negative clause type Include negative particles >not, no. With "nO", main verbs Other than require the auxiary . IMPERATIVE CLAUSES hdVe NO Subject and the verbis in the plain eorm. Tne vp very rarely coneains an auxiiary, except when do or dont precede the mam verb. Although there is no visible subject, the Implied Subject OP imperative clauses is «yOu. EXCLAMATORY CLAUSES dO NOt have inversion OP the Subject and auxiiary. English has a special kind oP exclamatory Clause, beginning with WHAT Or HOW. very opten the phrase beginning WHAT Or HOW Stands alone, without ‘the Or any ‘Other element. Imperative clause type: =NO POrmal Subject, but the implied subject is you: Auxiliary Por emphasis, aiso intonational stress. ‘subjenctive clause : - OCCUP'S Only With SOMe Verbs and tenses (oPben Used In More POrmal CONLeXts With high level oF obligation). Tnpinitive aeter certain verbs in -that clauses: EX: DI'smith OSked that Mark Submit his research paper. - Invariate with the verb 0 bein hypothetical situations: €X: 19 Twere you, I would be careeul is dCceptable annd typical in ineormal contexts. NON-PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURES The prototypical svo structure is oFten modiPied Por emphatic ePpects. - ClePt Sentences (It +0 be + that/ wnat) EX: It WAS Mike WhO Scored the goal ~PSeudo-cleht Sentences (clause introduced by What or all) EX: What I want is @. good sieep - LePt DISIOCa+ION : ShiPting ending elements 60 the initial position EX: ROberM, WaS his name inversion: Placing the v bePore the NP Subject €x: Rarely do I see him anymore - Stylistic Version: OP+en used in literary texts Por particular ePPects that evoke imagination, Feelings, drama and suspense. 4 Can only be used With instransitive verbs OF position €X: IN ddistant Country lived his dearest Priend LINGUA E TRADUZIONE: LINGUA INGLESE IL 29.023 FORMING MORE ELABORATE SENTENCES The day was clear and sunny and the sea breeze was blowing, but the Sun Suddendly clouded Over and the rain began to pour, So the swimmers ran or shelter.© (simple syntactic elaboration > coordination > each clause can stand alone) ‘Albhough the day was clear and sunny and the sed breeze was blowing gently, the sun ‘Suddendly clouded over. the swimmers ran Por shelter because the rain began to pour. © (more complex syntactic elaboration > Subordination > at least one clause cannot stand alone) - Away +0 elaborate clauses and sentences - Constituents are structured Side by side -MOSt COMMON Coordinating conjunctions are-and:, or but: and ‘so’, which are used £0 jOin Similar units OP language, - coordinated clauses can stand alone. Edch clause could beits own a stand-alone sentenceyciause. subordinated Clauses typicily have their ‘OWN Subject and verb, but cannot stand alone. Note punctuation diPperences in clause Positions: = Subordinate clause > main clause: separated bya comma - Main Clause > Subordinate clause: no comma 1 he Walked oP while he Was apologizing. 2.She just walked OPP in the middle OP his apology. C PPS (NOt a Subordinate clause) This is because subordinate clauses have their own verb, and oPten their own subject, - Relative -Adverbial - complement Relative clauses > Punction as a modiPier aPter anoun > begin with a relative pronoun that, which or wno (Por people) Adverbial clauses > Punction as adjuncts +0 elaborate condition, time, reason_in relation +0 the main clause > typically begin with a Subordinating conjunction clauses: > PUNCEION GS NPS tha’ complete the meaning OP the main clause > AlSO Called nominal clause’ or noun clauses > Unlike relative and adverial clauses, the Other elements in the Sentence cannot stand alone without the complement (subordinate) Clause £0 complete them. SENTENCE TYPES > simple >compound > COM >compound-compiex simple sentences > only One indipendent clause that contains a subject anda verb > may have a compound subject > may have a compound verb > may have a compound subject and verb, compound sentences > CONSIS¢ OP 4wO OF more simple sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction. (Acomma opten precedes the coordinating Conjunction when each simple sentenceis longer than just a Pew words). > coordinating conjunction do NOT always, signal a compound sentencecompiex sentences > CONSIS+ OF One mam Clause and one or more subordinate clause inside it. compound-complex sentences > combine Subordination and coordination im the sentence. Other cases Jtesenaswe ess pormalipeRtpeSATURSE™ tional version. The “rePormulated” version is a complex sentence because it contains a complement (Subordinate) clause. LINGUA E TRADUZIONE, LINGUA INGLESE 1 03,1023 SUBORDINATION: EMBEDDED CLAUSES: ‘She JUSt Walked OPP While this guy Was apologising clause va clause conj sv she JUSt Walked OF? while this guy Was apologising na a Exsheyqust xwarkea OPP cwnile(Ehis QuyXKwaS APOIOGZMGT cons v ain ciguse: sav A ‘Embedded clause: Cony sv Three key types OP embedded (or subordinate) clause - Adverbial clause: begin with a conjunction SUCh Gs 1P, when, because, while. They eill she Punction OF Adjunces in the main clause, and take dipperent positions. The Term ‘adverbial clause’ recalls that adverbs and adverbs pnrases often Punction as adjuncts, and can have a similar role of elaboring time, manner, reason, e&c.. with respect £0 the main clause. = complement clauses: they are typically required £0 complete the meaning oP the Test OOP the main clause, They Can aiso be called ‘noun clauses: or nomial Clauses’, because their Punctionis similar +0 hat OF Noun phrases, Pilling subject and Object slots. - Relative Clause: resemble another major: word Class- adjectives- in that they modipy a oun in GNP, and tell us more about What the AYN denotes. The modipying role makes it possible +0 compare relative clauses which POllow the Noun With adjectives which precedes it. = The Zero Option: there is also oPten Further Possibility, in both complement and relative Clauses, £0 Omit the word tha. we Can call ‘hese Clauses Zero complement clauses’ or ‘zero relative clauses’. Embedding can involve three steps oP iteration. COORDINATION: another pweereul e@laboratingn device, like embedding. But It iS diPPerent in that the elements coordinated OCCUR Side by Side in the Sentence, rather han one inside the other. The three most common coordinating words. are-and.,or- and ‘but’, and the most common Combination involves simply joining wo similar units of language together. x andy (my sister) and (her boyPriend) Coordination has a similar potential For elaorating meaning by iteration. Like embedding, coordination can be iterated any number of times. NON-FINITE CLAUSES another common type oF structure that Adds £0 the expressive possibilities OP english are non-Finite clauses. - They have no Finite verb, and generally have no subject. - They #end £0 be shorter, more compact that Pinite Clauses, and are usepul FOr simplyPing Sentences that would be complexand unwieldy, especially in writing, @. The ineormation Cgiven +0 the press] was 0ballly and denberately Paise. b.The inPormation (that Was given to the press}. RULES-OF-THUMB For agiven Pinite subordinate clause: > DOES it MOdiPy another Clause? IP it does, itis an adverbial clause. > DOES it MOGIPY a Verb? IF it does, it iS a (verb) complement clause. > DOGS it MOdiPY A NOUN? IP it does, t Could be a Relative clause or a complement clause. > IS the Subordinate clause introduced by a WH- WOTd SUCh GS WhO, Which, Where, Or by a prepositional phrase such ds in which ? IP ibis, it iS a relative clause. > IS the Subordinate clause introduced by that? IP it is, it Could be either arelative Clause or a complement Clause. IP itis a relative clause, that can be replaced by Which and, ds in (1). IP it is acomplement clause, that cannot be replaced by a wH- word, ds Shown by (2). (apRelative clause Tlike the bOOk that you gave me. b. Llike the bOOk Which you gave me. (2) complement clause d.welike the idea that the city Centre will be pedestrianised. b.welike the idea which the city Centre will be pedestrianised. SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR: A APPROACH ~The First English grammar books appeared in the 1500s: based on Latin grammatical categories/eunctions and syntax, - AdiPPerent modern approach +0 syntax (systemic Functional Linguistics), was developed by michael k. Halliday, in the 1960s. = Emphasizes Punction (vs. seructure) “Language is Punctional People use language to do things: - construct our experiences in the word and how we perceive them (ideational eunction) - eXPress Attibudes and relations With Others during nveration (ineerpersonal eunction) - create structure and organize our: Messages +0 Pacilitate communication (textual Punction) -Categorizes constituents according +0 what ‘bhey do: > -Processes (predicates / verbs) -Participants (subjects / complements) ~ circumstances (how, Why, when or where they get done) These categories substibute traditional grammatical cavegories like NP, VP, AdvP, ‘Subject, object, e&C.. PROCESSES ‘The processes provide much more information than traditional verb categories like ACtiON / Static Or eransitive / intransisivey:- Material processes: express actions or events. - Behavioural processes: involve physical/ mental processes that are not really actions. ~Meneal processes: involves senses, Peelings and thoughts The participants roles provide specific iPormation about WhO/Whde is involved in he process: - Material processes: involve participant. Toles oF actor, goal, recipient. = Behavioural processes: involve Participant role of benaver. - Mental processes: involve participant Toles of senser and phenomenon. LINGUA E TRADUZONE: LINGUA INGLESE It 04.1023, SYNTACTIC V8. SEMANTIC ROLES The building blOCks Or constituents OP a envence have been classieied accoraing +0 Pormal aspects and Punctional aspects. IN Conclusion, it needs £0 be mentioned hat diPPerent grammatical relations are linked £0 aipperent semantic roles. Theman stroked thea NP subject agent — NP object patient, Agent vs. Patient Ia prototypical active sentence: = the Subject is the element that carries out an action = bhe direct Object is typically the element appected by the action - aNd the indirect Object is the goal oP the action and Frequently aiso the element WhiCh propits Prom it Fureher semantic Roles Adverbials oPten assume one oF the semantic roles of time, place, source, goal or instrument. One could say that they define the Participanes involved in a certain situation, the actor's oF play, as it were. The number Of actors and the pares they play are determinated by the ver. -AVerb like “shink requires only one actor, namely a Subject with the semantic role of an experience, - The verb give requires three actors: a subject Serving as an agent, a direct object serving as a patient and anindinect object assuming the Semantic role of recipient or beneractive. Note that Concerning semantic roles, english has a special property. Frequently, the Subject is not an agent and the direct object not apatient. The Pollowing table provides an overview oP he various grammatical relations, including Pr edch of them the prototypical syntactic categories and the prototypical semantic role mapped onto them. ‘THE ENGLISH VERB PHRASE VERB = anchor of the sentence - It is the main verb that determines how many Obligatory constituents there arein the sentence, that is, wether only a subject is necessary or if One OF two Objects, a complement, or an adverbial are additionally required.MAIN VERBS VS. AUXILTARTES APundamental distinction within the word Class OF verbs is the One between lexical and grammatical verbs, between main verbs and ‘auxiliaries. English auxiliaries nowdays Porm a ‘separate group whichis very dieperent Prom that OP main verbs. MODAL VS. PRIMARY VERBS The use of primary verbs is compulsory Por the marking oF diePerent grammatical Categories, but aiso when eorming questions and negating main verbs. A Pureher basic diPPerence between modal Verbs, on the one hand, and beshave/do, on the Other hand, is the Pact that only primary verbs may also be used as main verbs. aAuxiiaries primary verbs modal verbs COPULA VERB Mary is ill/ teacher /in the garden In she sentence above, be is a.aiso so-called Imking or copula verb, a verb which establishes dlink between the Subject oP a sentence anda certain property or aeeripute. ‘'Be'In the Sentence, is not an auxiliary but has the Pormal properties of amain verbis easily Shown by the Pact that can be combined with auxiiary verbs, and even with ‘she progressive Porm oF be. copula verbs Porm but a.small group; they chide verbs or cerain uses OF Verbs ike seem, |00k, appear, e6c_ verb types and sentence patterns: sentences are Pormed around the main verbs. ‘ain verbs: sentence patterns, verbs determine both the number and the nature op their arguments by specieying +heir Synedctic PuNction in she Sentence as Well as sheir semantic role. Copulds: responsible For the sentence Pattern subject-predicate-complemens because they require two obligatory arguments (a subject anda complement that aeeributes a certain property £0 the subject). INits spatial sense be, together with other ‘Spatial verbs SUCh Gs live, Stay Or lurk, is GisO responsible or the sentence pattern ‘Subject-predicate-ddverbial, the adverbial in ‘hese cases being one oF piece. The same sentence pattern is required by another type OF verb, namely verbs which indicate duration. VALENCY The patterns Pound in English can all be explained by classiying verbs accoraing to their valency. This termis Used in linguistics £0 describe: “The ability, especially OP verbs, £0 open up slOts around themselves Which must Or can be Pilled. The 4wo terms related +0 this property which are well-known Prom school grammar are transitive and ineransitive" TRANSITIVE VS. INSTRANSITIVE VERBS Ineransitive verbs require only one argument, namely a subject: -ToOhN Slept/snored/smiled They are therefore monovalent. Transitive verbs require not only a subject but dt least One more argument, namely a direct object: - John wrote/read/Porgot the message And can therefore be passive.Transitive verbs which require no Further at First glance, phrasal verbs are very similar argument are monotransitive or divalent. +0 prepositional verbs, but they diPPer in various respects: But there are also trivalent verbs or uses OF verbs; these require either an “Poa roi Additional indirect object: |e tr mt -an object complement mary considered John d FOO! an Object adverbial mary put the message in her pocket AVALENT VERBS TENSE The minimal sentence pattern consisting OP one Subject and onepredicateisnot Tense and aspect: Only required by intransitive verbs but iso by SO-called avalent verbs, verbs With Zero The central grammatical categories oF the valency. English verb phrase are tense and aspect. Given their semantics, they do not even simple sentences or main clause obiigatorily require a subject. require a Pinite verb, and Piniteness is IN English, ibis OnlyduetothePixedword primarily depined by tense marking, Onder that the Subject slot OP Weather verbs such as rain, Snow, Slee’, hail, drizzle BUT HOW MANY TENSES ? and Preezeis Filled by the SO Called DUMMY IT. The lowest possible number OF tenses is 2, 7 the highest is 16. TP we regard as tenses only What can be marked inPlectionally directly onthe verb ‘Stem > English has no more than two senses, TN Pact, English has only one inflectional SUPPIX With N exclusively sense-marking, Punction, namely the past-tense marker (-€d), as in walk-ed'. The distinction between transitive and The word Porm stands in contrast £0 the ineransitive verbs is also valid Por another unmarked Porm (Wak), Which is more English verb type: the SO called phrasal dequately called non-past cinstead oF verbs, SUCh dS 10Ok aPter,lOOkUp,tdke present) because it Can also be used to OPP, e6c." Tefer 40 both past and euture events. Ineransitive: John gave in. IP tense is not dePined as a purely inPlectional Transitive: Mary gave the secret away. category: it Makes Sense 0 postulate three tenses Por English, one tense edch Por placing a situation in the three time spheres past, present and Puture.In that case, the third tense: the Puture bense, Will/Shalll + nPinitive Construction. The will/shall- Construction is the MOS’ neutral oP the diPPerent constructions WhiCh are used £0 rel to events in the Puture. Ibis the One whichis least restricted t0 a cereain context, an therefore the most, grammaticatized construction. Other Constructions in (1) express slightly aipPerent meanings. q@ @. The parce! will arrive -omorrow. (neutral prediction) b. The parcelis going to arrive somorrow. (result in Pueure OF an action or intentionin present) c.The parcelis arriving tomorrow. (result in Pueure OF an action that has already begun oris already completed) The parce! will be arriving somorrow. Cevent is naturally going to happen in Puture) @. The parcel arrives tomorrow (Pusure event is d Pact, Pollows Prom Fixed schedule) Absolute tenses: since they tke as an anchor point the here and now OP the speaker, present, Past and Puture tense are also called absolute tenses. Tense thus qualipies as a deictic category. i.¢.as.a matical category which locates a Situation on the timeline Relative tenses: we take a diPPerent view when assuming, that English has more than these three senses, The ‘perfect tenses’ are often called "relative senses”, because they express anteriority tO some reperence point in the past, the present, orin the euture, ASPECT Aspect: (Prom Latin aspectus viewpoint or perspective) is a grammatical category ‘ehdt aIIOWs us: +0 COMMeNt ON the internal temporal make-up OP a situation, where situation is used aS generic term Por conditions or states and diPPerent types OP actions, events, esc. IN English, the progressive Porm (also known, as expanded Form) provides a grammatical means which allows the speaker £0 explicitly indicate whether he or she regards a cersain ction as completed or stillin progress. Therefore, aspect-as opposed +0 tense - has strongly Subjective component. Inmany cases, however, marking aspect is NOt Optional but Obligatory, as Can be seen in: = TON iS Walking £0 WOrk (NOW, at the time OP ‘he utterance). LINGUA E TRADUZIONE, LINGUA INGLESE IL 06.1023 PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT A Phraseological unit (PU) Can be defined as a non-motivated word-group that cannot be Preely made up in speech, but is reproduced as a ready-made unit. Tb IS a group of words whose meaning cannot be deduced by examining the meaning OP the constituent lexemes. The essential Peatures of Pu are: -LOCk OP motivation - Stability OF the lexical components The PU Semantic classification is based on the Motivation OF the unit. >Phraseological Fusions are units whose meaning cannot be deduced Prom the meaningsOF their components pares. The meaning OP Phraseological Fusions is unmotivated at the present stage oF language development. -Red Tape -amaresnest ‘The meaning Of the components is Ibis Suggested that there are three classes Of stereotyped phrases: - Traditional phrases -Phraseological combinations - Idioms completely absorbed by the meaning op the PHRASEOLOGICAL COMBINATIONS Pall nto +WO groups: whole. »Phraseological unities are expressions whose meaning can be deduced erom the meanings oP their components. ‘The meaning OF the whole is based on the ‘+ransPerred meanings OP the components. = TO SHOW One's teeth (40 be uneriendly) -TO Stand +0 one's guns (+0 repuse tO change one's opinion) They are motivated expressions > Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the Other is used metaphorically, eg 40 meet requirements, to attain Success In this group oP Pus some Substitutions are possible which do not destroy the meaning oF the metaphoric element, eg t0 meet the needs, £0 meet the demand, to meet the necessity; +0 have SUCCESS, tO lose success These Substitutions are not Synonymic. and the meaning OF the whole changes, While the meaning OF the verb meet and the noun success are kept intact AS Por the PUS' Struceuradl ClassiPiCation: Pus are considered ds highly idiomatic set expressions Punctioning as word equivalents and are characterized by their ‘semantic and grammatical unity. 1 one-top phraseological units, which were compared with derived words -Verb-adverb PU -verb-adjective Pu - Prepositional substantive units: 2. TWO-tOp phraseological units, which can be compared with compound words - Abtributive-nominadl -Verb-nominal phrases -Phraseological repetitions ~ AdVerbidl MuUlti-tOp UNItS Phraseological transference is acompiete or Partial change of meaning oF an initial word-combination or d sentence ds aresult OF which the word-combination acquires anew Meaning and turns into a Pu. TransPerence based on simile, is the IntensiPication OP some Peatures OF and ‘Object (phenomenon, shing) denoted by a PU by means OF bringingit into Contact with another object (phenomenon, shing) belonging +0 anentinely diPPerent class. compare: -(AS) pretty as a picture - (QS) Pa’ as apig - TO Pight like dion -TO SWiM like a PIShTransference based on metaphor is a likening OP the object (phenomenon, action) OP reality £0 another, Which is associated With it On the basis oF real or imaginable resemblance. Eg, in the PU +0 bend ‘somebody +0 One's bow meaning +o Submit someone» ¢ransperence is based on metaphor Metaphors can bear a hyperbolic character. Flog adead horse metaphors may also have d eupnemistic character which serves +0 sopten unpleasant Pacts GO +0 one’s Fongrest Join she majority TransPerence based on metonymy is a +ransper of name Prom one object (phenomenon, thing, esc) 40 another based ‘On the contiguity OF eheir properties, elation etc. 1¢ is Conditioned by close ies bebween two objects “ASiIk StOCkiNg rich, well-dressed many is based on the replacement of the objec (aman> by the piece OP clothing which was very fashionable and popular among men in the past. ‘Transperence based on synecdoche is naming the wnole by its par, the replacement of the common by the private, oP the plural by the singular and vice versa. Eg, he components Plesh and blood in: Inthe Plesh and blood meaning in gd material Form) as the integral parts OP the real existence replace a person or any living being. synedoche is usually used in combination with Other types oP transPerence, eg, metaphor TO hold One's tongue (+0 Say NOthing, +0 be discreet) IDIOMS AND PROVERBS Idioms (Or idiomatic expressions) are a type OP PU that has a metaphoric or Figurative meaning: dead meat, £0 take the bull by she homs, (0 cost) onarm and aleg. Proverbs are idiomatic expressions that are complete sentences -. express popular wisdom, a truth or a morallesson in a concise and imaginative way -. educational punction. They tend +0 be metaphorical or Figurative in meaning: ~The penis mightier than the sword -The Squeaky wheel gets the grease -Two wrongs don’t make a rignt SAYINGS are Complete Sentences that are similar £0 proverbs, but they tend +0 beless Mmetapnorical and have more literal meanings. - Adiamondis Forever - AdOgis man’s best Friend some origins of Pus > Literature/Pamous texts. > Traditions and customs, > Legends and superstitions. > HIStOFICAI PACES and events. > ANcient legends and myths. LINGUA E TRADUZONE; LINGUA INGLESE It FINE LEZIONL, MODULO A