Maps Botany Ncert

The Living World
1
Chapter
1 WHAT IS LIVING? 2 DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
m Biodiversity is number and types of organisms present on earth.
When we try to define living we simply understand that what living is as opposed to the non-living
m The number of species that are known and described range between 1.7-1.8
l There are some unique features of living organisms such as growth, reproduction, ability to sense million.
environment, metabolism, ability to self replicate, self organise and interact. m As local names vary from place to place, there is need to standardise the naming of
living organisms. This process is NOMENCLATURE.
FEATURES DEFINING OR SEEN IN m Before nomenclature identification should be done.
CHARACTERISTICS m Scientific names are based on agreed principles and criteria which are provided in
GROWTH Both living (Intrinsic) and non living ICBN (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature) - for plants and ICZN
Characteristic
Increase in mass objects (Extrinsic) (International Code for Zoological Nomenclature) - for animals.
and increase in number m The most accepted system for naming of organisms is binomial nomenclature,
REPRODUCTION given by Carolus Linnaeus
m According to this, each scientific name has two names, the generic name and
Production of progeny Characteristic Living organisms but some exceptions
of same kind are seen such as infertile human couples, specific epithet and are generally in Latin.
mules and sterile worker bees Ex. Mango ® Mangifera indica Linn.
Genus Species
METABOLISM m Genus starts with capital letter and species starts with small letter.
Sum total of all the chemical Defining Seen in all unicellular as well as m Scientific name should be printed in italics, if handwritten should be underlined
reactions occuring in body. multicellular organisms. separately.
m Name of the author should be at the end of the biological name in abbreviated form.
CONSCIOUSNESS
Ability to respond Defining Seen in all unicellular as well as CLASSIFICATION :
to external stimulus m Classification is process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories.
multicellular organisms.
Only human is self-conscious The scientific terms for these categories is taxa. (Dogs, cats, mammals, plants etc.)
m Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different
CELLULAR Defining Seen in all unicellular and multicellular taxa. This process is called taxonomy.
ORGANISATION organisms m Taxa can indicate categories at very different levels. e.g. animals , mammals and
dogs represent taxa at different levels.

m Taxonomy and evolutionary relationships = systematics.
m Morphology, anatomy, cell structure, development process and ecological
m Reproduction is synonymous with growth in unicellular organisms but not in multicellular
informations are basis of modern taxonomic studies.
organisms.
m Characterisation, identification, classification and nomenclature are basics of
m A reaction in test tube is neither living nor non-living.
taxonomy.
m Photoperiod affects reproduction in seasonal breeders, both plants and animals.
m In Planaria (flat-worms), we observe true regeneration. 3 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
m Properties of tissues are not present in constituent cells similarly properties of cell organelles m Each step in classification is called category or rank.
are not present in the molecular constituents of the organelles but arise due to interactions. m As it is a part of taxonomy hence called taxonomic category and all categories
m The patient lying in coma has no self-consciousness. constitute taxonomic hierarchy.
m All living organisms – Present, past and future are linked to one another by the sharing of the m There are seven obligate categories.
common genetic material but to varying degrees. m Sub categories are also developed by scientists.
m Living organisms are self-replicating, evolving and self regulating interactive system capable m The number of common characteristics goes on decreasing from species to
of responding to external stimuli. kingdom.
m Each rank or taxon infact, represents a unit of classification.
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2 The Living World NCERT Maps
4 A Kingdom 5
S
C ANIMALS CATEGORIES PLANTS
Phylum/division For plants division is used, has related classes
E
N leo, tigris, pardus : Species : tuberosum, nigrum, melongena
D Class Has assemblage of related orders
I
N Order Has related families characterised mainly on floral characters
G Felis + Panthera : Genus : Solanum + Datura, Petunia
Family Comprises a group of related genera. Characterised on
O the basis of both vegetative and floral characters
R Canidae + Falidae : Family : Solanaceae + Convolvulaceae
D Genus Comprises a group of related species
E
R Species (Basic and lowest category)
Primata + Carnivora : Order : Polymoniales + Sapindales
6 ORGANISMS WITH THEIR TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES

Aves, + Mammalia : Class : Dicotyledonae + Monocotyledonae
Common Biological Genus Family Order Class Phylum/ Reptalia
Name Name Division
Non + Chordata : Phylum/ : Angiospermae + Gymnospermae
Man Homo Homo Homini- Primata Mammalia Chordata chordata division
sapiens dae Animalia :
Kingdom Plantae
Housefly Musca Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthro-
domestica poda
m The word systematics is derived from Latin word ‘systema’ which means
Mango Mangifera Mangifera Anacar- Sapin- Dicotyledo Angios- m systematic arrangement of organisms.
indica diaceae dales nae permae
Higher the category, greater is the difficulty of determining the relationship to
Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyl Angiosper other taxa at the same level. Hence, the problem of classification becomes
aestivum edonae mae more complex.
7 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Museum
m These aids are prime source of taxonomical studies.
– Generally setup in schools and educational institutes
Monograph contains information of any one taxon
– Has preserved plant and animal specimens, large animals
Herbarium Monograph
are usually stuffed
– Store house of dried, presses and – Insects are preserved in insect boxes
preserved plant specimens pasted on sheets
– Each sheet carries a label which has Taxonomical aids Manual
information of specimen – Are useful in providing information for
Zoological parks identification of names of species found
Flora Keys – Wild animals are in an area.
Botanical Gardens
– Provides the index to – Analytical in nature kept in their natural
– Have collection of living plants for reference environment
the plant species – Based on contrasting characters generally
found in a particular – Each plant is labelled
in pair, couplet
area. – Largest Botanical garden at Kew (England)
– Based on similarities and dissimilarities
Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah.
– Each statement is called a lead
Biological Classification
2
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 4 KINGDOM MONERA

There have been many attempts to classify living organisms since the dawn of civilisation. Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more
m Sole members of the kingdom are bacteria which occur almost
scientific basis for classification. He used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He also everywhere.
divided animals into two gropus, with RBCs and without RBCs. m Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites.
m They are grouped under four categories based on their shapes,
2 TWO KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 3 FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
spherical (Coccus), rod shaped (Bacillus), comma shaped (Vibrio) and
m Given by Linnaeus. m Given by R.H. Whittaker. spiral shaped (Spirillum).
m Organisms were divided into two kingdoms Plantae
and Animalia. m All organisms were divided into five kingdoms ARCHAEBACTERIA
Disadvantages: This system did not distinguish between Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. m Are special bacteria since they live in some of the harsh habitats such
eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular m Fungi were placed in separate kingdom called as extreme salty areas (halophiles) hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
organism & photosynthetic & non photo-synthetic kingdom fungi. and marshy areas (methanogens).
organisms. m Have different cell wall structure than other bacteria. This feature is
responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
Five Kingdoms
Characters m Methanogens produce methane and found in gut of ruminant animals.
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia EUBACTERIA or True Bacteria
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic m Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae)
l May be unicellular, colonial or filamentous, Heterocyst
Cell wall Noncellulosic Present in Present with Present Absent
(Polysaccharide+ some chitin (cellulose) fresh water/marine or terrestrial.
Mucilagenous
amino acid) l Have chlorophyll a similar to green plants. sheath
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present l Are photosynthetic autotrophs.
membrane m Mycoplasma
l Smallest living known cells.
Body Cellular Cellular Multicellular/ Tissue/ Tissue/organ/
organisation loose tissue organ organ system l Can survive without oxygen.
l Completely lack cell wall.

Mode of nutrition Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic l Are pathogenic to both plants and animals.
(chemosynthetic (Photosynthetic) (Saprophytic/ (Photosynthetic) (Holozoic/
and photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic Parasitic) Saprophytic
and Heterotrophic etc. m Bacteria are simple in structure but very complex in behaviour.
(saprophytic/parasitic) m Show most extensive metabolic diversity.
m Majority of bacteria are heterotrophic but can be photo or
chemoautotrophic.
m Chemosynthetic autotrophs oxidise various inorganic substances
m Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and and play great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen.
angiosperms under plants due to presence of cell wall. m Heterotrophic bacteria: Majority are decomposers and are
m Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed under algae.
helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing
m Kingdom Protista put together Chalamydomonas, Chlorella with Paramoecium and Amoeba.
m Over time, an attempt has been made to evolve a classification system which reflects not only the nitrogen in legumes etc.
morphological, physiological and reproductive similarities but also phylogenetic i.e. is based on evolutionary m Some are parasites, cause disease like cholera, typhoid, tetanus,
relationships. citrus canker etc.
NCERT Maps Biological Classification 7
5 KINGDOM PROTISTA
m All single celled eukaryotes are placed in kingdom protista. m Boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined.
m Members are primarily aquatic. m Reproduce sexually and asexually both.
Chrysophytes Dinoflagellates
m Includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). m Mostly marine and photosynthetic.
m Microscopic and floats passively in water m Appear in various colours depending on main pigments present in
currents. their walls.
m Most of them are photosynthetic. m Biflagellated. Euglena
m Cell wall has silica and thus indestructible. m Cell wall has stiff cellulosic plates on the outer surface.
m Body look likes soap box. m Responsible for red tides.

m Toxins released by organisms may kill other marine animals
m Form diatomaceous earth.
m Are chief producers in the oceans. (fishes) Gonyaulax.
KINGDOM Dinoflagellates
PROTISTA
Euglenoids Slime Moulds
m Are fresh water forms found in stagnant water. m Are saprophytic protists.
m Photosynthetic in presence of sunlight and m Body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic
predators in absence of sunlight. material.

m Under favourable conditions form plasmodium and under
m Biflagellated, has one short and one long flagella. unfavourable conditions they form fruiting bodies.
m Cell wall absent but proteinaceous pellicle m Spores have true walls, resistant to adverse conditions and
present. Eg. Euglena. dispersed by air currents.
Slime moulds
Protozoans
m Are heterotrophs and believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
m Amoeboid: have pseudopodia for capturing prey. Many have silica shells on their surface. Some are parasites Eg.
Entamoeba, Amoeba.
m Flagellated: have flagella. Parasitic forms many cause disease as sleeping sickness. Eg. Trypanosoma.
m Ciliated: have cilia, gullet. Eg. Paramoecium.
m Sporozoans: have inflectious spore like stage in their life-cycle. Eg. Plasmodium (malarial parasite) Paramoecium
6 KINGDOM FUNGI
m Constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. m Sexual reproduction involves oospores, ascospores and basidiospore formation.
m Show great diversity in morphology and habitat. m The sexual cycle involves three steps
m Unicellular forms such as yeast is used in bread and beer making. l Plasmogyamy – Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes.
m Most of them are saprophytes but they can be parasitic or symbionts such as lichens and
l Karyogamy – Fusion of two nuclei.
mycorrhiza associations.
l Meiosis – In zygote results in haploid spores.
m Reproduction can take place by vegetative, asexual or sexual means.
m Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation, fission or budding. m The morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for
m Asexual reproduction by spore formation such as conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores. the division of kingdom fungi into various classes.
m In some fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes) an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n) occurs. Such condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase.
8 Biological Classification NCERT Maps
Comments Phycomycetes Ascomycetes (Sac fungi) Basidiomycetes (Club fungi) Deuteromycetes (Imperfect fungi)
Habitat Aquatic habitats and on decaying wood Coprophilous, saparophytic Grow in soil, on logs and tree Saprophytes, parasites and
or as obligate parasites on plant. decomposers or parasitic. stumps or as parasites e.g. rust some of them are decomposers
and smuts. and help in mineral recycling.
Mycelium Aseptate and coenocytic. Are multicellular, rarely uni- Branched and septate Branched and septate
cellular, branched and septate.
Asexual Reproduction By endogenously produced Conidia, produced Generally not found but Conidia
zoospores (motile) or aplanospores exogenously vegetatively by fragmentation
Sexual Reproduction Zygospore is formed by fusion of Ascospores produced in asci, Sex organs are absent. Sexual Absent
two gametes. which is turn are arranged in spores are basidiospores formed
fruiting bodies called ascocarp. on basidium inside basidiocarps
Examples Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould) and Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora (used in Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia Alternaria, Colletotrichum,
Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard) biochemical & genetic work), Morels and (Parasitic), Bracket fungi & Trichoderma
truffles (edible), Penicillium Puffballs.
(source of antibiotics)
7 KINGDOM PLANTAE 9 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS

m Includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll containing organisms called plants. m In R.H. Whittaker's system, there is no mention of lichens, viruses, viroids and prions.
m Some are partially heterotrophic such as insectivorous plants e.g. m Viruses are non-cellular that are characterised by having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
m Viruses contain either RNA or DNA.
Cuscuta, Bladderwort and Venus fly trap. m Bacterial viruses usually have dsDNA, viruses that infect plants generally have ss-RNA.
m Life cycle has two distinct phases - diploid sporophytic and haploid m Protein coat is called capsid made up of capsomeres, which protect the nucleic acid.
m Virus name given by Pasteur, recognized by D.J. Ivanowsky, demonstrated by M.W. Beijerinek.
gametophytic, phenomenon called alternation of generation. m Viruses causes diseases in animals as well as plants. They cause mumps, small pox, herpes & influenza in
animals.
8 KINGDOM ANIMALIA VIROIDS
m Discovered by T.O Diener.
m Includes heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms called animals.
m Was found to be free RNA, devoid of protein coat, hence named viroid.
m These are multicellular and lack cell walls. m Cause potato spindle tuber disease.
PRIONS
m Mode of nutrition is holozoic. Is abnormally folded protein. Similar in size to viruses. Cause Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr-jacob disease CJD humans.
m Store food as glycogen or fat.
LICHENS
m Are capable of locomotion. m Symbiotic association between algae & fungi.
m The algal component is phycobiont (autotrophic) and fungal component is mycobiont (heterotrophic)
m Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism. m Lichens are good pollution indicators, they do not grow in polluted areas.
m In plants symptoms of viral diseases can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
Plant Kingdom
3
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 2 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
m Our understanding of the plant

kingdom has changed overtime. ARTIFICIAL NATURAL PHYLOGENETIC
m Fungi and members of the Monera m Used only gross superficial morphological characters like m Based on natural affinities among organisms m Based on evolutionary
and Protista having cell walls have habit, colour, number and shapes of leaves etc. and consider both external and internal relationship between
m Based mainly on vegetative characters or on the features, like the various organisms.
now been excluded from plantae.
androecium structure (system given by Linnaeus). l Ultrastructure m This assumes that
Cyanobacteria that are also referred
l Anatomy organisms belonging to
to as blue green algae are not algae LIMITATIONS
l Embryology the same taxa have a
m Separated closely related species as they were based on a
anymore. l Phytochemistry common ancestor.
few characteristics.
m In plant kingdom, we describe m Such a classification for flowering plants
m It gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characters.
algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, was given by George Bentham and Joseph
This is not acceptable because vegetative characters are
Dalton Hooker
gymnosperms and angiosperms. more easily affected by environment.
3 BRANCHES OF TAXONOMY 4 ALGAE

Algae are chlorophyll bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and large aquatic (both fresh
m
water and marine) organisms.

NUMERICAL TAXONOMY CYTOTAXONOMY CHEMOTAXONOMY m They occur in variety of other habitats like moist stones, soil & wood.
m Carried out using computers. Based m Based on cytological m Uses chemical m Some occur in association with fungi (lichen) & animals (e.g. on sloth bear).
on observable characteristics. information like constituents of the plants m Form and size is highly variable, from colonial (Volvox) to filamentous (Ulothrix and
m Number and codes are assigned to chromosome to resolve confusions. Spirogyra) to massive plant bodies (marine forms like Kelps) to unicellular form
all characters and then data are number, structure (Chlamydomonas).
processed. m Algae can reproduce by vegetative (fragmentation), asexual and sexual means.
and behaviour.
m Each character is given equal m Asexual reproduction – by formation of different types of spores. Most common is zoospore.
importance and at the same time m Sexual reproduction 1. ISOGAMOUS = Gametes are similar in size
hundreds of characters can be (I) Flagellated gametes e.g. Ulothrix
considered.
m (These become more important when there is no (ii) Non -flagellated gametes e.g. Spirogyra
supporting fossil evidence) 2. ANISOGAMOUS = Gametes dissimilar in size e.g. Eudorina
3. OOGAMOUS = Fusion between one large non-motile
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE female gamete and a smaller male gamete. e.g. Volvox, Fucus
m At least a half of the total CO2 fixation on earth is carried out by algae. m HYDROCOLLOIDS like algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae) are used
m Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate commercially.
environment. m Agar obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in
m They are primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form the basis of food cycles preparations of ice-creams and jellies.
of all aquatic animals.
m Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum are among 70 species of marine m Chlorella are rich in proteins and used as food supplement even by space travellers.
algae used as food.
NCERT Maps Plant Kingdom 13
5 THE THREE MAIN CLASSES OF ALGAE
CHLOROPHYCEAE PHAEOPHYCEAE RHODOPHYCEAE

m Usually grass-green due to dominance of m Found primarily in marine habitats. m Red algae have predominance of red pigment r-phycoerythrin in their body.
Chl- a & b. Commonly called green algae. m Commonly called brown algae. m Possess chl-a and d.
m Pigments are localised in definite m Possess chl- a, c; carotenoids and xanthophylls. m Majority are marine with greater concentrations found in warmer areas.
chloroplasts. m Olive green to various shades of brown depending on amount m Occur both in well-lighted regions close to water surface or at great depth in
m Most members have one or more storage of xanthophyll pigment fucoxanthin. ocean where little light penetrates.
bodies in the chloroplasts called m Food storage as laminarin and mannitol m Cell wall is made up of cellulose, pectin and polysulphated esters.
pyrenoids, which contain protein & m Cellulosic cell wall covered by algin.
m Mostly multicellular with some having complex body organisation.
starch. m Plant body usually has holdfast, stipe and frond.
m Food stored as floridean starch, very similar to amylopectin and glycogen
m Have rigid cell-wall made of inner- m In most brown algae pear shaped biflagelled zoospores have
in structure.
cellulose and outer layer of pectose. two unequal laterally attached flagella.
m Asexual spores and gametes are non-motile
m Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, m Sexual reproduction may be isogomous, anisogamous or
anisogamous or oogamous. m Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex post
oogamous.
fertilisation developments.
m Eg Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, m Gametes pyriform with two laterally attached flagella.
Spirogyra, Chara. etc. m Eg. Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus etc. m Eg. Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria Gelidium etc.
6 BRYOPHYTES (Mosses and Liverworts) 7 PTERIDOPHYTES (Horsetails and Ferns)

m Bryophytes commonly grow in moist shaded area in the hills. m Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants with vascular tissues.
m Called Amphibians of plant kingdom, because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on water for m Found in cool, damp, shady places, though some flourish in sandy-soil.
sexual reproduction. m Main plant body is sporophyte (2n), with true root, stem and leaves.
m Rhizoids may be unicellular or multicellular. m Leaves are small (microphylls) as in Selaginalla or large (macrophylls) as in
m Main plant Body is haploid (gametophyte) ferns.
m Multicellular sex organ ( antheridium & archegonium) m Sporophytes bear sporangia subtended by sporophyll, which may be compact
m Antherozoids are biflagellated. called strobili or cones, as in Selaginella, Equisetum.
m Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, bird & other animals. Sporangia ® Sporemother Cell
Meiosis
Spores
m Species of Sphagnum provide peat used as fuel and as packing material for trans-shipment of living (2n) (2n) (n)
material as they hold water. m Spores germinate to produce inconspicuous, small, multi-cellular, free-living,
m Mosses (along with Lichens) are of great ecological importance, they decompose rocks making substrate mostly photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
suitable for growth of higher plants. They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil. m Gametophytes need cool, damp, shady places to grow. This specific
m Mosses form dense mats on soil, reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosion. requirement and need of water for fertilisation limit the spread of living
BRYOPHYTES ARE DIVIDED INTO pteridophytes and restricted to narrow geographical regions.
m Male and female sex organs are antheridia and archegonia.
LIVERWORTS MOSSES m Majority are homosprous, but genera like Selaginella and
m Plant body thalloid. m Gametophytes consist of two stages Salvinia are heterosporous. In heterosporous species the
1. Protonema; 2. Leafy-stage female gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophyte.
m Thallus dorsi-ventral, appressed to the substrate.
m Protonema stage: develops directly from a spore. Protonema Zygote develops into young embryos within female
m Leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in gametophytes.
two rows on stem-like structures. is creeping, green, branched and frequently filamentous stage.
m Leafy stage: develops from secondary protonema as a lateral This event is a precursor to seed habit, considered an
m Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation and important step in Evolution.
bud. They consist of upright, slender axes bearning spirally
gemmae. m Used for medicinal purposes and as soil binders, also grown as
arranged leaves, attached to the soil through multi-cellular
m Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds branched rhizoids. It also bears sex-organs. ornamentals.
formed in gemma cups located on thalli. m Vegetative reproduction: by fragmentation and budding in m Pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:
m Sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and secondary protonema. 1. Psilopsida - Psilotum
capsule. After meiosis spores are produced in the m Sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than in liverworts. They 2. Lycopsida - Selaginella, Lycopodium
capsule, which germinate to produce free-living have more elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal. 3. Sphenopsida - Equisetum
gametophytes. Eg. Marchantia. m Eg: Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum. 4. Pteropsida - Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum
14 Plant Kingdom NCERT Maps
8 GYMNOSPERMS (Gymnos = naked, sperma = seed) 10 PLANT LIFE-CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
m Plants in which ovules are not enclosed by ovary wall and remain exposed both before m In plants both haploid and diploid cells can divide by mitosis, which leads to the formation of
and after fertilisation. Seeds that develop post-fertilisation are naked. haploid and diploid plant bodies.
m Gymnosperms include medium-sized or tall trees and shrubs. m The haploid plant body produces gametes by mitosis, so called gametophytes.
m The giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species. m After fertilisation zygote also divides by mitosis to produce diploid sporophyte plant body.
m Roots: generally tap roots, having fungal association as mycorrhiza (Pinus) or coralloid
m Haploid spores are produced by the sporophyte by meiosis which divide to form haploid body
root with N2-fixing cyanobacteria as in Cycas. again, thus there is alternation of generation between haploid gametophyte and spore producing
m Stem: Branched (Pinus; Cedrus), Unbranched (Cycas) sporophyte during sexual reproduction in plants.
m Long and Dwarf shoot: in Pinus and Ginkgo.
m Leaf: Simple (Pinus); pinnate compound (Cycas). THE DIFFERENT LIFE-CYCLE PATTERNS
m Leaves are well-adapted to withstand extreme temperature, humidity and wind. In the
conifers, needle-like leaves reduce surface area. Thick cutile and sunken stomata help
to reduce water loss. 1. HAPLONTIC 2. DIPLONTIC 3. HAPLO-DIPLONTIC
m Gymnosperms are heterosporous
Microsporophylls ® Male cone/strobili/lax Zygote Sporophyte
(2n) Meiosis (2n) Sporophyte
m Sporophylls (2n)
Megasporophylls ® Female cone/strobili Zygote (2n)
Syngamy Spores
m Male and female sporangia borne on microsporophylls and megasporphylls respectively. A (n) Syn
gam
Microsporangia (2n) ® Pollen grain (n) Diplontic y A
Gametogenesis
m Sporangia B A Meiosis
Meiosis Haplontic
Megasporangia/Ovule (2n) of MMC 4 Megaspores Zygote (2n) Meiosis Gametogenesis
y B Spores
am B Haplo-diplontic
one develops into Female gametophyte/Endosperm (n) ng (n)
Sy
m Pinus is monoecious, i.e., male and female cone or strobili are borne on same tree; Gametogenesis (n) Gametophyte
Gametophyte
Cycas is dioecious, i.e., male cone and megasporophylls are borne on different trees. (n) Gametophyte (n)
(Female cone is absent in Cycas). (a) (b) (c)
m Male gametophyte, i.e., pollen grains are highly reduced and confined to limited number
1. HAPLONTIC: Sporophytic generation represented only by single-cell zygote. There are no free
of cells.
m Female gametophytes bear two or more archegonia or female sex organs. The living sporophytes. Meiosis in zygote produces haploid spores, which divide mitotically to form
multicellular female gametophyte is retained within megasporangium. dominant, photosynthetic free-living gametophyte.
m Male and female gametophytes do not have an independent free living existence. E.g., Many algae such as Volvox, Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas.
m Pollen grains are carried by air currents and come in contact with opening of ovules. 2. DIPLONTIC: Sporophyte dominant, free-living and photosynthetic. The gametophytic phase is
m Fertilisation is by pollen-tube formation which carries male gametes. Zygote forms represented by single to few-celled gametophyte.
embryo and ovules form naked seeds.
E.g., All seed bearing plants, i.e., gymnosperms and angiosperms
9 ANGIOSPERMS and alga like Fucus sp.
m In angiosperms or the flowering plants, pollen grains and ovules develop in specialised structures called flowers. 3. HAPLO-DIPLONTIC:
Seeds are enclosed in fruits.
(a) Gametophyte dominant, independent, photosynthetic which
m Angiosperms are an exceptionally large group of plants occurring in wide range of habitats.
alternates with totally or partially dependent sporophyte e.g.,
m Smallest angiosperm is Wolffia.
All bryophytes.
m They are divided into two classes: Dicots having seeds with two cotyledons, reticulate venation in leaf and tetra or
(b) Sporophyte dominant, independent, photosynthetic, vascular
pentamerous flowers and Monocots having single cotyledon seed, parallel venation in leaves and trimerous flowers.
which alternates with saprophytic/autotropic independent but
m Pollination is by wind or various other agencies.
short-lived gametophyte.
m Double-fertilisation is unique to the angiosperms. Syngamy produces zygote and triple-fusion produces triploid
primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). e.g., All pteridophytes
m Zygote develops in embryo (with one or two cotyledons) and PEN develops into endosperm (3n) which provides m Some alga like Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia, Kelps are also
nourishment to the developing embryo. The ovules develop into seeds and the ovaries develop into fruits. haplodiplontic.
Morphology of Flowering Plants
4
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 4 MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT 5 THE STEM

m Angiosperms show a large diversity in morphology. Possibly the Storage of food m Develops from plumule
variation in different parts are due to the adaptations to various habitats. m Tap root – Carrot, turnip m Bears nodes, internodes, buds (terminal or axillary).
m A plant has root system and shoot system m Adventitious root – Sweet potato m Functions :
l Spread out branches bearing leaves, flowers, fruits.
Prop root
2 THE ROOT l Conducts water, minerals and photosynthates
m Arise from branches to support them
m Elongation of radicle form primary root MODIFICATIONS OF STEM
m eg. Banyan
m Underground stem: For storage of food, also act as organ of
m Primary root bears lateral roots of several orders that are referred to as Stilt root perennation to tide over conditions unfavourable for growth.
secondary, tertiary etc. roots.
m Supporting root coming out from lower eg. potato, ginger, turmeric, Colocasia, Zaminkand
m Types of roots nodes m Tendrils: Axillary bud may modify into tendril, help plants to
m Tap root system : l Includes primary root and its branches m eg. Maize sugarcane climb.
l Seen mainly in dicots eg. Mustard Pneumatophore e g . G r a p e v i n e s a n d G o u r d s ( C u c u m b e r, P u m p k i n ,
Watermelon).
m Fibrous root system : In monocots, primary root is short lived and m Root growing vertically upward for oxygen
replaced by a large number of roots originate from the base of the stem. m Thorn: Axillary buds modify into woody pointed thorn eg.
in plants of swampy area
Bougainvillea, Citrus
m Adventitious roots : Roots that arise from parts of plants other than m eg. Rhizophora m Flat or cylindrical photosynthetic stem: eg. Opuntia
radicle eg. grass, Monstera and banyan tree. (flattened), Euphorbia (cylindrical)
m Functions of roots :
SOME OTHER MODIFICATIONS OF STEM
l Absorption of water and minerals from soil.
m In mint and jasmine a slender lateral branch arise from base of the main axis and after growing aerially arch
l Provide anchorage to plant parts. downward and touch the ground.
l Storage of reserve food materials. m Aquatic plants like Pistia and Eichhornia have lateral branch with short internodes and each node bear rosette of
l Synthesis of plant growth regulators (PGRs) leaves and tuft of roots.
m In banana, pineapple and Chrysanthemum lateral branches arise from basal and underground stem, grow
3 REGIONS OF ROOT horizontally and then come out obliquely upward to form leafy shoots.
m Underground stem of grass and strawberry spread to new niches and when older part dies new plants are formed.
Underground storage stem also acts as organ of perrenation
Region of Some epidermal cells 6 THE LEAF TYPES OF LEAVES

maturation of this region form root m Lateral generally flat structure, develops at node and m SIMPLE LEAF : Lamina is entire or when incised,
Root hair hairs bear a bud in its axil. incision do not reach midrib
m Arise from shoot apical meristem and arranged in m COMPOUND LEAF : Incision of lamina reaches
acropetal order. up to the midrib breaking it into leaflets. It is of two
m Consist of 3 parts, Leaf base, Petiole and Lamina types
Region of Cells of this region gradually
Thimble like structure elongation differentiate and mature m Two lateral small leaf like structures at leaf base, are (i) Pinnately compound-leaflets are present on a
covering root apex called stipules.
common axis, the rachis. eg. Neem
m Leaf base may expand into sheath like structure covering
Region of meristematic Small, thin walled cells stem partially or wholly in monocots. (ii) Palmately compound-leaflets are attached at a
Root cap activity with dense protoplasm
m Leaf base may become swollen in leguminous plants common point i.e. at the tip of petiole. eg. silk
called pulvinus. cotton
NCERT Maps Morphology of Flowering Plants 19
7 8 THE INFLORESCENCE
Reticulate Alternate : Single leaf at each
m Flower is a modified shoot
m Veinlets form Venation LEAF Phyllotaxy node arranged in alternate
network manner eg. china rose, mustard, Shoot apical meristem modifies into floral meristem
m eg. generally in sunflower m During flowering
dicots Opposite : Pair of leaves arise Internode do not elongate and axis gets condensed
at each node eg. Guava, m Solitary flower : Shoot tip transforms into a flower
Parallel Modifications of leaves
Calotropis m Arrangement of flowers on floral axis is called inflorescence
m Veins run parallel
Whorled :More than two leaves
to each other Two major types
arise at each node eg.Alstonia
m eg. most monocots
Racemose Cymose
Spines eg. Cacti (for defence) m Main axis continues to grow m Main axis terminates into a flower
Tendril In Australian Acacia Fleshy leaves for For traping insect eg. (limited growth)
eg. Pea petiole expands and storage eg. Onion, venus-fly trap, pitcher plant m Flowers borne laterally in acropetal succession m Flowers borne in basipetal succession
become photosynthatic Garlic (insectivorous plant)
10 PARTS OF A FLOWER
9 THE FLOWER (REPRODUCTIVE UNIT)
Flower can be divided into two equal halves in Flower can be divided into two similar halves
any plane passing through centre eg. chilli, only in one particular vertical plane eg. Pea, CALYX COROLLA ANDROECIUM GYNOECIUM
mustard, Datura bean Cassia, gulmohur m Outermost whorl m Members called m Composed of stamens m Made of one or more
m Members called sepal petals m Stamens consist of filament carpels
Actinomorphic (Radial symmetry) Zygomorphic (Bilateral symmetry) m Protect flower in bud m Brightly coloured + anther m Carpel consist of stigma
stage MAY BE m Each anther is bilobed and style and ovary
m Generally green m Gamopetatous each lobe has two chambers m Each ovary bears one
(petal united) m Sterile stamen – Staminode or more ovules attached
Symmetry MAY BE
Flower either Trimerous – Floral appendages are to a flat cushion like
m Gamosepalous m Polypetalous m Male reproductive part
have androecium Unisexual multiple of 3 placenta.
(sepals united) (petals free)
or carpels m Carpels may be free,
Types Types m Polysepalous (sepals apocarpous (eg. lotus,
FLOWER Tetramerous – Floral appendages are free) rose) or united,
multiple of 4
Flower have both Bisexual Types syncarpous (tomato,
stamens and carpels mustard)
Pentamerous – Floral appendages are m When calyx and corolla are not distinct termed as perianth (unit tepal) eg. lily.
multiple of 5
Aestivation :
m Mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud w.r.t. other members of the same whorl.
Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous TYPES
m Gynoecium occupies m Gynoecium situated in m Margin of thalamus grows

highest position, other centre, other parts located upward enclosing ovary VALVATE TWISTED IMBRICATE VEXILLARY
parts are situated below it. at the rim of thalamus completely and get fused m Sepale/petals in a m One margin of the m Margins of sepals or m Five petals, one largest
m Superior ovary m Ovary half inferior with it, other parts arise whorl just touch one appendage overlaps petals overlap one (standard) overlaps two
above the ovary. lateral petals (wings)
Eg. BMC China rose Eg. 2PR Rose another at the margin the next one and so on. another but not in any
m Ovary inferior which in turn overlap two
Mustard Peach without overlapping m eg. china rose, lady's particular direction.
Eg. Guava, Cucumber and smallest anterior petals
Brinjal Plum ray florets of sunflower
eg. Calotropis. finger, cotton. m eg. Cassia, gulmohur.
(keel)
m eg. Pea, bean
m A flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into similar halves by any vertical plane
passing through the centre. eg.-Canna
m Flowers with bracts (reduced leaf) found at the base of pedicle, called bracteate and without bract
called ebracteate.
20 Morphology of Flowering Plants NCERT Maps
11 STAMEN 12 PLACENTATION
m Arrangement of ovules within the ovary
Attachment with other floral whorl Attachment with each other

TYPES
m Attachment with petals

epipetalous (brinjal) MARGINAL AXILE PARIETAL FREE CENTRAL BASAL
Free m United with each other in one bundle Ovules are borne
m Placenta forms a m Placenta axial, m Ovules develop on inner wall m m Placenta develops at
m Attachment with perianth
¯ Monadelphous ridge along ventral ovules attached on of ovary or on peripheral part. on central axis and the base of ovary and
epiphyllous (lily) septa are absent
Polyandrous eg. China rose suture of ovary and it in a multilocular Ovary is one chambered but a single ovule is
ovules are borne on ovary. become two chambered due eg. Primrose attached to it
m United in two bundles
it forming two rows eg. china rose to false septum Dianthus eg. sunflower marigold.
Diadelphous eg. pea tomato, lemon eg. Mustard, Argemone
eg. Pea in
m United in more than two bundles – Polyadelphous
There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower as in Salvia and mustard.
13 THE FRUIT AND SEED
OVULE OVARY
¯ (After fertilization) ¯
m Turns into seed m Ripens into Fruit
Consists of
Consists of
Seeds Pericarp
Seed coat (Testa, tegmen) Embryo

May be dry or fleshy
DICOT SEED MONOCOT SEED
Divided into
m Contains two cotyledons m Single large shield shaped cotyledon called scutellum
m Usually lack endosperm except castor m Endospermous. In orchid non-endospermic
m Embryo consists of embryonal axis (radicle + plumule) and 2 cotyledons m In cereals seed coat is membranous and generally fused with fruit wall
Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp
m Hilum is a scar on the seed coat. m In maize, endosperm is bulky and stores food. The outer covering of
m Above hilum is a small pore called micropyle endosperm separates the embryo by a proteinaceous layer called
aleurone layer.
m Eg. bean, gram, pea
m Fruit formed without fertilization is called
Seed coat Cotyledons Seed coat and fruit-wall Endosperm parthenocarpic fruit.
Aleurone layer m Mango and coconut are drupe type of
Plumule Scutellum fruits, develop from monocarpellary
Coleoptile superior ovaries and are one seeded. In
Hilum Plumule mango, mesocarp is fleshy edible and in
Micropyle Radicle
coconut it is fibrous. Both have hard stony
Radicle
Coleorhiza endocarp
NCERT Maps Morphology of Flowering Plants 21
15 DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

Character/feature Fabaceae Solanaceae Liliaceae
Earlier called Papillionoideaea, subfamily of Commonly called potato family A monocotyledonous family also called lily family
Leguminosae
m Stem Erect or climber Herbaceous, rarely woody solid/hollow, Underground bulbs/corms/rhizome
hairy/glabrous, underground as in potato
m Leaves Alternate, pinnately compound pulvinate, stipulate, Alternate, simple, rarely pinnate, reticulate venation Mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate, parallel venation
venation reticulate
m Inflorescence Racemose Solitary, axillary or cymose as in Solanum Solitary/cymose, often umbellate clusters
m Flower Bisexual, zygomorphic Bisexual, actinomorphic Bisexual, actinomorphic
m Calyx 5, gamosepalous, valvate/imbricate 5, gamosepalous, persistent, valvate aestivation Perianth: Tepal 6(3 + 3), often united in tube, valvate
aestivation aestivation
m Corolla 5, polypetalous, papilionaceous corolla, 5, gamopetalous, valvate aertivation
vexillary aestivation
m Androecium 10, diadelphous, anther dithecus 5, epipetalous 6(3 + 3), epitepalous
m Gynoecium Superior ovary, monocarpellary, unilocular, many Bicarpellary, obliquely placed, syncarpous, superior, Tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, trilocular, axile
ovules, marginal placentation bilocular, placenta swollen, axile placentation, placentation, many ovules
many ovules
m Fruit and seed Legume, non-endospermic seed Berry/capsule, endospermous seed Capsule rarely berry, endospermous seeds
m Floral formula % K(5) C1+2+(2) A(9)+1G1 K(5) C(5) A5 G(2) Br P(3+3) A3+3 G(3)
m Floral diagram
14 Semi technical description of a typical flowering plant

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCES
A. Symbols used in floral formula : Floral formula of mustard
Calyx – K K2+2 C4 A2+4G(2)
Corolla – C
Floral diagram of mustard
Fabaceae Solanaceae Liliaceae Perianth – P
Androecium – A
m Pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean) m Food – (Tomato, potato, brinjal) m Vegetable – (Asparagus)
Gynoecium – G
m Edible oil (Soyabean Groundnut) m Spice – (Chilli) m Medicine – (Aloe) Superior ovary – G
–
m Dye (Indigofera) m Medicine – (Belladonna, Ashwagandha) m Ornamental (Tulip, Gloriosa) Inferior ovary – G
Male flower –
m Fibres (Sunhemp) m Fumigatory – Tabacoo m Colchicine (Colchicum
autumnale) Female flower –
m Fodder (Sesbania Trifolium) m Ornamental – Petunia
Bisexual flower –
m Ornamental (Lupin, sweet pea) Actinomorphic flower –
m Medicine (muliathi) Zygomorphic flower – %
Anatomy of Flowering Plants
5
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUES
3
Parenchyma (MADE OF ONLY ONE TYPE OF CELLS)
m Anatomy : Study of internal structure of plants m Internal structures also show adaptation to diverse environments.
m Forms major component within organs
m Spherical, oval, round, polygonal or elongated in shape
2 THE TISSUES m Thin walled, living
m Group of cells having a common origin and usually performing a common function is called tissue. m Cellulosic cell wall
m May have small intercellular spaces
TYPES
m Functions
Meristematic tissues Permanent tissues (1) Storage
Intercelluar
m Actively dividing cells m Newely formed structurally (2) Secretion
space
m Two types according to appearance in life and functionally (3) Photosynthesis
specialised cells (if have chlorophyll)
Primary meristem (Appear early in life) Secondary meristem (appear later than primary meristem) m Do not divide further Collenchyma
Simple m Occurs in layers below epidermis
m Two types
m Also called Lateral meristem m Cells may be oval, spherical or polygonal in shape
Apical meristem Intercalary meristem Complex
m Cylindrical meristem found in mature m Thick walled, living
m Found at tips of roots and shoots m Occurs between mature tissues regions of roots and shoots m Corners of cell deposited with cellulose,
m Some shoot apical meristem cells m Occurs in grasses, regenerate parts
TYPES hemicellulose and pectin
that are left behind during stem removed by grazing herbivores Thickened corners
m Intercellular space absent
elongation and leaf formation Protoplasm
constitute axillary buds. Intrafascicular Meristem Interfascicular Meristem Cork Cambium
Vacuole
m Axillary buds are capable of Found between xylem and phloem Found between two Extrastelar cambium Cell wall
forming a branch or a flower. in a conjoint vascular bundle vascular bundles formed in cortical region
4 COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES (MADE OF MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF CELLS)

Types
Functions
(1) Provide mechanical support to growing parts
Xylem (Four components) Phloem (Four components)
Tracheid Sieve tube elements (Gymnosperms have sieve cells) of plants
m Elongated, tube like with tapering ends, m Long, tube like, perforated end walls, lack nucleus at maturity
(2) May perform photosynthesis (if cells contain
lignified, dead and without protoplasm m Peripheral cytoplasm with large central vacuole chloroplast)
m Water transporting element m Transport of food material Sclerenchyma
Vessel Companion cell (Gymnosperms have albuminous cells) m Long, narrow cells with thick Lumen
m Long cylindrical tube, absent in gymnosperm m Specialised parenchyma cell, connected to sieve tubes by pit fields Thick
lignified wall
m Multicelled, dead, devoid of protoplasm, m Helps to maintain pressure gradient in sieve tubes. cell wall
m Dead
lignified with large central cavity m The functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion cells.
m May be elongated and
m Main water conducting element in angiosperms Phloem parenchyma
pointed-Sclerenchyma fibre
Xylem Parenchyma m Elongated, tapering cylindrical cells
m May be spherical, oval or A fibre
m Living, thin walled m Stores food material, resin, mucilage, latex etc.
m Absent in most of the monocots
cylindrical-Sclereids
m Involved in radial conduction of water, may Pits
store food Bast fibres (Phloem fibres) (Common in fruits, nuts,
Lumen
Sclerenchyma Fibres m Elongated, sclerenchymatous, unbranched, pointed needle like apices pulp of guava, pear, etc.)
m Jute, flax and hemp produce commercial bast fibres. Function: Thick
m Dead, lignified wall with obliterated lumen
m Generally absent in primary phloem but found in secondary phloem. Mechanical support A sclereid cell wall
26 Anatomy of Flowering Plants NCERT Maps
5 6 Epidermal tissue system

Xylem types Phloem types
m Forms outermost covering of plant body
Epidermis m Parenchymatous, usually single layered,
Primary Secondary xylem Primary Secondary phloem outermost covering
xylem m Formed during secondary growth phloem m Formed during secondary growth
m Often covered by waxy cuticle (absent in roots)
Stomata m Consist of guard cells and subsidiary cells
m Protoxylem (First m Metaxylem (Later m Protophloem (first m Metaphloem (Later
formed and have formed and have m Bean/kidney shaped guard cells - Dicot and
formed with narrow formed with
narrow sieve tubes) broad sieve tubes) Dumbell shaped - Monocot
vessel) broader vessel)
m Stomatal aperture + guard cells + subsidiary
l Endarch - Protoxylem lies towards pith/centre and metaxylem towards periphery e.g., stems cells = stomatal apparatus
l Exarch - Protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem towards pith e.g., roots
Root hairs m Unicellular elongation of epidermal cells
m Absorb water and mineral from soil
7 COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT ROOT
THE TISSUE SYSTEM

Trichomes m In shoot system usually multicellular
Features Dicot root Monocot root m Branched/unbranched, soft or stiff
Epiblema With root hairs With root hairs m Can be secretory, prevent water loss
Cortex Thin walled parenchymatous with intercellular Thin walled parenchymatous with In leaves
space intercellular space Ground m Ground tissue consists of thin walled chloroplast
tissue
Endodermis Barrel shaped cells with casparian strip Barrel shaped cells with casparian strip containing cells called mesophyll
system
Pericycle Thick walled parenchymatous, form lateral roots Thick walled parenchymatous, form lateral
and vascular cambium roots In stem and root
Vascular Radial, exarch, 2-4 xylem and phloem patches Radial, exarch, usually more than 6 xylem m Made up of all the tissues except epidermis and
bundle bundles (polyarch) vascular bundles
Pith Poorely developed or absent Well developed m Consist of parenchymatous cortex, pericycle, pith,
medullary rays and conjunctive tissue (between
xylem and phloem in roots)
8 COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT STEM m Hypodermis - found in stem absent in roots
Features Dicot stem Monocot stem
Epidermis With cuticle and stomata With cuticle and stomata Open - cambium present
Presence/absence e.g. Dicot stem
Hypodermis Collenchymatous Sclerenchymatous
of
Cortex
Cortical Parenchymatous Large parenchymatous Closed - cambium absent

cambium
layer Vascular tissue e.g., monocot stem
system types
Endodermis Starch rich referred to as starch sheath Absent
Conjoint
Pericycle Semi-lunar patches of sclerenchyma Absent m Consists of According to
Xylem and phloem on same
xylem and arrangement
Vascular Conjoint, open, endarch and arranged in Conjoint, closed, scattered and each radius e.g., stem, leaves
phloem of xylem and
bundle a ring surrounded by sclerenchymatous sheath,
phloem Radial
smaller peripheral ones, larger central ones,
water containing cavity in vascular bundle Xylem and phloem are on
different radii in alternate
Pith Parenchymatous with intercellular spaces Absent
manner e.g., root
NCERT Maps Anatomy of Flowering Plants 27
9 COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT LEAF 11 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WOODS
Features Dicotyledonous leaf Monocotyledonous leaf Spring wood Autumn wood

Stomata More on lower (abaxial) surface as compared to Equally distributed on both adaxial and
upper (adaxial) one. It is called dorsiventral leaf abaxial epidermis, isobilateral leaf m Form in spring season m Form in autumn season
m Also called early wood m Also called late wood
Epidermis Covered by cuticle Covered by cuticle, may have large,
empty, colourless bulliform cells on m Cambium usually more active m Cambium is less active in autumn
upper epidermis, to minimise water loss. in spring m Contains fewer xylary elements
Mesophyll Two types - Adaxially placed palisade parenchyma Only spongy parenchyma is found, m Contains more xylary elements m Vessel have narrow cavities
(elongated cells, vertically and parallely arranged palisade parenchyma absent m Vessels have wider cavities m Darker in colour, higher density
to each other), spongy parenchyma - loosely m Lighter in colour, lower density
arranged with air cavities, below the palisade cells
Vascular Conjoint, size vary according to thickness of veins, Conjoint, nearly similar sized due to Spring wood + Autumn wood ⇒ One annual ring
bundle has thick walled bundle sheath parallel venation (in temperate region plants) (used to estimate age of tree)
Heart wood Sapwood

10 SECONDARY GROWTH
m Secondary xylem of center most m Formed by secondary xylem of
m Occur in most dicots to increase girth region peripheral region
m Tissue involved are lateral meristem - vascular cambium and cork cambium.
m Dead with lignified wall, m Living
m Dark in colour, hard, durable
Vascular cambium Cork cambium
m Deposited with tannin, resin etc. m Lighter in colour
m Form secondary vascular tissues m Replaces outer broken cortex and epidermis m Do not conduct water but provide m Involved in conduction of water
m Formation : In dicot stem formed by m Formation : In dicot stem formed by mechanical support and minerals
Intrafascicular cambium and dedifferentiation of cortex cells
Interfascicular cambium (formed by m Couple of layer thick and composed of narrow
thin walled nearly rectangular cells 12 SECONDARY GROWTH IN ROOTS
dedifferentiation of cells of medullary rays)
Occurs through
m Activity : Phellogen or cork cambium cuts off cells
m Activity: Vascular cambium cuts off cells
Vascular cambium Cork cambium
Towards pith Towards periphery Towards outer side Towards inner side m Completely secondary in origin m Formed by cells of
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ m Formation : by pericycle, rest
Form suberin deposited Form parenchymatous
Form secondary xylem Form secondary phloem impervious cells, secondary cortex, i. A portion of pericycle activity is similar to
cork/phellem phelloderm ii. Tissues just below phloem dicot stem
m Since cambium is more active towards
innerside, thus amount of secondary xylem m Activity : similar to dicot stem
m Phellem + Phellogen + Phelloderm ® Periderm
produced will be more than secondary phloem m Bark : Non technical term referring all tissues m In roots, cambium do not show seasonal activity
m Primary and secondary phloem gradually get exterior to vascular cambium, it can be early
crushed while primary xylem remains more or bark (produced early in the season) or late bark
less intact (produced in the end of season)
m Vascular cambium also produces secondary Lenticels : m Endodermis is innermost layer of cortex in roots and dicot stem.
m Lense shaped opening formed by rupturing of
medullary rays in radial direction epidermis m Primary meristem contributes to the formation of primary plant body
m At certain region phellogen produces closely m Secondary meristems are responsible for producing secondary tissue
arranged parenchymatous cells instead of cork m Stele : All tissues on the innerside of endodermis such as pericycle,
cells.
m Permit gaseous exchanges in woody parts. vascular bundles and pith.
6
Cell : The Unit of Life Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 5 PROKARYOTIC CELLS 6 EUKARYOTIC CELLS
m What makes an organism living? The answer to this is the m Lack membrane bound cell organelles. m Besides the nucleus eukaryotic cells have
presence of the basic unit of life the cell in all living m Are represented by bacteria, blue green algae, Mycoplasma or PPLO. other membrane bound structure called
organisms. All organisms are composed of cells. m In addition to genomic DNA, many bacteria have small circular DNA outside organelles like ER, Golgi complex etc.
the genomic DNA called plasmids. Plasmid DNA confers certain unique m The eukaryotes include all the protists,
2 WHAT IS A CELL? phenotypic characters to such bacteria. One such character is resistance to plants, animals and fungi. Plant cells have
antibiotics. Plasmid DNA is used to monitor bacterial transformation with large vacuole. Animals cells have
m Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all
foreign DNA. centrioles which are almost absent in plant
living organisms. Anything less than a complete structure of
m All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane (except cells.
a cell does not ensure independent living.
Mycoplasma). m Ribosomes are of 80S (in cytoplasm).
m Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell.
Cell envelope and its modifications Small subunit is 40S and large 80S.
m Most prokaryotic cells have cell envelope, which is tightly bound three
Cell Membrane
3 CELL THEORY
m Chemical studies on the cell membrane,
layered structure.
m In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined m The outermost glycocalyx followed by cell wall and then the plasma
especially in human RBC enabled
a large number of plants and observed that all plants are membrane. scientists to deduce the possible structure
composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of m Glycocalyx may be a loose sheath called slime layer or thick and tough called
of plasma membrane.
the plant. At the same time, Schwann (1839) a British m Cell membrane is mainly composed of
capsule.
Zoologist, reported that animal cells had a thin layer called proteins and lipids (mainly phospholipids).
m The cell wall prevents bacteria from bursting or collapsing.
plasma membrane. He concluded that plant cells have cell m Phospholipids consist of polar head
m Extension of plasma membrane into the cell in the form of vesicles, tubules
walls. Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell (outward) and non-polar tail (hydrophobic)
and lamellae are mesosomes. It helps in cell wall formation, DNA replication,
theory but this theory did not explain as to how-new cells are inner side. In human RBC 52% is proteins
distribution of daughter cells, respiration, secretion process and increase the
formed. and 40% lipids.
m Rudolf Virchow explained that new cells arise from surface area of plasma membrane. m Membrane proteins can be integral or
m In cyanobacteria, chromatophores contain pigments.
pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula) and finally peripheral.
m Each layer of the cell envelope performs distinct function, they act together as
modified the cell theory as: m Most accepted model for structure of cell
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products a single protective unit. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable in membrane is fluid mosaic model given
of cells nature and interacts with the outside world. It is structurally similar to that of by Singer and Nicolson (1972).
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells. eukaryotes. m Membrane is selectively permeable. Many
m Bacteria may be motile or non-motile. If motile they have flagella, composed molecules can move across the
4 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL of three parts filament, hook and basal body. membrane without any requirement of
m Pili and fimbriae do not play role in motility. energy is called passive transport.
m Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities for m Bacteria on the basis of the differences in the cell envelope can be Gram
example, Mycoplasma is smallest cell while egg of an Movement of water by diffusion is called
positive or Gram negative. osmosis. M a n y m o l e c u l e s r e q u i r e
ostrich is the largest isolated single cell. Nerve cells are
Ribosomes and inclusion bodies energy/ATP for their transport called active
some of the longest cells. + +
m Ribosomes are 70S, has subunits 50S and 30S. Several ribosomes may
m The cytoplasm is main arena of cellular activities in transport, e.g. Na /K pump.
both plant and animal cells. attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called polyribosome or m The quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables
m Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in polysome. lateral movement of proteins within the
both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Apart from cytoplasm, m Ribosomes are associated with plasma membrane. overall bilayer. This ability to move within
they are also found in mitochondria, chloroplast and on m The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins. the membrane is measured as its fluidity.
rough ER. Inclusion bodies m Polar molecules cannot move through the
m Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound m Reserve material is stored in the form of inclusion bodies in prokaryotic non-polar lipid bilayer.
organelle called centrosome which helps in cell division. cytoplasm. Eg. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen m The fluid nature of membrane is important
m Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called granules. for functions like cell growth, formation of
eukaryotic cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus called m Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic intercellular junctions, secretion,
prokaryotic cells. bacteria. endocytosis, cell division etc.
32 Cell : The Unit of Life NCERT Maps
7 CELL WALL
m Non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms an outer covering of the plasma membrane in fungi and plants. The cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of growth which
gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall is formed on inner side (towards membrane) of the cell. The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate.
m Algae have cell wall made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium carbonate. In plants it consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and proteins.
8 ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
m While each of the membranous organelles is distinct in terms of its structure and function, many of these are considered
Nucleus
Nuclear pore Rough together as an endomembrane system because their functions are coordinated.
Cisternae
endoplasmic
reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus Lysosome Vacuole
Reticulum of tiny tubular These were named Golgi bodies after These are membrane bound The vacuole is the membrane
structures scattered in the discoverer name Camillo Golgi. vesicular structures formed by bound space found in the
cytoplasm is called ER. the process of packaging in the cytoplasm, membrane is called
Golgi apparatus. tonoplast.
The ER which has ribosomes They consist of cisternae, which are They are rich in hydrolytic Contain water, sap, excretory
Ribosome on surface are called RER, in concentrically arranged near the nucleus with enzymes (lipases, proteases product and other materials not
absence of ribosomes they distinct convex cis or the forming face and carbohydrases), optimally active useful for the cell.
appear smooth called SER. concave trans or the maturing face. at acidic pH. In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum important for excretion.
Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus
RER is involved in protein Principally performs the function of packaging These enzymes are capable of In many cells, as in protists,
synthesis whereas SER is of materials. d i g e s t i n g c a r b o h y d r a t e s , food vacuoles are formed by
involved in lipid synthesis. It is the important site for formation of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. engulfing the food particles.
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
9 MITOCHONDRIA 10 PLASTIDS
m Mitochondria unless specifically stained are not easily visible under microscope. m Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoids. Based on the pigments plastids can be classified
m Each mitochondria is a double membrane bound structure with inner compartment into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
called matrix. The two membranes have their own specific enzymes. m The chloroplast contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments. The leucoplast are colourless plastids.
m The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of the organelle and Amyloplasts store carbohydrates e.g. Potato, Elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas the aleuroplast
inner membrane forms cristae. store proteins.
m Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic m Chloroplast are also double membrane bound structure which has membranous sac like structure called
respiration. They produce cellular energy in Outer Inner thylakoids and the matrix is called stroma. It also contains small, ds circular DNA and ribosomes.
the form of ATP, hence called 'power house membrane membrane Intermembrane Carotenoid is fat soluble pigment eg., carotene, xanthophyll etc.
space
of the cell'. The matrix has single circular Matrix Crista m The ribosomes of the chloroplasts (70S) are smaller Outer membrane
DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules,
than cytoplasmic ribosomes. Inner membrane
ribosomes (70S) and the components
m Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana Granum
required for the synthesis of proteins. Here
(singular-granum). Flat membranous tubules called the Thylakoid
‘S’ (Svedberg’s unit) stands for
sedimentation coefficient. It is an indirect Structure of mitochondrion (Longitudinal section) stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the Stroma
measure of density and size. different grana. lamella
m Stroma contain required enzymes for carbohydrate and Stroma
protein synthesis. Sectional view of chloroplast
Mitochondria divide by fission. m Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.
NCERT Maps Cell : The Unit of Life 33
11 CYTOSKELETON 12 CILIA AND FLAGELLA

m An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures m Cilia and flagella are hair like outgrowths of the cell membrane. Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible
present in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the for cell movement.
cytoskeleton.
m The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are structurally different from eukaryotic flagella.
m It is involved in many functions such as mechanical support, motility,
maintenance of the shape of the cell. m The central core is called axoneme and the arrangement of axonemal microtubules is referred to as the 9 + 2 array.
m Both cilium and flagellum arise from centriole like structure called basal bodies. They are covered will plasma
13 CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES membrane.
m Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical Plasma

membrane
structures called centrioles. They are surrounded by amorphous
pericentriolar materials and lie perpendicular to each other. Peripheral
m The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is microtubules
(doublets)
proteinaceous called the hub, which is connected with tubules of the Central
peripheral triplets (nine) by radial spokes made of protein. sheath
Interdoublet
bridge
14 NUCLEUS
m Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as

early as 1831. Later the material of nucleus was given the name
chromatin by Flemming. Central
Radial microtuble
m Interphase nucleus has chromatin, nuclear matrix and nucleolus.
spoke
Nucleus has the membranes and the space between two
membranes is perinuclear space. Section of cilia/flagella showing different parts (a) Electron micrograph
m Outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic (b) Diagrammatic representation of internal structure
reticulum and also bears ribosomes on it.
m The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and 15 MICROBODIES
chromatin.
m Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain various enzymes, are present in both
m During different stages of cell division, cells show structured
chromosomes. Chromatin contains DNA, some basic histones, plant and animal cells.
some non-histones and some RNA.
m Every chromosome has primary constriction called centromere on Setellite Secondary
the sides of which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are constriction
present. Short arm
m Based on the position of centromere, the chromosome can be
Short arm
classified into four types.
l Metacentric – Centromere is in the middle Centromere
l Sub metacentric – Centromere slightly away from the middle
l Acrocentric – Centromere situated close to one end Centromere
l Telocentric – Centromere at terminal position
m Sometimes a few chromosomes have non staining secondary
Long arm
constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a
small fragment called the satellite.
Types of chromosomes based on the position of centromere
m Nucleolus is not a membrane bound structure and it is a site for
active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
7
Cell Cycle and Cell Division Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 4 INTERPHASE
m All cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental m Divided further into three phases
cell giving rise to two daughter cells each time they divide. (i) G1 phase (Gap 1)
(ii) S phase (Synthesis)
m Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells,
(iii) G2 phase (Gap 2)
indeed of all living organisms.
m Such cycles of growth and division allows single cell to form

a structure consisting of millions of cells. m Some cells do not divide further, exit G1 phase to enter an
inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
2 CELL CYCLE m Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer
m It is sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its G0 proliferate unless called on to do so depending on the
genome, synthesises the other constituents of the cell and requirement of the organism. eg Heart cells
eventually divides into two daughter cells.
m Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the
nucleus and cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for m Interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. Cy G1 m Cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not
tok
m Cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continous ine replicate its DNA.
Telo s
process phase is m Most of the cell organelles duplicate
M phase
Anaphase
m Duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism e
and also from cell type to cell type. has
e tap ase S m This phase marks the phase of DNA replication and
M h
e.g., Yeast- cell cycle duration - 90 minutes, op chromosome duplication.
Pr G2
Human cell cycle duration - 24 hours but cell division proper m Amount of DNA per cell doubles but there is no increase in initial
lasts for only about an hour. chromosome number
m In animal cells, centriole duplicates in cytoplasm.
3 PHASES OF CELL CYCLE m DNA replication begins in nucleus.
m Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell
growth continues
Interphase M-phase
m Called resting phase m Actual cell division phase
m Cell is preparing for division m Starts with nuclear
by undergoing both cell division (karyokinesis)
growth and DNA replication and usually ends with
in an orderly manner. division of cytoplasm
m It lasts more than 95% of the (cytokinesis) In animal cells mitotic division is only seen in diploid somatic cells. Plant cells show mitotic division in both haploid and
duration of cell cycle diploid cells.
38 Cell Cycle and Cell Division NCERT Maps
m Most dramatic period of cell cycle 5 M5PHASE (MITOSIS)

MITOSIS
m Chromosome number in parent and progeny cells is the same hence
m Chromosome number in parent and progeny is the same Divided into
called equational division.
KARYOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS
m It is division of cytoplasm at the
1. PROPHASE 2. METAPHASE 3. ANAPHASE 4. TELOPHASE end of which cell division gets
m First phase, follows the S and G2 m The complete disintegration of the m Centromere of each chromosome Final stage of karyokinesis.
phases of interphase. nuclear envelope marks the start of
m completed.
split simultaneously and m Chromosomes that have In animal cells it is achieved by the
m Marked by the initiation of metaphase. m
condensation of chromosomal m Condensation of chromosomes is chromatids separate. reached their respective appearance of a furrow in the
material which becomes completed and can be observed m Two daughter chromatids, now poles decondense and lose plasma membrane.
untangled. clearly under microscope and referred to as daughter their individuality. m In plant cells cytokinesis is
m Centrosome starts to move morphology of chromosomes is chromosome begin their migration m Nuclear envelope develops achieved by wall formation, which
towards opposite poles. most easily studied.
towards the two opposite poles. around the chromosome starts in the centre of the cell and
m The completion of prophase can be m Each chromosome has two sister
marked by- chromatids which are held m The centromere of each cluster at each pole forming grows outward to meet the
(i) Chromosomes condense to together by the centromere. chromosome remain directed two daughter nuclei. existing lateral wall.
form compact mitotic m All the chromosome coming to lie towards the pole and arms trailing m The formation of new cell wall
m Nucleolus, Golgi complex
chromosome. at equator. behind. (leading to different begins with the formation of a
Each chromosome connected by and ER reform.
(ii) Each centrosome reach at pole m
shapes of chromosomes) simple precursor, called the cell
and radiates out microtubules its kinetochore to spindle fibre from
one pole and its sister chromatid plate that represents the middle
called asters. The two asters
connected by its kinetochore to lamella between the wall of two
together with spindle fibres
form mitotic apparatus. spindle fibre from the opposite adjacent cells.
m At the end of prophase cells do not pole. m When karyokinesis is not followed
show Golgi complex, ER, nucleolus m The plane of alignment of the by cytokinesis as a result of which
and nuclear envelope. chromosomes at metaphase is
multinucleate condition arises
referred to as metaphase plate.
leading to formation of syncytium,
eg. liquid endosperm in coconut.
Kinetochore is disc shaped

structure at the surface of
centromere, serves as the
(a) site of attachment of spindle
Early Prophase Transition to Metaphase
Anaphase Telophase fibres
6 SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
m Mitosis usually results in identical genetic complement in daughter cells.
m Growth of multicellular organisms.
m Cell repair
(b) m Mitotic division in apical and lateral meristem results continuous growth of plants throughout their life.
Late Prophase Metaphase m In some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
NCERT Maps Cell Cycle and Cell Division 39
7 MEIOSIS
m Specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the production of haploid daughter cells.
m Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms whereas fertilization restores the diploid phase.
m Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear division i.e. meiosis I and meiosis II but only single cycle of DNA replication.
m Meiosis I initiated after parental chromosomes have replicated.
m Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
8 MEIOSIS I (Reductional Phase)
Prophase I
m Typically longer and more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis
Leptotene
m Chromosomes become gradually visible under the light microscope.
m The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene.
METAPHASE I
Zygotene m Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate
m Homologous chromosomes called synapsis. (Double metaphasic plate)
m Synapsis is accompanied by formation of complex structure called synaptonemal complex. m Microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle
m The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called bivalent or a tetrad attach to the kinetochore of homologous
m Leptotene and zygotene are relatively short lived compared to the pachytene. chromosomes
Pachytene
m Four chromatids of each bivalent become distinct and clearly appears as tetrads.
m Appearance of recombination nodule, the sites at which crossing over occurs between non-sister ANAPHASE I
chromatids of the homologous chromosomes. m Homologous chromosomes separate, while sister
m Crossing over is exchange of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes. It is an
chromatids remain associated at their centromere.
enzyme mediated process, enzyme involved is called recombinase.
m Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material which is completed by the end of pachytene
leaving chromosomes linked at the sites of crossing over.
TELOPHASE I
Diplotene
m The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
m Beginning of diplotene is recognised by the dissolution of synaptonemal complex and tendency of the
recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalent to separate from each other except at the site m Cytokinesis follows and this is called as dyad of cells.
of crossovers.
m This x-shaped structures (site of crossing over) are called chiasmata.
m In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years (dictyotene).
Diakinesis
m This is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata
9 INTERKINESIS
m Chromosomes are fully condensed and meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous
m It is the stage between two meiotic divisions.
chromosomes for separation
m It is generally short lived.
m By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope also breaks down.
m No DNA replication
m Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.
m It is followed by prophase II.
40 Cell Cycle and Cell Division NCERT Maps
10 MEIOSIS II-(Equational Phase ) - Resembles a normal mitosis
PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II

m It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis m Chromosomes align at the equator m Splitting of centromere allowing m Meiosis ends with telophase II
m The nuclear membrane disappears by the m Microtubules from opposite poles of the chromosomes to move towards m Two groups of chromosomes once again get
end of prophase II. spindle get attached to the kinetochore of opposite poles of the cell by shortening enclosed by a nuclear envelope
m Chromosomes become compact. sister chromatids of microtubules attached to the m Cytokinesis follow resulting in the formation of
kinetochores. tetrad of cells.
Prophase I Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
11 Significance of meiosis
m Conservation of specific chromosome number of each species is achieved across generation in sexually reproducing organisms, paradoxically results in reduction of chromosome number
by half.
m Increases genetic variability in the population of organisms which is important for the process of evolution.
Transport in Plants
8
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 PLANT-WATER RELATIONS

m In a flowering plant the substances that would need to be transported are water, mineral nutrients, organic nutrients and plant growth Water is essential for all physiological activities of plant. Because
of its high demand water is often the limiting factor for plant
regulators.
growth and productivity.
m Water and mineral nutrients are taken up by roots and food is synthesised in the leaves.
Terms :
m But plants do not have a circulatory system. 1. Water Potential : water molecules possess kinetic energy.
m So in plants, there are two broad strategies for transport, short-distance and long-distance. The greater the concentration of water in a system, the
m Short-distance movement is through-diffusion, cytoplasmic streaming and active transport; and transport through longer distances is greater is its kinetic energy or water potential.
through vascular system (xylem and phloem) and is called TRANSLOCATION. (i) Pure water have greatest water potential
(ii) Water moves from a system at higher water potential to the
m Transport in xylem is essentially UNIDIRECTIONAL (of water and minerals) from roots to leaves through the stems.
one having low water potential.
m Organic and mineral nutrients undergo MULTIDIRECTIONAL transport.
(iii) It is denoted by Psi or Y and expressed in pascals.
m From SENESCENT plant parts nutrients are withdrawn and moved to growing plants. So the transport is complex but orderly. Each (iv) Water potential of pure water at standard temperature.
organ is receiving some substances and giving out some other. Which is not under any pressure, is taken as zero.
2. Solute Potential : The magnitude of lowering of

2 SHORT DISTANCE MOVEMENT water potential due to dissolution of solute is called
solute potential or YS
Property Simple Facilitated Active
Transport
Diffusion Diffusion Transport (i) YS is always negative.
protein
1. Need special (ii) More the solute molecules, the lower is the YS
No Yes Yes
membrane proteins Transported 3. For a solution at atmospheric pressure.
molecule
2. Highly selective No Yes Yes (Water potential) YW = YS (Solute potential)
Outer side Inner side
Outer side of cell of cell
3. Transport saturates No Yes Yes of cell 4. Numerically osmotic pressure is equivalent to the
Membrane Membrane osmotic potential but the sign is opposite.
4. Uphill movement No No Yes
Fig. : Facilitated diffusion 5. Osmotic pressure is the positive pressure applied,
5. Need ATP No No Yes Carrier protein while osmotic potential is negative.
6. Pressure Potential : Pressure builds up in a plant

Uniport A
1. Diffusion is the only means for gaseous movement with in 4. Passive symports and antiports system when water enters a plant cell due to
the plant body. m In symport two molecules diffusion, it makes the cell turgid, this increases the
move together in the same A pressure potential.
2. Porins are proteins that form large pores in outer Antiport B
direction and in opposite (i) It is usually positive
membrane of Plastids, Mitochondria and some Bacteria.
direction in antiport A (ii) Though negative potential or tension in xylem
3. In facilitated diffusion extracellular molecule is bound to Symport B
m In uniport a molecule moves plays a major role in water transport.
transport protein which then rotates and releases the 7. Water Potential is affected by both solute and
across a membrane
molecule inside the cell, e.g., water channels-made of independent of other pressure potential.
Membrane
8 different types of aquaporins. molecules in one direction. The relationship is : YW = YS + YP
Fig. : Facilitated diffusion
NCERT Maps Transport in Plants 45
OSMOSIS PLASMOLYSIS IMBIBITION 4 LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT

1. Refer specifically to the diffusion 1. Occurs when water moves out of the cell and cell 1. Special type of diffusion
1. Diffusion is a slow process. It can account for
of water across a differentially or membrane of plant cell shrinks away from its cell wall. when water is absorbed
selectively permeable membrane. by solids-colloids only short distance movement.
2. This happens when a cell or tissue is placed in
2. Net direction and rate of osmosis causing them to increase 2. Long distance movement of water and minerals
hypertonic solution. in volume
depends on both pressure gradient and food generally occur by mass or bulk flow.
3. The process of plasmolysis is reversible. When cells are 2. Water potential gradient
and concentration gradient.
placed in hypotonic solution the cell regains its shape. between the absorbent 3. Mass flow is en masse movement due to
3. Water moves from higher chemical
4. When water flow into the cell and out of the cells are in and the liquid imbibed is pressure differences between the two points.
potential to region of lower chemical
essential for imbibition. 4. Bulk movement is through vascular tissues
potential until equilibrium is reached. equilibrium, the cells are said to be flaccid.
3. For any substance to
Pressure imbibe any liquid, affinity called TRANSLOCATION.
A B C between the adsorbant 5. Xylem mainly translocates WATER, MINERAL
H 2O H 2O H 2O
and the liquid is also a SALTS, some ORGANIC NITROGEN and
pre-requisite.
HORMONES.
Example : Absorption of
water by seeds and dry 6. PHLOEM translocates a variety of organic and
Sucrose
solution wood inorganic solutes.
Membrane
Plasmolysed Flaccid Turgid Watermelon has over 92% 7. Water is absorbed by two distinct pathways :
water, herbaceous plants l Apoplast : A system of adjacent cell wall
Water have only 10 to 15% of except at casparian strips of endodermis.
(a) (b) fresh weight as dry wt. A
This movement is dependent on the
seed many appear dead
Fig.: Demonstration of osmosis-Thistle but it still has water. gradient.
funnel experiment
l Symplast: A system of interconnected
protoplasts.
1. Transport proteins of endodermal cells are control points, where a plant adjusts the quantity and
types of solutes that reach xylem Plasmodesmata Plasma membrane
2. Root endodermis because of suberin, actively transports ions in one direction.
5 WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT

1. Root Pressure : Only provide a modest push in overall process of water transport. They do not play a Epidermis Cortex Endodermis Pericycle
major role in water movement up tall plants.
l The greatest contribution of root pressure is to re-establish the continuous chains of water
molecules in xylem. Xylem
l In many herbaceous plants, grass blades, root pressure is the cause of loss of water in the form of = symplast Casparian strip
liquid droplets called GUTTATION. = apoplast
2. TRANSPIRATION PULL : Cohesion-tension-transpiration pull model of water transport accomplishes Fig.: Pathway of water movement in plants
water movement in tall plants.
7. In some plants symbiotic mycorrhizal association of fungus with root
Transpiration is the evaporative loss of water by plants through stomata.
system help in water and mineral absorption eg. Pinus seeds.
46 Transport in Plants NCERT Maps
7 UPTAKE AND TRANSPORT OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS

The opening of stomata is caused due to change in
turgidity of guard cells. 1. Plants obtain their carbon and most of their oxygen from CO2 in the atmosphere. However, their remaining nutritional
requirements are obtained from water and minerals in the soil.
Opening is also aided by radial orientation of cellulose 2. Most minerals must enter the root by active absorption into the cytoplasm of epidermal cell.
microfibrils in cell wall of guard cell. 3. The active uptake of ions is partly responsible for the water potential gradient in roots and therefore for the
uptake of water by osmosis.
4. Some ions also move into epidermal cells passively.
Microfibrils 5. Mineral ions are frequently REMOBILISED from older, senescing, dying parts (leaves) to younger leaves.
Guard cell 6. Elements most readily mobilised are phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium. Some elements like calcium
Stomatal are not remobilised.
aperture
8 PHLOEM TRANSPORT : PRESSURE Sugars leave sieve tubes;
Fig. : Stomatal aperture with guard cells FLOW OR MASS FLOW HYPOTHESIS water follows by osmosis
1. Food, primarily SUCROSE, is transported Tip of stem

by vascular tissue phloem from source to sink.
2. Source : Leaf (synthesise food), roots
(storage) Sugar solution flows Sugars enter sieve tubes; = High
to regions of low water follows by osmosis turgor
3. Sink : Where needed or stored (buds of trees) turgor pressure Phloem pressure
4. Since source - sink relation is variable, so
direction of movement of phloem can be Sugars leave sieve tube
for metabolism and
bi-directional. storage; water follows
by osmosis
Fig. : Water movement in the leaf 5. Phloem sap is mainly water and sucrose, Root
but other sugars, hormones and amino-acids Fig. : Mechanism of translocation
Transpiration driven ascent of xylem sap depends are also translocated through phloem. MASS FLOW HYPOTHESIS
6. GIRDLING EXPERIMENT 1. The accepted mechanism used for the translocation of sugars
mainly on physical properties of water.
(i) Identifies the tissues through which food from source to sink is called the pressure flow hypothesis.
is transported.
2. Glucose Sucrose Companion
(ii) It shows that phloem is the tissue
6 TRANSPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS- (Prepared (Converted to cell Loading
A COMPROMISE responsible for food translocation.
at the source) disaccharide) (Active transport)
1. An actively photosynthesising plant has an insatiable (iii) And transport takes place in one
Living phloem sieve
direction, i.e. towards the roots Unloading
need for water (Active transport) tube cells
2. Photosynthesis is limited by available water which
Builds osmotic pressure
can be swiftly depleted by transpiration.
Sink Water from xylem
3. A C4 plant loses only half as much water as a C3-plant for the same amount of CO2 fixed. (used or stored)
4. Temperature, light, humidity and wind speed affect transpiration.
3. Loading and unloading are active processes.
5. Plant factors like number and distribution of stomata, percent of open stomata, water status of plants, canopy
etc. affect transpiration.
Mineral Nutrition
9
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 5 Role of Macro and Micronutrients 6 Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements
The basic needs of all living organisms are essentially Essential elements perform several functions. They participate in various metabolic
the same. They require macro-molecules such as processes in the plant cells. Various forms and functions of essential nutrient The concentration of the essential element below
carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and water and elements are given below. which plant growth is retarded is termed as critical
minerals for their growth and development. This S. Mineral Absorbed Required Functions concentration. The element is said to be deficient
chapter focuses mainly on inorganic plant nutrition and No. element as in when present below the critical concentration.
the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. 1. Nitrogen NO3– , NO2– All parts of the Major constituents of proteins, nucleic Due to deficinecy of critical elements plants show
or NH4+ plants, particularly acids, vitamins and hormones deficiency symptoms. The parts of the plants that
Methods to Study the Mineral
2 meristems show the deficiency symptoms also depend on
Requirements of Plants 2. Phosphorus H2PO4– or Developing fruits, Constituent of cell membrane, certain the mobility of the element in the plant.
In 1860, Julius von Sachs, a prominent German HPO42– seeds, storage organs, proteins, all nucleic acids
botanist demonstrated, for the first time, that plants young meristems 7 Deficiency symptoms in plants include :
could be grown to maturity in a defined nutrient solution 3. Potassium K+ Meristems, buds, Maintain turgidity of cells, required for (a) Chlorosis : Due to deficiency of N, K, Mg, S,
in complete absence of soil. This technique of growing leaves and root tips opening and closing of stomata
Fe, Mn, Zn and Mo.
plants in a nutrient solution is known as hydroponics. 4. Calcium Ca2+ Meristems and Required for middle lamella, mitotic
differentiating tissues spindle and for certain enzymes.
(b) Necrosis : Due to deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K
By this method, essential elements were identified and (c) Inhibition of cell division : Due to deficiency
Accumulates in older leaves
their deficiency symptoms were discovered. of N, K, S, Mo
5. Magnesium Mg2+ Seeds, leaves, Constituent of ring structure of
growing areas of chlorophyll and helps to maintain (d) Delay in flowering : Due to deficiency of N, S,
3 Criteria for essentiality
root and stem ribosome structure Mo.
(a) The element must be absolutely necessary for (e) Stunted plant growth.
6. Sulphur SO42– Young leaves and Constituent of two amino acids cysteine
supporting normal growth and reproduction. meristems and methionine and main constituents of Mobile Elements :
(b) The requirement must be specific and not several coenzymes and vitamins l Transported from older leaves to younger
replaceable by another element. 7. Iron Fe3+ All parts of plants Main constituents of ferredoxin and leaves.
(c) The element must be directly involved in the cytochromes. It activates catalase l Deficiency symptoms first appear in
metabolism of the plant. enzyme and is essential for the formation
older/senescent leaves. Example N, K, Mg
Based upon the above criteria only a few elements have of chlorophyll
Immobile Elements :
been found to be absolutely essential for plant growth 8. Manganese Mn2+ Leaves and The best defined function of manganese l Not transported out of the mature leaves.
and metabolism. These elements are further divided into seeds is in the splitting of water to liberate
l Deficiency symptoms tend to appear first in the
two broad categories based on their quantitative oxygen during photosynthesis
9. Zinc All parts of the Activates various enzymes especially young leaves. Example Ca.
requirements, macronutrients and micronutrients. Zn2+
plants carboxylases, also needed for auxin
4 synthesis 8 Toxicity of micronutrients
Macronutrients Micronutrients 10. Copper Cu2+ All parts of the Associated with certain enzymes The requirements of micronutrient is always in low
plants involved in redox reactions amounts while their moderate decrease causes the
m They are generally m Also called trace 11. Boron BO33– or Leaves and seeds Required for uptake and utilisation
present in plant tissues elements, are needed deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase
B4O27– of Ca2+, membrane functioning,
cause toxicity. Any mineral ion concentration in
in large amounts (in in very small amount pollen germination, cell elongation
excess of 10 m mole (less than 10 m mole and carbohydrate translocation tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues by
kg–1 of dry matter) kg–1 of dry matter) 12. Molybde- MoO22+ All parts of plants and Component of nitrogenase and about 10 percent is considered toxic. Many a times,
These include C, H, O, num commonly in roots nitrate reductase excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of
m These include Fe, Mn, 13. Chlorine Cl– All parts of the Essential for water splitting reaction in another element.
m N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Cl, Ni photosynthesis and for anion and cation
plants For example, manganese competes with iron and
balance in cells Mg for uptake and with Mg for binding with
Essential elements can also be grouped into four
broad categories on the basis of their diverse enzymes. Mn also inhibit calcium translocation in
functions. These categories are : alcohol dehydrogenase and Mo activate nitrogenase) shoot apex.
(i) Components of biomolecules and structural (ii) Components of energy related chemical compounds in plants. (Mg in
elements of cells (C, H, O and N) chlorophyll and P in ATP)
(iii) Activate or inhibit certain enzymes, (Mg 2+ (iv) Essential elements which alter osmotic potential (K). Apart from 17 essential elements there are 4 beneficial
activates RUBISCO and PEPcase, Zn2+ activate elements - Na, Si, Co, Se required by higher plants.
NCERT Maps Mineral Nutrition 51
9 Mechanism of absorption of elements : 15 Nodule formation

m Process of absorption can be demarcated into two phases. Nodule formation involves a sequence of multiple interactions between
m In the first phase, the rapid uptake of ions is m In the second phase the ions move into symplast. Rhizobium and roots of host plant. Principal steps in the nodule formation are
into apoplast. It is passive. It requires energy; so it is active. as follows :
m Rhizobia multiply, colonise the surroundings of the roots and get attached to
The movement of ions is called flux, the inward movement is influx and the outward movement is efflux. epidermal and root hair cells. Root hair curls and bacteria invade the root hair.
m An infection thread is produced carrying the bacteria into the cortex of the
10 Translocation of solutes 11 Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements root where they initiate nodule formation in the cortex.
Mineral salts are translocated through xylem along Soil consists of a wide variety of substances. m The nodule thus formed, establishes a direct vascular connection with the
with the ascending stream of water, which is pulled Soil not only supplies minerals but also harbours host for exchange of nutrients.
up through plant by transpiration pull. nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Soil Hook
particles
METABOLISM OF NITROGEN : 13 Biological nitrogen fixation
12 Nitrogen Cycle Root hair
Atmospheric N2
Only certain prokaryotic species are capable of fixing Infection
nitrogen. Reduction of nitrogen to ammonia by living thread
Bacteria containing
(Pseudomonas) organisms is called biological nitrogen fixation. Enzyme bacteria
Biological Industrial Electrical Denitrification nitrogenase is exclusively present in prokaryotes. Bacteria Inner cortex and Mature nodule
N2 fixation N2 fixation N2 fixation Nitrogenase pericycle cells
Nitrification (Thiobacillus) NºN NH3 under division
Nitrosomonas
NH3 NO–2 NO–3
14 Bacteria Nitrogen Aerobic/
m Nodule contains nitrogenase and leghaemoglobin.
Soil ‘N’ Pool
fixation anaerobic m Nitrogenase is Mo-Fe protein and highly sensitive to the molecular oxygen,
Nitrosococcus Nitrobacter N2 fixers
Azotobacter Free living Aerobic thus requires anaerobic conditions.
m To protect nitrogenase nodule contains an oxygen scavenger called
(Ammonification) (Uptake)
Beijerinckia Free living Aerobic
Bacillus Free living Anaerobic laghaemoglobin.
Clostridium Free living Anaerobic Rhizobium and Frankia live as aerobes under free living condition but
Rhodospirillum Free living Anaerobic as symbionts during nitrogen fixing events they become anaerobic.
Decaying biomass Plant biomass Anabaena Symbiotic or –
Nostoc free living –
Rhizobium Symbiotic – 17 Fate of Ammonia
At physiological pH, the mammonia is protonated to form NH4+ ions while most
Animal biomass Frankia Symbiotic –
of the plants can assimilate nitrate as well as ammonia ions, the latter is quite
Rhizobium fixes nitrogen in legumes whereas toxic to plants and hence cannot accumulate in them.
The nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophs. Frankia in non-leguminous plants such as Alnus. m NH4+ is used to synthesize amino acids in plants by two ways:
16 The ammonia synthesis by nitrogenase requires Product Reductive amination Transamination

Substrate H
a very high input of energy 8 ATP for each NH3 [ammonia (NH3)] In this process, ammonia reacts It involves transfer of amino group from
[nitrogen gas (N2)]
produced. The energy required thus, is obtained N
H
with a-ketoglutaric acid and forms one amino acid to the keto group of a keto
N from the respiration of the host cells. H
H glutamic acid. acid. Glutamic acid is the main amino acid
N H
N Reduction
a-ketoglutaric acid+NH4+ + NADPH from which the transfer of amino group
H H
H H Glutamate takes place and other amino acids are
Glutamate formed through transamination. The
N Reduction H N Reduction H N H N Release Dehydrogenase + H O + NADP
of products 2 enzyme transaminase catalyses this
N H N H N H N
reaction
H H
H The two most important amides - Asparagine and glutamine found in plants are a
Enzyme +2 H +2 H +2 H structural part of proteins. They are formed from two amino acids namely
Binding
(nitrogenase) Free nitrogenase
of substrate
can bind another
aspartic and glutamic acid respectively.
molecule of N2 Amides contain more nitrogen than amino acids, they are transported
to other parts of the plant via xylem vessels. Nodules of some plants like
Steps of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia soyabean export fixed nitrogen as ureides (High N : C ratio)
Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
10
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION (2) Jan Ingenhousz 4 WHERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE 5 HOW MANY TYPES OF
In an elegant experiment with an PLACE PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED
m Green plants synthesise the food they IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
need, by photosynthesis and all other aquatic plant, showed that in bright m In green parts of the plants, mainly in the mesophyll
organisms depend on them for their sunlight plants produce oxygen. cells in the leaves, which have large number of m Leaf-pigments of any green plant
needs. can be separated through paper
(3) Julius von Sachs chloroplasts.
Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical chromatography
m Found that glucose is made in green m Usually the chloroplasts align themselves along the
process by which plants use light m The colour in leaves is due to four
plant parts and stored as starch. pigments, that have the ability to
energy to drive the synthesis of walls of mesophyll cells to get optimum quantity of
(4) T. W. Engelmann absorb light, at specific
organic compounds. the incident light.
Using a prism, green alga Cladophora
m The use of energy from sunlight by wavelengths.
plants doing photosynthesis is the and aerobic bacteria, described the
basis of life on earth. action spectrum of photosynthesis, CHLOROPLAST ALIGNMENT
m Photosynthesis is important due to which roughly resembles the COLOUR OF THE PIGMENTS
two reasons : (a) It is the primary IN THE CHROMATOGRAM
absorption spectrum of chlorophyll- a
source of all food on earth and (b) It is PARALLEL PERPENDICULAR i. Chlorophyll-a = Bright or blue
and b.
also responsible for the release of green
(5) Cornelius van Niel In low or optimum light In extremely high
oxygen into the atmosphere. m m
ii. Chlorophyll-b = Yellow-green
m Demonstrated that photosynthesis
intensity to get maximum light intensity to avoid iii. Xanthophyll = Yellow
is essentially a light dependent
incident light photo-oxidation. iv. Carotenoids = Yellow to yellow-
2 WHAT DO WE KNOW? reaction in which hydrogen from orange
Experiment for starch formation on suitable oxidisable compound
m There is a clear DIVISION OF LABOUR within the
variegated leaf or a leaf that was reduces CO2 to carbohydrates. Rate of photosynthesis
chloroplast. Absorption
partially covered with black paper & m H2S is hydrogen donor for purple &
exposed to light showed that CHLOROPLAST
photosynthesis occurred only in green sulphur bacteria. H2O, the
Light absorbed
green part of leaves in the presence hydrogen donor in green plants is
of light. oxidised to O2. MEMBRANOUS SYSTEM STROMA
m Experiment where a part of leaf is The oxidation product is sulphur or
m m (Grana + Stroma m Enzymatic reactions to
enclosed in a test-tube with some sulphate in purple & green sulphur lamellae) synthesise sugar, which
KOH soaked cotton (which absorbs in turn forms starch,
bacteria and not O2. Hence it was m Responsible for trapping
CO2), while other half is exposed to air takes place
inferred that O2 evolved by green light & synthesis of ATP
and set-up kept in light proved that 400 500 600 700
and NADPH. m Dependent on products
CO2 is needed for photosynthesis. plants comes from H2O and not Wavelength of light in nanometres (nm)
m Directly light driven, of light reactions (ATP &
from CO2. This was later proved by NADPH)
called LIGHT m The wavelength of light at which
3 EARLY EXPERIMENTS using radioisotopic techniques. REACTION there is maximum absorption by
m By convention called
The correct equation, for the (photochemical chlorophyll-a i.e., in blue and red
(1) Joseph Priestley DARK REACTIONS
Using a burning candle, a mouse, mint overall process: reactions) (Carbon reactions) regions, also shows higher rate of
plant and a bell jar for closed space, photosynthesis.
Light m However, this should not be construed to mean m Hence, we can conclude that Chl-a
hypothesised that plants restore to the 6CO2+12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O
air whatever burning candles or that the dark reaction occur in darkness or that is the chief pigment associated
+ 6O2
breathing animals remove. they are not light-dependent. with photosynthesis.
56 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants NCERT Maps
Chl-b, carotenoids and xanthophyll 8 SPLITTING OF WATER

m (c) The NADP reductase enzyme located on stroma side of membrane,
are accessory pigments. They m PS-II continuously supplies electrons which removes protons from stroma, while reducing NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
absorb light and transfer the energy becomes available by splitting of water.
to Chl-a. They enable a wider range m Water splitting complex is associated with PS-II, NADP+ + H+ NADPH
of wavelength of incoming light to be which itself is physically located on inner side of
utilised for photosynthesis and also membrane of thylakoid.
protect chlorophyll-a from photo- + Stroma (low H+)
oxidation. m Water split into 2H , [O] & electrons. H+ FNR
m This creates oxygen, one of the net products of Light Cytochrome Light
B6f Fd
photosynthesis.
6 WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION? P680 PQ
PQH2
9 CYCLIC AND NON-CYCLIC PS II P700
PC
m Light reactions or the photochemical H+ Pla PS I
PHOTO-PHOSPHORYLATION Plastoquinone stoc
phase include: yan
m When both PS-I and PS-II are involved, the in
(a) Light absorption 1
p r o c e s s i s n o n - c y c l i c , p r o d u c i n g AT P, H2O 2 O2+ H+
(b) Water splitting + Oxidation H+
NADPH + H and oxygen. H+
(c) Oxygen release, and of waterE H+ Lumen
m When only PS-I is functional, cyclic flow takes lect High
(d) ATP and NADPH formation ro (high H+)
place to produce only ATP. Pot chemi H+
m Several protein complexes are c
Gra ential al CF0
m A possible location for cyclic flow is the stroma dien
involved in the process. Thylakoid t
lamellae membranes which lack PS-II and NADP
m The pigments are organised into two membrane
reductase enzyme.
photosystems Stroma
PHOTOSYSTEM l Cyclic photo-phosphorylation also Low ATP
occurs when only light of wavelengths Synthase CF1
beyond 680 nm are available for
PS-I PS-II excitation.
LHC-I (Hundreds of pigments) LHC-II l The membrane or lamellae of the grana
ADP+P1 ATP
have both PS-I and PS-II H+
Reaction One molecule Reaction
centre of Chl-a centre ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis
m Absorption peak m Absorption peak 10 CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS m Within chloroplast, protons decrease in stroma and accumulate in lumen. This
at 700 nm (P700) at 680 nm (P680) creates a proton-gradient across thylakoid membrane as well as a measurable
m ATP synthesis in photosynthesis is linked
Named in the sequence of their discovery and decrease in pH in the lumen.
m to the development of a proton gradient
not in the sequence of their function. m Breakdown of this gradient leads to synthesis of ATP, when protons move across
across the membranes of thylakoid and
protons accumulate in the lumen of the membrane to the stroma through transmembrane channel of the CF0 of the ATP
thylakoids. synthase.
7 THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT
m The proton gradient is caused by: ATP synthase
m The whole scheme of transfer of electrons (a) Protons or hydrogen ions produced by (Two parts)
starting from PS-II ® uphill to the acceptor ® splitting of water, accumulate in the
down the ETC to PS-I ® Excitation of electrons lumen of the thylakoids.
® transfer to another acceptor ® finally (b) The primary acceptor of electron CF0 = Embedded in the thylakoid CF1 = Protrudes on outer surface of
downhill ® to NADP+ ® reducing it to NADPH located towards outer side of membrane. A transmembrane channel thylakoid membrane on the side that
+ H + is called the z-scheme, due to its membrane transfers its electron to an for facilitated diffusion of protons faces stroma. It synthesise ATP
characteristic shape. H carrier, which removes a proton from
m This shape is formed when all the carriers are stroma while transporting an electron m Chemiosmosis requires - a membrane, a proton pump, a proton gradient and
placed in a sequence on a redox potential to thylakoid lumen. ATP synthase.
scale.
NCERT Maps Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 57
11 WHERE ARE THE ATP 13 THE C4-PATHWAY m In C3-plants some O2 does bind to l Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factor
AND NADPH USED? RuBisCO, and hence CO2 fixation is If a chemical process is affected by more
m Plants adapted to dry tropical regions have the
decreased, due to the following than one factor, then its rate will be
m Of the products of light reaction- ATP, C4-pathway. determined by the factor which is nearest to
reaction.
NADPH and O2, O2 diffuses out of m C4-plants are special: They have special type of RuBP + O2 RuBisCo 3 PGA (3C) + 2 its minimal value. It is the factor which
chloroplast while ATP and NADPH are leaf anatomy, tolerate higher temperatures, directly affects the process if its quality is
show response to high light intensities, lack phosphoglycol-
used to synthesise sugars in the ate (2C) changed.
photorespiration and have greater biomass (i) Light: Light saturation occurs at 10% of the
biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis. productivity This is called photo-respiration
14
In photo-respiration there is neither full sunlight. Except for plants in shade or in
Melvin Calvin used radioactive C in m C 4 -plants have leaves showing KRANZ m
synthesis of sugars, nor of ATP. It dense forests, light is rarely a limiting factor
algal photosynthesis studies to ANATOMY the particularly large cells around the in nature.
vascular bundles, which may form several layers results in release of CO2 with utilisation
discover the first CO2 fixation product, m There is a linear relationship between
and are called bundle sheath cells, of ATP.
the 3-C organic acid (3-PGA) m The biological function of incident light & CO2 fixation rates at low
characterised by having a large number of light intensities.
(C3 – pathway). photorespiration is not known yet.
chloroplasts, thick walls impervious to gaseous At higher light intensities, gradually the
m In another group of plants, the first exchange and no intercellular spaces. m In C4-plants photo-respiration does not
rate does not show further, increase as
stable product was 4 carbon, The pathway is cyclic & called the Hatch and occur, as they have a mechanism that
m other factors become limiting.
oxaloacetic acid OAA (C4-pathway). Slack Pathway. It is partly completed in increases the concentration of CO2 at
(ii) CO2 concentration: Major limiting factor.
mesophyll & partly in bundle sheath cell. the enzyme site. This ensures that the
RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase The concentration of CO2 is very low in the
minimising the oxygenase activity. atmosphere (0.03 & 0.04%), so increase in
12 THE CALVIN CYCLE MESOPHYLL BUNDLE- concentration upto 0.05% can cause
m The Calvin cycle occurs in all CELL SHEATH CELLS increase in CO2 fixation rates, beyond this
15 FACTORS AFFECTING
photosynthetic plants; whether they (1) Primary CO2 (1) Malic Acid/Aspartic PHOTOSYNTHESIS levels it can become damaging over longer
have C3 or C4 (or any other) acceptor is a 3-C Acid m Photosynthesis is under the influence periods.
pathways. compound PEP. m At low light conditions neither group
of several factors, both internal (plant)
m Calvin cycle can be described under (2) E n z y m e f o r t h i s CO2 3-Carbon & external. responds to high CO2 conditions C4-
–1
three stages: fixation is PEPcase. molecule Internal Factors: plants show saturation at 360m1L C3-
(1) CARBOXYLATION: Most crucial (3) Lacks RuBisCO m The plant factors include the number, –1
saturation is seen at 450m1L . Some
step. (4) C4-acid formed is Transported to size, age & orientation of leaves, greenhouse crops like tomatoes and
OAA; which forms mesophyll & mesophyll cells and chloroplasts,
RuBP RuBisCO 2 × 3 –PGA bell pepper show higher yields in CO2
malic acid or converted to PEP internal CO 2 concentration & the enriched atmosphere.
(5C) (3C)
CO2 + H2O aspartic acid and Enters – Calvin cycle a amount of chlorophyll. (iii) Temperature: Dark reactions being
transported to pathway common to all m The plant or internal factors are enzymatic are temperature controlled.
(2) REDUCTION: A series of reactions dependent on the genetic
bundle sheath cells. plants. Light reactions are also temperature
that lead to formation of glucose. (2) Rich in RuBisCO, predisposition & growth of the plant.
Utilises 2 ATP and 2 NADPH per CO2. External factors: include availability sensitivie. C4-plants show higher yield at
but lack PEPcase. m
(The fixation of 6CO2 and 6 turns of the of sunlight, temperature, CO2 high temperature while C3-plants have a
cycle are needed to form one molecule 14 PHOTORESPIRATION concentration and water. much lower temperature optimum.
of glucose from the pathway). m RuBisCo, the most abundant enzyme in the (iv) Water: Effect of water as a factor is more
Rate of photosynthesis
(3) REGENERATION: Regeneration of world, has the active site that can bind to both through its effect on the plant rather than
RUBP is crucial for the cycle to CO2 and O2. This binding is competitive. It is the B C directly on photosynthesis. Water stress
E
continue. This step require one ATP. causes the stomata to close hence
relative concentration of O2 and CO2 that
So, to produce one molecule of determines which of the two will bind to the A reducing CO2 availability. Water stress also
glucose in Calvin cycle an input of enzyme. makes leaves wilt, thus, reducing the
6CO 2 18 ATP & 12 NADPH are m RuBisCo, has a much greater affinity for CO2, surface area of leaves and their metabolic
D activity as well.
required when the CO2: O2 is nearly equal than for O2. Light intensity
Respiration in Plants
11
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION Glucose
(6C)
m All living organisms need energy for carrying out daily life activities, like absorption, transport, movement, reproduction or even
ATP
breathing.
ADP
m All the energy required for 'life' processes is obtained by oxidation of macromolecules, called food. Glucose-6-phosphate
m Cellular respiration is the mechanism of breakdown of food material within the cell to release energy, and trapping it for (6C)
synthesis of ATP. The process takes place in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria.
m The compounds that are oxidised during this process are called the respiratory substrates like carbohydrates, proteins, fats
and even organic acids. Fructose-6-phosphate
(6C)
m The process involves a series of slow step-wise reactions controlled by enzymes and the released energy is trapped as ATP
chemical energy in the form of ATP, which is broken down whenever and wherever energy needs to be utilised. ADP
Fructose1, 6-bisphosphate
2 DO PLANTS BREATHE? (6C)
3 GLYCOLYSIS
m Plants have systems in place to ensure O2 m Greek-glycos = sugar and lysis = splitting
availability, i.e. stomata and lenticels for this m Scheme given by Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas, referred as EMP- Triose phosphate
Triose phosphate
purpose. pathway. (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
(Dihydroxy acetone
m Each plant part takes care of its own gas- m In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration. (3C) + phosphate)
NAD
exchange needs. There is very little transport of m Occurs in CYTOPLASM and present in all living organisms. (3C)
+
gases from one plant part to another. NADH+H
m In this process glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form two 2 × Triose bisphosphate
m Roots, stems and leaves respire at rates far
molecules of pyruvic acid. (1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid)
lower than animals do.
m In plants, glucose comes from sucrose (the end product of (3C)
m Most cells of a plant have at least a part of their ADP
photosynthesis) or from storage carbohydrates.
surface in contact with air.
m Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by invertase and ATP
m Complete combustion of glucose produces CO2
these monosaccharides enter the glycolytic pathway readily. 2 × Triose phosphate
and H2O as end products and yields energy most (3-phosphoglyceric acid)
m In glycolysis, a chain of ten reactions produces pyruvate from
of which is given as heat. (3C)
glucose by the help of different enzymes.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ® 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy +
m In glycolysis 2 ATP are utilised and total 4 ATP, 2 NADH+H and 2
m But plants oxidise glucose in several small steps 2 × 2-phosphoglycerate
molecules of pyruvic acid are produced.
and energy released is coupled to ATP
synthesis. m Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis and its metabolic fate
H2O
depends on cellular need.
m Facultative and obligate anaerobes, can respire 2 × phosphoenolpyruvate
m UNDER
in absence of O2. 1. Lactic acid fermentation ANAEROBIC ADP
m All organisms retain this strategy of partial PYRUVIC ACID 2. Alcoholic fermentation CONDITIONS ATP
glucose oxidation in absence of oxygen called Three major 3. Krebs' cycle AEROBIC; Needs O2 supply 2 × Pyruvic acid Steps of Glycolysis
GLYCOLYSIS. fates (3C)
62 Respiration in Plants NCERT Maps
4 FERMENTATION Glucose Major pathways 5 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

m In fermentation, by yeast, incomplete oxidation of Anaerobic m In eukaryotes, it takes place in mitochondria. Leads to complete
of glucose is achieved under anaerobic respiration oxidation of organic substances, in the presence of oxygen and
conditions to produce CO2 and ethanol, by the releases CO2, water and a large amount of energy present in the
help of enzymes pyruvate decarboxylase and Glyceraldehyde Lactic substrate.
3-Phosphate acid
alcohol dehydrogenase. + + m This type of respiration is most common in higher organisms.
NAD NAD
m Bacteria and in animal cells (muscles during m For aerobic respiration to take place within mitochondria, the final
exercise, when oxygen is inadequate for cellular product of glycolysis is transported into mitochondria from cytoplasm.
respiration) pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by +
NADH+H NADH+H
+ m Crucial events of aerobic respiration are:
lactate dehydrogenase.
Pyruvic a. Complete oxidation of pyruvic acid - site = Mitochondrial matrix.
m Less than 7% of the energy in glucose is 3-Phosphoglyceric
acid
released. acid + b. ETS and synthesis of ATP - site = Inner mitochondrial membrane.
NADH+H
m Also the processes are hazardous as either acid
or alcohol is produced. 7 AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY
+
m Yeast poison themselves to death when NAD m Respiratory pathway is involved in both anabolism and catabolism
Phosphoenol Ethanol+CO2
concentration of alcohol reaches about 13%. Pyruvic acid hence it is called amphibolic pathway.
6 TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE (TCA cycle or Kreb's cycle)

Pyruvate Fats Carbohydrates Proteins
(In mitochondrial matrix) (3C)
+
m Acetyl CoA produced by oxidative decarboxylation of CoA NAD PYRUVATE
Mg
2+
DEHYDROGENASE Fatty acids Simple sugars Amino acids
pyruvic acid enters the TCA cycle more commonly OXIDATIVE +
NADH+H and glycerol e.g., Glucose
DECARBOXYLATION
known as Krebs' cycle. (Scientist Hans Kreb) CO2
m First reaction of Kreb's cycle is condensation, then Acetyl coenzyme A Glucose 6-phosphate
(2C)
isomerisation.
AcetyCoA Isomerises
OAA Citric Acid Isocitrate
Citrate Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate
synthase Oxaloacetic acid
(4C) Citric acid Dihydroxy Acetone Glyceraldehyde
+
m Followed by two successive decarboxylation to form NADH+H (6C) CO2
+ Phosphate 3-phosphate
a-ketoglutarate and the succinyl CoA. + NAD
NAD +
m During conversion of succinyl CoA to succinic acid, NADH+H
a-ketoglutaric acid
substrate level phosphorylation takes place to produce Malic acid (5C)
GTP which in a coupled reaction simultaneously CITRIC ACID CYCLE Pyruvic acid
(4C)
produces ATP. CO2
NAD
+ Acetyl CoA
m The summary equation for this phase of respiration is: FADH2 +
+ + NADH+H
Pyruvate + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O + ADP + Pi +
H2 O CO2
FAD Succinic acid GDP Krebs'
MITOCHONDRIAL + (4C) GTP cycle
3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H + FADH2 + ATP
MATRIX
+
m So, per molecule of glucose, 8 NADH+H , two FADH2
Citric Acid Cycle Interrelationship among Metabolic pathways
and 2 ATP are synthesised from pyruvic acid.
NCERT Maps Respiration in Plants 63
8 ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM (ETS) 9 RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET

AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION Inter-membrane Inner Mitochondrial Matrix
space membrane (In reality it is a theoretical exercise, as all pathways work
+
}
}
}
m NADH+H and FADH2 are oxidised through ETS simultaneously and do not take place one after another.
and the electrons are passed on to O2 resulting in + + Enzymatic rates are controlled by multiple means.)
+
NADH + H
formation of H2O through various complexes in 4H –
m There can be a net gain of 38 ATP molecules during
2e +
(Fe-S) FMN NAD
the inner - mitochondrial membrane. aerobic respiration of one molecule of glucose.
I
m NADH dehydrogenase (Complex-I) and FADH2 Complex I m In fermentation there is net gain of only 2 ATP for each
–
e (NADH dehydrogenase)
(Complex-II) transfers electrons to molecule of glucose degraded.
+
Ubiquinone Ubiquinol cyt bc1 (complex III) m NADH is oxidised to NAD slowly in fermentation,
(reduced ubiquinone) UQ
however the reaction is very vigorous in case of
–
Complex IV cyt c e aerobic respiration.
(Cytochrome c oxidase) (Mobile carrier) –
UQH2 e
m When electrons pass from one carrier to another
III
10 RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT = (RQ)
via complex-I to IV in ETC, they are coupled to Complex III
+ Cyt C1 Fe-S Cyt b m The ratio of volume of CO2 evolve to the volume of O2
ATP synthase (complex-V) for production of ATP 4H (Cytochrome bc1)
–
consumed is RQ.
from ADP and inorganic phosphate. e
m Oxidation of one NADH gives 3 ATP, while one Volume of CO 2 evolved
Cyt c UQH2 Complex II RQ =
(Succinate dehydrogenase) Volume of O 2 consumed
FADH2 gives two ATP.
UQ
m The role of oxygen is limited to the terminal stage. e
– II Succinate m It depends on the type of respiratory substrate, used
Yet the presence of oxygen is vital, since it drives (Fe-S) FAD during respiration.
Fumarate
the whole process by removing hydrogen from m For, carbohydrates = 1
Cyt c
the system. Oxygen is the final acceptor of Fat = less than 1, (eg-tripalmitin=0.7)
–
e Protein = about 0.9
hydrogen.
CuA IV 1
2
O 2 + 2H+
+ +
m Complex-V has two major components, F1-F0. F1 2H 2H
is peripheral membrane protein complex and Cyta Cyta3 Cu3 11
H 2O
contains site for ATP synthesis and F0 forms the m Breaking of C-C bonds of complex organic molecules
Complex IV
channel through which protons cross the inner (Cytochrome c oxidase) leads to release of lot of energy in cellular respiration.
membrane. m Glucose is the preferred substrate, though fats and
ADP + Pi
F0 F1 protein can also yield energy.
The passage of protons through the channel is ATP
synthase ATP m Fermentation takes place in many prokaryotes,
coupled to the catalytic site of F1 for production of +
H unicellular eukaryotes and in germinating seeds.
+
ATP. For each ATP produced, 2H passes + –
+ Electrochemical – m In aerobic respiration O2 is ultimate electron acceptor
+ gradient
–
through F0 from the intermembrane space to + – and it gets reduced to water.
matrix down the electrochemical proton gradient. Electron Transport System (ETS)
Plant Growth and Development
12
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 4 GROWTH RATES

m All cells of a plant are descendents of the zygote. Development of a mature plant from a Increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate. it can be arithmetic or geometrical.
zygote follows a precise and highly ordered succession of events. (a) Arithmetic growth: Following mitotic cell division, only one daughter cell continues to divide
m Development is the sum of two processes: GROWTH and DIFFERENTIATION. while the other differentiates and matures. So, a linear curve is obtained
m During this process a complex body organisation is formed that produce roots, leaves, e.g., root elongating at a constant rate.
Mathematically, expressed as
branches, flowers, fruits, seeds and eventually they die.
m The first step in the process of plant growth is seed germination. The seed germinates Lt = L0 + rt
when favourable conditions for growth exist in the environment, in absence of favourable Lt = length at time 't'
conditions they go into a period of suspended growth or rest, and resume metabolic L0 = length at time 'zero'
activities on return of favourable conditions and growth takes place. r = growth rate/elongation per unit time.
Stationary phase
2 GROWTH
Size/weight of the organ

Growth is irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or even an
Height of the plant

m
e
individual cell.
as
ph
m It is one of the most fundamental and conspicuous characteristic of a living being.
al
Growth is accompanied by metabolic processes and occur at the expense of energy.
nti
m
ne
m Plants retain the capacity of unlimited growth throughout their life due to presence of
po
meristem at certain locations in their body.
Ex
m This form of growth wherein new cells are always being added to the plant body by the
activity of meristem is called open form of growth. (INDETERMINATE)
m Root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem are responsible for primary growth, i.e., Lag phase
elongation along their axis.
Time Time
m In dicotyledonous plants and gymnosperms, the lateral meristems like vascular cambium Fig. Linear growth Fig. Sigmoid growth
and cork-cambium, which appear later in life and cause increase in girth of the organs
(b) Geometrical growthŚ: In most systems, initial growth is slow (lag phase), it increases
called secondary growth.
rapidly thereafter at an exponential rate (lag or exponential phase), as both progeny cells of
m Growth is measurable: At cellular level, it is principally a consequence of increase in mitotic cell division retain ability to divide and continue to do so. However with limited nutrient
amount of protoplasm. It is measured by a variety of parameters like-increase in fresh supply, growth slows down leading to stationary phase, giving a typical sigmoid or S-curve.
weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell number. m A sigmoid curve is a characteristic of living organism growing in a natural environment. It is
typical for all cells, tissues and organs of a plant.
The exponential growth can be expressed as:
3 PHASES OF GROWTH rt
W1 = W0e
The period of growth is generally divided into three phases MERISTEMATIC, ELONGATION
W1 = final size (weight, height, number etc)
& MATURATION.
(i) The constantly dividing cells at root apex and shoot apex represent meristematic phase of W0 = initial size at the beginning of period.
r = growth rate; t = time of growth
growth.
e = base of natural logarithms.
(ii) Cells proximal to the tip, represent phase of elongation.
Here, r = relative growth rate and measure of ability of plant to produce new material called
(iii) More proximal to the phase of elongation is phase of maturation. efficiency index.
68 Plant Growth and Development NCERT Maps
5 QUANTITATIVE COMPARISONS BETWEEN 7 DIFFERENTIATION DE-DIFFERENTIATION RE-DIFFERENTIATION

GROWTH OF LIVING SYSTEM CAN
BE MADE BY m The cells derived from root apical and m Living differentiated cells, that have m De-differentiated meristems are able
(i) Measurement and comparison of total growth per unit shoot apical meristems and cambium lost the capacity to divide can regain to divide and produce cells that once
time called ABSOLUTE GROWTH RATE. differentiate and mature to perform capacity of division under certain again lose capacity to divide but
(ii) The growth of given system per unit time expressed on specific functions, this act leading to conditions; this phenomenon is de- mature to perform specific functions,
a common basis, e.g., per unit initial parameter is called maturation in termed differentiation. differentiation, e.g., formation of i.e., get redifferentiated.
RELATIVE GROWTH RATE. eg. tracheary element interfascicular and cork-cambium e.g., secondary xylem, secondary
from parenchyma cells. cortex, cork, etc.
B1
A1
8 DEVELOPMENT 11 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
10 cm
2 m Development includes all changes that an organism goes through during its 1. AUXIN
2
55 cm life cycle from germination of seed to senescence. m Charles Darwin and his son Francis
Cell Division Death Darwin studied phototropism in canary

grass.
m F.W. Went isolated auxin from tips of
2
50 cm
5 cm
2 SENESCENCE
B coleoptiles of oat seedlings.
m First isolated from human urine.
A m Produced by growing apices of stems

Plasmatic growth Differentiation
MERISTEMATIC and roots.
Fig. Absolute and relative growth rates CELL m IAA and IBA isolated from plants.
MATURE
CELL m NAA, 2,4-D are synthetic.
Expansion Maturation
6 CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH (Elongation) Physiological effects:
m Initiate rooting in stem cultings.
m Water: For cell enlargement, i.e., extension growth by m Promote flowering in pineapples.
turgidity. Water also provides medium for enzymatic Fig. Sequence of developmental process in a plant cell m Help prevent fruit and leaf drop at early
activities. stages but promote abscission of older
m Oxygen: For aerobic respiration to get metabolic energy. 10 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS mature leaves and fruits.
m Macro and Micro nutrients: for synthesis of protoplasm. m Apical dominance
m Broadly divided into two groups based on their functions in a living plant body. m Induce parthenocarpy in tomatoes.
m Temperature: Optimum range for best growth.
m 2, 4-D kill dicot weeds. Used to prepare
m Light and Gravity: also affect certain phases/stages of
weed-free lawns.
growth. Involved in Growth promoting Involved in Growth inhibiting m Auxin controls xylem differentiation and
activities activities helps in cell-division.
9 PLASTICITY (Like-cell division, cell enlargement, pattern (Like-Response to wounds and 2. GIBBERELLINS
m Plants follow different pathways in response to formation, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting stresses of biotic and abiotic m Bakanae (foolish seedling) disease in
environment or phases of life to form different kinds of and seed formation) origin; dormancy and abscission) rice was caused by fungal pathogen G.
1. Auxin (indole compounds) IAA. E.g.: Abscisic acid (derivatives of fujikuroi. Kurosawa helped understand
structures. This ability is called Plasticity.
carotenoids) it. Later the chemical Giberellic acid
m Heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur-leaves of 2. Gibberellins (GA3, terpenes) was identified.
the juvenile plant are different in shape from those in 3. Cytokinin (adenine derivatives) m GA 3 discovered first and remains
mature plants. (N6-furfurylamino purine, kinetin) intensively studied form.
m Environmental heterophylly in buttercup is also an m All GAs are acidic.
m Increase length of grapes stalk.
example of plasticity, which shows difference in shape of * The gaseous PGR, ETHYLENE, could fit either of the groups, but it is largely an m Cause fruits like apples to elongate and
leaves produced in air and water. inhibitor of growth activities. improve shape.
NCERT Maps Plant Growth and Development 69
12 14 SEED DORMANCY
m They delay SENESCENCE. m Promotes SENESCENCE and ABSCISSION in leaves and
m Controlled by ENDOGENOUS factors, i.e.,
m Used to speed up malting process in brewing industry. flowers.
conditions within the seed itself.
m Increases length of stem and yield by 20 tonnes per hectare in m Effective in fruit ripening, by increasing rate of respiration
m Impermeable and hard seed coat; presence of
sugarcane. called CLIMACTIC.
chemical inhibitors-ABA, phenolic acids, para-
m Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens maturity period. m Breaks seed and bud dormancy.
ascorbic acid and immature embryos cause seed
m Promotes BOLTING in beet, cabbages and many plants with m Initiates germination in peanut seeds, sprouting of potato
dormancy.
rosette habit. tubers.
m Man made measures like mechanical abrasions,
m Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water
3. CYTOKININ using knives, sand paper or vigorous shaking can
rice plants
m Skoog and Miller crystalised cytokinesis promoting active break dormancy.
m Promotes root growth and root hair formation
substance and termed it KINETIN a modified form of adenine m Initiates flowering and helps in synchronising fruit-set in m In nature microbial action, passage through
from autoclaved herring sperm DNA. Kinetin does not occur pineapples. digestive tract of animals can break dormancy.
naturally in plants. m Chilling condition, use of gibberellic acid and
m Induces flowering in MANGO.
m ZEATIN the naturally occurring cytokinin was isolated from m ETHEPHON is source of ethylene. It hastens fruit ripening in nitrates can remove effect of inhibitory substances.
corn-kernels and coconut milk. tomatoes and apples and accelerates abscission in flowers m Light and temperature can also break dormancy.
m Synthesised in regions of rapid cell-division like root apices, and fruits. (thinning of cotton, cherry, walnut)
developing shoot buds, young fruits etc. m Promotes female flowers in cucumbers, increasing yield.
m Helps produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral
5. ABSCISIC ACID
shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation. Overcomes m Development in plants can be under intrinsic
m Regulates abscission and dormancy
apical dominance. and extrinsic control. Intrinsic can be intra
m A general plant growth inhibitor and inhibitor of plant
m Promote nutrient mobilisation. cellular (GENETIC) or inter cellular (PGR).
metabolism.
m Helps delay LEAF SENESCENCE. m In plants growth and even differentiation is also
m Inhibits seed germination.
open, as cells and tissues of same meristem
4. ETHYLENE m Stimulates closure of stomata
have different structure at maturity
m COUSINS helped to identify Ethylene. m Plays important role in seed development, maturation and
m PGRs can be having complimentary or
m Synthesised in large amounts by tissues undergoing dormancy. antagonistic role, which can be individualistic or
sencescence and ripening fruits. m By inducing dormancy, ABA helps seeds to withstand synergistic.
m Horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of axis and apical desiccation and other factors unfavourable for growth.
hook formation in dicot seedlings is influenced by ethylene. m In most situations, ABA acts as an antagonist to GAs.
15 VERNALISATION
13 PHOTOPERIODISM
Some plants require a periodic exposure to light to induce flowering. m Vernalisation is either QUALITATIVE or QUANTITATIVE exposure to
Such plants are able to measure duration of exposure to light. low temperature for flowering in some plants.
(a) Long-day plants: require light period exceeding well-defined critical period. m It prevents PRECOCIOUS reproductive development late in the
(b) Short-day plants: require light less than critical period growing season, and enables the plant to have sufficient time to
(c) Day-neutral plants: No such co-relation between exposure to light duration and induction of flowering response. reach maturity.
m Flowering in certain plants depends on combination of light and dark exposures and also their relative durations. m Wheat, barley, rye have winter and spring varieties.
m This response of plants to periods of day/night is termed PHOTOPERIODISM. m Subjecting biennials like sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots to cold
m The site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves. A hypothesised hormonal substance is responsible for treatment stimulates a subsequent photoperiodic flowering
flowering. response.
Reproduction in Organisms
1
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION
m The period from birth to natural death of an organisms is called its life span. Life spans of organisms are not necessarily correlated with their sizes, the sizes of crows and parrots are not very
different yet their life spans show a wide difference. Similarly, a mango tree has a much shorter life span as compared to a peepal tree. No organism is immortal except single celled organisms.
m Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which organism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to itself. Based on whether there is participation of one organism or two in the
process of reproduction, it is of two types. When offspring is produced by a single parent with or without involvement of gamete formation, the reproduction is asexual. When two parents
(opposite sex) participate in the reproductive process and also involve fusion of male and female gametes, it is called sexual reproduction.
m The organism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other factors are collectively responsible for how it reproduces.
2 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 3 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

m In this method, a single individual (parent) is capable of producing offspring (clones) m Sexual reproduction involves formation of male and female gametes, either by the
m The term clone is used to describe such morphologically and genetically similar individuals. same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex. These gametes fuse
to form the zygote which develops to form the new organism.
m Asexual reproduction is common among single celled organisms and in plants and animals with
m It is an elaborate, complex and slow process as compared to asexual reproduction.
relatively simple organisations. m Because of the fusion of male and female gametes, sexual reproduction results in
m In protists and monerans, cell division is itself a mode of reproduction. offspring that are not identical to the parents or amongst themselves. When it
m Organisms reproduce asexually by comes to sexual mode of reproduction, organisms share a similar pattern, though
Adventitious
a. Binary fission : Amoeba, buds they differ greatly in external morphology, internal structure and physiology.
m All organisms have to reach a certain stage of growth and maturity in their life,
Paramecium
before they can reproduce sexually. That period of growth is called the juvenile
b. Budding : Yeast phase. It is known as vegetative phase in plants. This phase is of variable duration
c. Fragmentation : Hydra in different organisms.
Asexual reproductive structures m Plants-the annual and biennial types, show clear cut vegetative, reproductive and
senescent phases, but in the perennial species it is very difficult to clearly define
a. Zoospores : Fungi and Algae
these phases.
b. Conidia : Penicillium m A few plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon, such as bamboo species
c. Buds : Hydra (a) (b) flower only once in their life time, generally after 50-100 years, produce large
d. Gemmules : Sponge number of fruits and die.
Vegetative propagules in angiosperms:
(a) Bulbil of Agave; (b) Leaf buds of Bryophyllum m Strobilanthus kunthiana flowers once in 12 years, this plant flowered last during
e. Bulbils : Agave
September October 2006.
m In plants, the term vegetative reproduction is frequently used for asexual reproduction. In plants, m In both plants and animals, hormones are responsible for the transitions between
the units of vegetative propagation such as runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb are all the three phases. Interaction between hormones and certain environmental
capable of giving rise to new offspring. These structures are called vegetative propagules. factors regulate the reproductive processes and the associated behavioural
m Water hyacinth also called terror of Bengal is one of the most invasive weeds found growing in expressions of organisms.
standing water, propagating through offset. m Buds (eyes) of potato tuber, rhizome of banana and ginger give rise to new
l It drains oxygen from the water, which leads to death of fishes. plants. The site of origin of the new plantlets in the plants are invariably the
l This plant was introduced in India because of its beautiful flowers and shape of leaves. Since nodes present in the modified stems of these plants.
it can propagate vegetatively at a phenomenal rate and spread all over the water body in a m Adventitious buds arise from the notches present at margins of leaves of
short period of time, it is very difficult to get rid off them. Bryophyllum.
74 Reproduction in Organisms NCERT Maps
4 EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

m The events in sexual reproduction follow a regular sequence. These sequential events may be grouped into three distinct stages namely the pre-fertilisation, fertilisation and the post-
fertilisation events.
5 PRE-FERTILISATION EVENTS 6 FERTILISATION

m These include all the events of sexual reproduction prior to the fusion of gametes. The two main pre-fertilisation events m Fusion of gametes is called syngamy or fertilisation, which
are gametogenesis and gamete transfer. results in formation of a diploid zygote.
Gametogenesis Sexuality in organisms m It is the most vital event of sexual reproduction.
m Gametogenesis refers to the process of formation m Plants may have both male and female reproductive structures Where does syngamy occur?
of the two types of gametes – male and female. In in the same plant (bisexual) or on different plants (unisexual). In
some algae the gametes are homogametes several fungi and plants, terms such as homothallic and External fertilisation : Fertilisation outside the body
(isogametes). However, in a majority of sexually (Requires great synchrony of the organism. Eg. Majority
monoecious are used to denote the bisexual condition and
reproducing organism the gametes are between sexes and release of algae and fishes as well as
heterogametes. In such organisms the male heterothallic and dioecious are the terms used to describe
of large number of gametes)
gamete is called antherozoid or sperm and the unisexual condition. amphibians.
female gametes is called the egg or ovum. m In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate, while Internal fertilisation : Synagamy occurs inside the
the female is pistillate.
Name of organism Meiocyte (2n) Gamete (n) (Number of sperms produced is body of the organism. Eg.
m Some examples of monoecious plants are cucurbits and very large though there is
Human beings 46 23 Higher animals and majority
coconut and of dioecious plants are papaya and date palm. significant reduction in number
Fruit fly 8 4 of plants.
of eggs)
Ophioglossum 1260 630
(a fern)
Apple 34 17 7 POST FERTILISATION EVENTS
Rice 24 12 Oogonium
Maize 20 10 Events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote are called
(female
Potato 48 24 sex organ) post-fertilisation events.
Butterfly 380 190 (a) (b)
Onion 16 8 Antheridium The zygote
Types of gametes:
(male sex m Formed in all sexually reproducing organisms.
Chromosome numbers in meiocytes and gametes (a) Isogametes of Cladophora;
organ)
of some organisms. (b) Heterogametes of Fucus m Development of the zygote depends on the type of life cycle the
Monoecious plant (Chara)
organism has and the environment it is exposed to.
Cell division during gamete formation :
Gamete transfer m Zygote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species between
m Gametes are haploid though the parent body
m In several simple plants like algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes, organisms of one generation and the next.
may be haploid or diploid.
water is the medium through which gamete transfer takes place.
m A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic Embryogenesis
division whereas a diploid parent produces m A large number of the male gametes, however fail to reach the
gametes by meiosis in meiocytes (gamete female gametes. To compensate this loss of male gametes m Embryogenesis refers to the process of development of embryo
mother cell). At the end of meiosis, only one set during transport, the number of male gametes produced is from the zygote. During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell
of chromosomes gets incorporated into each several thousand times the number of female gametes produced. division and cell differentiation.
gamete. m In seed plants, pollen grains are the carriers of the male gametes. m In flowering plants, the zygote develops in the embryo, ovule into
m Monerans, fungi, algae and bryophytes possess A specialised event called pollination facilitates transfer of pollen
haploid body. seed, ovary into fruit which has a thick wall called pericarp that is
grains to the stigma. protective in function. After dispersal, seeds germinate to
m Pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms m Successful transfer and coming together of gametes is essential
possess diploid body. produce new plants.
for the most critical event in sexual reproduction, the fertilisation.
m A major disadvantage of external fertilisation is that the offsprings are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening their survival upto adult hood.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
2
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM

m All flowering plants show sexual reproduction. In a T.S., a typical microsporangium appears near circular. It is generally surrounded by four wall layers.
m Flowers are objects of aesthetic, ornamental, social, FOUR ANTHER WALL LAYERS:
religious and cultural value. They have always been used as
symbols for conveying important human feelings such as Connective
love, affection, happiness, grief, mourning etc.
1. Epidermis
m Much before the actual flower is seen on a plant, the The outer 3 wall layers perform the function of protection
decision that the plant is going to flower has taken place. 2. Endothecium
and help in dehiscence of anther to release the pollen.
Several hormonal and structural changes differentiate &
3. Middle layers
develop the floral primordium, which form inflorescences,
bear floral buds and then the flowers. Inner most wall layer. Nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells
4. Tapetum of tapetum possess dense cytoplasm & have more than one
nucleus
2 PRE-FERTILISATION – STRUCTURES AND EVENTS
Sporogenous Compactly arranged homogenous cells; occupies the centre of
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen Grain Transverse section tissue each microsporangium.
m Androecium, consists of a whorl of stamens, representing of a young anther
the male reproductive organ.
A typical Stamen has two parts 4 MICROSPOROGENESIS 5 POLLEN GRAIN
Microsporogenesis is a process of formation of m Pollen grains represent the male gametophytes. A variety of
microspores from PMC (Pollen Mother Cell). architecture-sizes, shapes, colours, designs are seen on
1. FILAMENT 2. ANTHER pollen grains from different species.
As the Cells of the Undergoes to form
FILAMENT m It has prominent two layered wall-exine and intine.
m anther sporogenous microspore
l It is long slender stalk. develops tissue (PMC) MEIOSIS tetrad Vegetative Exine
cell m Outer hard layer,
l The proximal end of the filament is attached to the m Each cell of the sporogenous tissue is a potential made of
thalamus or the petal of the flower. pollen or microspore mother cell. m Bigger, has sporopollenin
l The number & length of stamens are variable in flowers m The microspores, as they are formed, are arranged in abundant food
reserve & a large m Has germ pores
of different species. a cluster of four cells - the microspore tetrad. irregularly where sporopollenin
m ANTHER m As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the shaped nucleus is absent
l The terminal generally bilobed structure is anther. microspores dissociate from each other & develop Intine:
into pollen grains. m Inner wall layer, thin
l Each lobe having two theca i.e., dithecous. Generative
cell 2-called stage continuous, made of
l Often a longitudinal groove runs lengthwise separating cellulose and pectin
the theca. m Small, floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell; spindle
l The anther is a four-sided (tetragonal) structure shaped with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus
consisting of four microsporangia located at the m Sporopollenin is one of most resistant organic
corners, two in each lobe. material known. It can withstand high
l The microsporangia develop further & become pollen temperature, strong acids & alkali. No enzyme
sacs. They extend longitudinally all through the length that can degrade it is known. Pollen grains are Pollen grains are generally spherical; measuring 25 - 50
of an anther and are packed with pollen grains. well preserved as fossil due to it. micrometers in diameter
78 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants NCERT Maps
6 7 PISTIL, MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE) AND EMBRYO SAC

m In over 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at 2-celled stage, in the m Gynoecium represents female reproductive part. Gynoecium may consist of Stigma
remaining species, generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to two male single pistil (monocarpellary) or may have more than one pistil (multicarpellary).
gametes before pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage). It may be free, (apocarpous) eg. Michelia or fused (syncarpous), eg. Papaver.
m Pollen grains of many species cause severe allergies, chronic respiratory m Each pistil has three parts
Style
disorders, asthma, bronchitis etc. e.g., Parthenium (carrot grass) came to 1. Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains.
India as a contaminant with wheat, became ubiquitous in occurrence & 2. Style: Elongated slender part below stigma
causes pollen allergy. 3. Ovary: Basal bulged part of pistil, has ovarian cavity (locule). Placenta is
m Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets and syrups has been located inside ovarian cavity. Megasporangia called ovules arise from
claimed to increase performance of athletes & race horses. placenta.
m Pollen Viability: Highly variable. Depends to some extent on prevailing m One ovule in ovary – e.g. wheat, paddy, mangy
temperature and humidity. m Many ovule in ovary – e.g. papaya, watermelon, orchids.
l In some cereals like rice and wheat pollen grains lose viability within
30 minutes of release
l In some members of Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae,
Ovary
viability can be for months. m Pollen germination can be studied by dusting pollen on glass slide with Thalamus
10% sugar solution.
m It is possible to store pollen of a large number of species for years in liquid
nitrogen (–196°C) in pollen banks for crop breeding programmes. Megasporangium (Ovule)
1. Hilum - Region where body fuses with funicle
m In embryo sac 3 celled egg apparatus, at micropylar end (1 egg cell & two 2. Funicle - Stalk of ovule
synergids with filiform apparatus, which guide pollen tube into the synergid.),
3. Micropyle - Opening, where integument remain absent
3 antipodals at chalazal end and a large central cell, with two polar nuclei
4. Micropylar pole
remain present.
5. Outer integument
m Embryo sac formation from single megaspore is termed monosporic Protective envelops
6. Inner integument
development.
7. Nucellus - Mass of cells
8. Embryo sac - Located in the nucellus
Chalazal end
Chalaza - Represents basal part of the ovule
Antipodals Chalazal pole
A typical anatropous ovule
Megasporogenesis
m Process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cells.
m Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore mother cell (MMC) in micropylar region of nucellus.
Polar nuclei
Central cell m MMC Meiosis 4 megaspores.
(2n) (n)
Egg
Female Gametophyte / Embryo sac
Synergids m In majority of flowering plants one megaspore remains functional and 3 degenerate.
m The functional megaspore develops the female gametophyte (embryo sac)
Filiform
m The nucleus of functional megaspore undergoes free-nuclear mitotic divisions to form two nuclei
Micropylar end apparatus
which move to opposite pole. Two more sequential mitotic divisions result 8-nucleate stage, after that
Mature embryo sac cell walls are laid down to form the typical 7-celled-8 nucleate female gametophyte or embryo sac.
NCERT Maps Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 79
8 POLLINATION 9 AGENTS OF POLLINATION

Transfer of pollen shed from anther to sigma of a pistil. 1. ABIOTIC AGENTS 2. BIOTIC AGENTS
Pollination can be divided into three types. m Pollen coming in contact with stigma is a chance
m Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as
(1) AUTOGAMY factor in both wind and water pollination. So flowers
pollinating agents-Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles,
m Pollination is achieved within same flower, i.e., produce enormous amount of pollen when compared
transfer of pollen from anther to the stigma of same to number of ovules available for pollination. It is to wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds & humming birds) &
flower. compensate loss of pollen grains. bats.
m It requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma Wind pollination m Among animals, insects particularly bees are dominant
receptivity. m Requires light, non-stickly pollen so that they can be pollinating agents.
m Cleistogamous flowers (which do not open) are transported by wind currents. Well exposed stamens
invariably autogamous, eg. Viola (common and large often-feathery stigma to trap air borne m Some primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree dwelling)
pansy), Oxalis & Commelina and provide assured pollen, single ovule in each ovary and numerous rodents or even reptiles (gecko lizard & garden lizard)
seed set even in absence of pollinators. flowers in an inflorescence. Tassels in corn to trap are also pollinators in some species.
m These species also produce chasmogamous pollen.
m Insect-pollinating flowers are large, colourful, fragrant
flowers (with exposed anther and stigma) for m Quite common in grasses.
and rich in nectar. Small flowers are clustered in
cross-pollination. m Pollination by wind is more common among abiotic
(2) GEITONOGAMY pollinations. inflorescence to make them conspicuous.
m Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of Water pollination m Animals are attracted to flowers by colour and/ or
another flower of the same plant. m Pollination by water is quite rare, limited to 30 genera, fragrance.
m It is functionally cross pollination involving of monocotyledons e.g Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Zostera
pollinating agents, genetically it is similar to (sea grass). m Flowers pollinated by flies & beetles secrete foul odours
autogamy, since the pollen grains come from the m In majority of aquatic plants like water hyacinth and to attract these animals.
same plant. waterlily, flowers emerge above water & are m Nectar & pollen grains are usual floral rewards.
(3) XENOGAMY pollinated by insects or wind.
m Transfers of pollen grains from anther to the m In Vallisneria pollination takes place on the surface of m In some species floral rewards are in providing safe
stigma of a different plant. water (epihydrophily), in sea grasses it takes place places to lay eggs, eg, Amorphophallus; A species of
m This is the only type of pollination which brings below water (hypohydrophily) moth and Yucca - cannot complete their life cycles
genetically different types of pollen grains on the m In most water-pollinated species, pollen grains are without each other.
stigma. protected from wetting by a mucilaginous covering.
10 OUTBREEDING DEVICES 11 POLLEN-PISTIL INTERACTION

m Flowering plants have developed many devices to discourage self. m The ability of pistil to recognise the pollen followed by its acceptance or rejection is the result of a
pollination and to encourage cross pollination. For example – continuous dialogue between pollen grain and the pistil. Its a dynamic process.
l Pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronised.
m This dialogue is mediated by chemical components of the pollen interacting with those of the pistil.
l Anther and stigma are placed at different positions so that pollen
cannot come in contact with stigma of the same flower. m Following compatible pollination, pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma and style, the
l Self-incompatibility is a genetic mechanism which prevents self- contents of pollen grain move into pollen tube.
pollen from fertilizing the ovules by inhibiting pollen germination or m The growing pollen tube carrying two non-motile male gametes, reaches the ovary, enters the ovule
pollen tube growth in the pistil. through micropyle & then enters one of the synergids through the filiform apparatus, which guides the
l Production of unisexual flowers. entry of pollen tube.
m In castor & maize. (monoecious) autogamy is prevented but not
geitonogamy. In papaya (dioecy), both autogamy and geitonogamy are m All these events - from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes enter the ovule - are together
prevented. referred to as pollen - pistil interaction.
80 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants NCERT Maps
12 ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION 14 POST-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

m In such crossing, desired pollen are used for pollination & stigma is protected from (A) ENDOSPERM
contamination from unwanted pollen by emasculation and bagging. m Endosperm development precedes embryo development.
m If female parent bears bisexual flowers emasculation is followed by bagging &
m The cells of triploid endosperm are filled with reserve food materials and used by
rebagging after dusting mature pollen, for fruit development.
developing embryo.
m If female flowers are unisexual there is no need of emasculation.
m The most common type of endosperm, is nuclear type (PEN undergoes successive nuclear
divisions to give free nuclei) eg. coconut water, and surrounding white kernel is cellular
endosperm.
m Knowledge gained in pollen-pistil interactions can help plant breeders even in (B) EMBRYO
compatible pollination to get desired hybrids. m Embryo develops at micropylar end of embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
m Continued self-pollination result in inbreeding depressions. m Most zygotes divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed. This adaptation
provides assured nutrition to the developing embryo.
13 DOUBLE FERTIFISATION m Early stages of embryo development (EMBRYOGENY) are similar in both monocotyledons
and dicotyledons.
m Pollen tube releases the two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid.
m In dicots the zygote forms ® proembryo ® globular ® heart-shaped ® mature
m One of the males gametes fuses with egg to form the diploid zygote (SYNGAMY). The
embryo.
other male gamete moves towards the polar nuclei of the central cell and fuses with
them to produce triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). It is TRIPLE FUSION. m A typical dicot embryo has embryonal axis & two cotyledons. Epicotyl terminates with
plumule or stem tip; hypocotyl terminates at its lower tip in radical or root tip, covered by root
m Syngamy & triple fusion are called double fertilisation, an event unique to flowering
cap.
plants.
m Embryos of monocot has only one cotyledon. In grass family it is called scutellum towards
The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell (PEC) and develop
lateral side of the embryonal axis. Radicle or root cap enclosed with undifferentiated sheath
ionto endosperm.
called coleorhiza. Epicotyl has shoot apex & a few leaf primordia enclosed in foliar structure
coleoptile.
15 APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY (C) SEED
m In angiosperms, seed (fertilised ovule) is the final product of sexual reproduction, formed
m Some species of Asteraceae & grasses have evolved a special mechanism to produce
inside fruits. A seed typically consists of seed coats, cotyledon(s) & an embryo axis.
seeds without fertilisation called apomixis. A form of asexual reproduction that mimics
m Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or ex-albuminous, having no residual
sexual reproduction.
endosperm, which is consumed completely during embryo development (eg pea,
m In some species diploid egg cell formed without reduction division develops into groundnut). Albuminous seeds retain a part of endosperm (eg. Wheat, maize, barley,
embryo without fertilisation. castor, coconut).
m In Citrus and mango nucellar cells protrude into embryo sac & develops into embryos, m In black pepper & beet, remnants of nucellus are also persistent, called perisperm.
so each ovule contains many embryos-polyembryony. m Wall of ovary develops into pericarp. True fruits develop from ovary.
m Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year as the progeny plants will segregate and m In apple, strawberry, cashew, etc, thalamus also contributes to form fruit called false fruit.
will not be able to maintain hybrid characters. But if hybrid seeds are made into m Parthenocarpic fruit develop without fertilisation eg. Banana.
apomicts, there is no segregation of characters in hybrid progeny. So active research is m Seeds form the basis of agriculture.
going on to understand the genetics of apomixis & transfer apomictic genes into hybrid m Lupinus arcticus seed germinated and flowered after estimated record 10,000 yrs of
varieties. dormancy. Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) seed remained viable for 2000 yrs.
Principles of Inheritance and Variation
3
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3-A. BASED ON MONOHYBRID CROSS, MENDEL 6 CO-DOMINANCE

PROPOSED TWO GENERAL RULES F1 resembles both parents.
m Genetics deals with inheritance and variation of m
m LAW OF DOMINANCE: Explains the expression of only
characters from parents to offsprings. Inheritance is the m ABO blood group in human being is controlled by Gene-I,
one parental character in F1 of monohybrid cross and both A B A B
process by which characters are passed on from parent having three alleles I , I and i. I and I produce slightly
to progeny. Variation is the degree by which progeny F2. It also explains the proportion of 3 : 1 obtained at the F2. different form of sugar, while i does not produce any sugar.
differ from their parents. m LAW OF SEGREGATION: The factors or alleles of a pair A B A B
m I and I are completely dominant over i, but when I & I are
Humans knew that the causes of variation was hidden in segregate from each other such that gametes receive
m present together, they express their own sugars, because of
only one of the two factors.
sexual reproduction. Co-Dominance hence RBC have both sugars.
m There are six genotypes and four phenotypes in human ABO
4 INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE blood types.
2 MENDEL'S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
m F1 did not resemble either of the parents and was in
m Gregor Mendel conducted hybridisation experiments on
between the two. Seen in Dog flower (Snapdragon or 7 PLEIOTROPY
garden peas for seven years (1856-1863) and proposed
Antirrhinum sp.)
the laws of inheritance. A single gene can exhibit multiple phenotypic expression. It is
In this case:
m Mendel selected 14-true breeding pea plant varieties as the effect of a gene on metabolic pathways which contribute
pairs, which were similar except for one character with RR = has red flowers., rr = has white flowers. towards different phenotypes.
contrasting traits. But Rr has pink flowers.
Example:
Contrasting traits studied by Mendel in Pea m Here Genotypic ratio at F2 is like Mendelian monohybrid 1. Mental retardation
cross 1 : 2 : 1 but phenotypic ratio changed from 3 : 1 (to 1 : Phenylketonuria
(a)
S.No. Characters Contrasting Traits 2 : 1) (Single gene)
2. Reduction in hair &
1. Stem height Tall/Dwarf skin pigmentation
2. Flower colour Violet/White 5 EXPLANATION OF CONCEPT OF DOMINANCE
3. Flower position Axial/Terminal 1. Seed
In diploid organisms, there are two copies of each
4. Pod shape Inflated/Constricted (b) Starch Synthesis Shape
gene, i.e., a pair of alleles. One of them may be gene in pea-(B) (Dominance)
5. Pod colour Green/Yellow. different, i.e., modified.
Round/Wrinkled 2. Size of strach grain
6. Seed shape (i) The normal allele produces normal enzyme needed for
7. Seed colour Yellow/Green transformation of substrate. (Incomplete dominance)
(ii) If, the modified allele produces normal/less efficient Size Shape
enzyme, which produces same phenotype/trait, it is
3 INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE dominant, but if it produces non-functional or no BB = Large grains
enzyme, the phenotype will be affected and recessive Round
m Mendel found that F1 always resembled either of the
trait is seen. Bb = Intermediate sized grains
parents, but in F2 (produced by selfing F1) both traits
appeared; 3/4th showed the dominant trait and 1/4th the ‘Factors’ or genes are the units of inheritance. They bb = Small grains Wrinkled
recessive.
contain information required to express a particular
m Both traits were identical to their parental type and did not
show any blending, i.e. none were of INTERMEDIATE trait in an organism 8 MULTIPLE ALLELES
type. British geneticist R.C Punnett developed a graphical
m More than two alleles governing the same character.
m Mendel got similar results for all traits. representation call Punnett square to calculate
m ABO blood grouping is a very good example of multiple
To determine the genotype of dominant trait at F2 , possibility of all possible genotype of offsprings in a
m alleles. Since in an individual only two alleles are present,
Mendel performed test cross. genetic cross multiple alleles can be found only in population studies.
NCERT Maps Principles of Inheritance and Variation 85
9 INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES 12 LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION 14 SEX-DETERMINATION
m Mendel also worked and crossed pea plants that m Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses GENETIC/CHROMOSOMAL BASIS
in Drosophila to study genes that were sex- m Initial clue came from Insects. The X-body of Henking was in fact
differed into two characters and got a phenotypic ratio of
linked, similar to the dihybrid crosses of x-chromosome
9 : 3 : 3 : 1 and genotype ratio of 1 : 2 : 2 : 4 : 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1.
Mendel in peas. TYPES
m Based on these DIHYBRID CROSSES Mendel m But the F2 ratios deviated significantly from 9
(a) XO-Type = Male heterogamety
proposed the: : 3 : 3 : 1 (expected when the two genes are
e.g. = Grasshopper
independent).
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT m When two genes in a dihybrid cross were (b) XY-Type = Male heterogamety
The law states that when two pairs of traits are combined in situated on the same chromosome, the e.g. = Insects, Man
a hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters is proportion of parental gene combinations (c) ZW-Type = Female heterogamety
independent of the other pair of characters. were much higher than non-parental type. e.g. = Birds
Morgan attributes it to physical association
SEX-DETERMINATION IN HUMANS
or linkage of two genes and used term
10 CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE m Genetic make-up of SPERM determines sex of the child and in each
recombination to describe non-parental
gene combinations. pregnancy there is always 50% probability of a male or female child.
m Walter Sutton & Theodore Boveri noted that the
m Some genes were very-tightly linked m It is unfortunate that in our society females are blamed for giving birth to
behaviour of chromosomes was parallel to behaviour of
(Showed very low recombinations), while female children.
genes and they used chromosome movement to others were loosely linked (Showed higher
explain Mendel's Laws. recombinations). SEX-DETERMINATION IN HONEY BEE
m Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal m Morgan's student Alfred Sturtevant used m Haplo-diploid sex-determination
segregation with Mendelian principles and called it frequency of recombination between genes m Unfertilised egg develops as male (drone) i.e. haploid; queen & worker
chromosomal theory of inheritance. on same chromosome as a measure of bees (females) are diploid.
distance between genes and mapped their
m Experimental verification was done by T.H. Morgan,
position on chromosomes.
who worked with fruit flies Drosophila melanogaster. Today GENETIC MAPS are extensively 15 MUTATION
used as a starting point in sequencing whole
m Results in alteration of DNA sequences and consequently results in
genomes as done in case of Human
DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER WERE Genome Project. changes in the genotype and the phenotype of an organism.
11
SUITABLE FOR GENETIC STUDIES m Loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/duplication) of a segment of DNA
m They could be grown on simple synthetic medium in 13 POLYGENIC INHERITANCE result in chromosome alteration.
laboratory. m Alteration in chromosomes result in abnormalities or aberrations.
m Traits controlled by three or more genes are
They complete their life cycle in about two weeks. Chromosomal aberrations are commonly observed in cancer cells.
m polygenic traits. It also takes into account
m A single mating could produce a large number of influence of environment. m Mutations also arise due to change in a single base pair of DNA, known
progeny flies m The phenotype reflects the contribution of as point mutation; eg: Sickle-cell anemia.
each allele, i.e., the effect of each allele is m Deletions and insertions of base pairs of DNA causes frame-shift
m There is a clear differentiation of sexes.
ADDITIVE. mutations.
m Also, it has many types of hereditary variations that
E.g., Human Skin Colour m Chemical and physical factors that induce mutations are called
can be seen with low power microscopes.
m AABBCC has darkest skin colour; aabbcc mutagens.
has lightest and AaBbCc intermediate
E.g UV radiations can cause mutations in organisms
colour. Other example is height in Humans.
86 Principles of Inheritance and Variation NCERT Maps
16 GENETIC DISORDERS Pedigree analysis of

(a) Autosomal dominant trait (e.g., Myotonic
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS dystrophy)
m Controlled crosses are not possible in case of human beings. Study of family history about inheritance of a particular trait provides an (b) Autosomal recessive trait (e.g., sickle-cell
alternative. Such analysis in several generations of a family is called pedigree-analysis. anaemia)
(a)
SYMBOLS USED IN THE HUMAN
MENDELIAN DISORDERS CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
Male m Mainly determined by alteration or m Caused due to absence or excess or
mutation in a single gene. abnormal arrangement of one or more
m It may be dominant or recessive. chromosomes.
female
Autosomal or Sex-linked. m Failure of segregation of chromatids during
(b)
Examples: cell-division cycle resulting in gain or loss of
sex unspecified (1) Colour-blindness a chromosome(s), is called ANEUPLOIDY.
m Sex-linked recessive. m Failure of Cytokinesis after telophase
m Due to defect in either red or stage of cell division results in an increase
affected indviduals green cone of eye due to in a whole set of chromosomes in an
mutation in certain genes organism, this is called POLYPLOIDY,
present on X-Chromosome often seen in plants.
m 8% of males & only about m TRISOMY or MONOSOMY leads to very
mating 0.4% of females affected. serious consequences in the individual. m T.H. Morgan found that in Drosophila the
genes for yellow body and white eye were
(2) Haemophilia Common examples of chromosomal
very tightly linked and showed only 1.3%
m X-linked recessive disorders.
mating between relatives recombination, while white eye and
m A single protein that is part of (I) Down's Syndrome: Trisomy of 21; was miniature wing showed 37.2%
(consanguineous mating)
cascade of proteins involved in first described by Langdon Down (1866). recombination.
blood clotting is affected. Symptoms:
i) Short Statured m In Honeybee, males produce sperms by
(3) Sickle-Cell anaemia
mitosis, they do not have father and thus
parents above and m Autosome linked recessive ii) Small round head.
children below cannot have sons, but have grand-fathers
m Controlled by single pair of iii) Furrowed tongue
and can have grandsons.
A
allele Hb and Hb .
S iv) Partially open mouth.
v) Palm is broad with palm m Cystic fibrosis is autosomal recessive
(4) Phenylketonuria disorder.
crease
m Inborn error in metabolism.
vi) Physical, psychomotor & mental m Chromosomal disorders can be easily
parents with male child Autosomal recessive. Affected
development is retarded. studied by the analysis of KARYOTYPES.
affected with diseases individual lack enzyme which
(ii) Klinefelter's Syndrome: Karyotype = 47 Inheritable mutations can be studied by
converts phenylalanine to m
tyrosine. Results in mental xxy, overall masculine development, generating a pedigree of a family.
retardation. however GYNAECOMASTIA is also
m The family pedigree of Queen Victoria shows
(5) Thalassemia expressed. Such individuals are sterile. a number of haemophilic descendents as
5 five unaffected offspring
m Autosomal recessive, could be
(iii) Turner's Syndrome: Due to absence of she was a carrier of the disease.
due to mutation or deletion. one of the X-chromosomes, i.e., 45 with
m Thalassemia differs from sickle-cell anaemia
XO. Such females are sterile as ovaries
m a-thalassemia: Controlled by in that the former is a quantitative problem of
two closely linked genes HBA1 are rudimentary besides lack of other synthesising too few globin molecules while
and HBA2 on Chr-16. secondary sexual characters. the latter is a qualitative problem of
m b-Thalassemia: controlled by synthesising an incorrectly functioning
single gene HBB on Chr-11. globin.
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
4
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 DNA-DOUBLE HELIX

m Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two types of nucleic acid m DNA as an acidic substance present in nucleus was first identified by Friedrich Miescher in
found in living systems. DNA acts as the genetic material in most of the organisms. 1969, named it as “Nuclein’.
RNA though it acts as a genetic material in some viruses, like TMV, QB-bacteriophage m Based on the X-ray diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin,
but mostly functions as a messenger, adaptor, structural and catalytic molecule. James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a very simple but famous double helix model of
DNA in 1953.
2 THE DNA m One hallmark of the helix is base pairing between the two strands. Based on the observation of
m DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. The length of DNA usually defined as Erwin Chargaff that for a double stranded DNA, the ratios between A and T and G and C are
number of nucleotides, is also characteristic of an organism. constant and equals one. The base-pairing confers COMPLEMENTARITY, a unique property
to the polynucleotide chain.
ORGANISM DNA CONTENT
m So, if each strand of parental DNA, acts as a template for synthesis of a new strand, the two
1. Bacteriophage f × 174 5386 Nucleotides double stranded daughter DNA produced would be identical to the parental DNA molecule.
2. Bacteriophage lambda 48502 base pairs
Salient Features of Double-helix of DNA
6
3. Escherichia coli 4.6 × 10 base pairs m Made of two polypeptide chains, where the backbone is constituted
9 by sugar - phosphate and bases project inside.
4. Haploid content of human DNA 3.3 × 10 base pairs Base pairs
m Two chains have anti-parallel polarity, one chain
Structure of Polynucleotide Chain 5¢ ® 3¢, the other 3¢ ® 5¢
m The basic unit of a polynucleotide (DNA or RNA) is NUCLEOTIDE – which has m Bases in two strands are paired through hydrogen bonds, forming
3 components. base pairs. (A = T and C º G). This generates approximately
PURINES = A (Adenine) and G (Guanine)
(i) A Nitrogenous base uniform distance between the two strands.
PYRIMIDINES = C (Cytosine), T (Thymine) and U (Uracil) The two chains are coiled in a right handed fashion.
m Sugar
RIBOSE (In RNA) m Pitch of the helix = 3.4 nm. Roughly 10 bp in each turn. So, phosphate
(ii) A Pentose sugar backbone
2-DEOXYRIBOSE (in DNA) –9
distance between a bp in a helix is approx. 0.34 nm. (0.34 × 10 m)
(iii) A Phosphate group m The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in double-helix.
m Purines are same in DNA and RNA, cytosine is common to both DNA and RNA, This in addition to H-bonds, confers stability to the helical
Fig. : DNA double helix.
Uracil is present in RNA, Thymine (5-methyl uracil) in DNA structure.
m A nitrogenous base is linked to the OH of 1¢C pentose sugar through a N-glycosidic
linkage to form a NUCLEOSIDE 4 CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY : Proposed by FRANCIS CRICK.
m When a phosphate group is linked to OH of 5¢C of a nucleoside through phosphoester
m States flow of genetic information as DNA ® RNA ® Protein
linkage, a corresponding NUCLEOTIDE is formed.
TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION
m Two nucleotides are linked through 3¢-5¢ phosphodiester linkage to form a DNA mRNA Protein
DINUCLEOTIDE. More nucleotides in such a manner form polynucleotide. Replication
m A polymer thus formed has at one end a free phosphate moiety at -5¢- end of sugar and In some viruses the flow of information is in reverse direction, i.e. from RNA to DNA. It is
at the other end of polymer the sugar has a free OH of 3¢ C group called reverse of central dogma.
NCERT Maps Molecular Basis of Inheritance 91
5 PACKAGING OF DNA HELIX 6 THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL

9
m DNA double helix in a typical mammalian cell is 6.6 × 10 Transforming Principle
DNA H1 histone
9
bp, the length is approx 2.2 m (6.6 × 10 bp × 0.34 × 10
–9 m In 1928, Frederick Griffith, in a series of experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae,
witnessed a miraculous transformation in Bacteria.
m/bp), far greater than the dimension of a typical
–6 m Some of these bacteria produce smooth shiny colonies (S) while others rough colonies
nucleus (approx 10 m) Histone
octamer
(R). S-strain kills mice (virulent) while R-strain do not develop pneumonia. But heat
m In prokaryote (E. coli), the DNA being negatively charged killed S-strain are also non-virulent. When heat killed S and live R bacteria were
is held with some proteins that have positive charges in injected in mice, the mice died and S-strain living bacteria were found in dead mice.
the ‘NUCLEOID’. The DNA in nucleoid is organised in Griffith concluded that R-strain was somehow transformed by heat-killed S - strain. It
large loops held by proteins. Core of histone molecules
must be due to the transfer of genetic material (transforming principle). But the
Fig.: Nucleosome biochemical nature was not defined.
m In eukaryotes, it is much more complex.
(i) The positively charged set of basic proteins, HISTONES (rich in lysine and arginine) are Biochemical Nature of Transforming Principle
organised to form a unit of eight molecules, called HISTONE OCTAMER m Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty (1933-44) discovered that DNA of
(ii) The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around positively charged histone octamer to form S bacteria caused R bacteria to become transformed. As proteases and RNAses did
a nucleosome. A typical nucleosome contains 200 bp of DNA helix. not affect transformation, but DNAse inhibit transformation. They concluded that DNA
m Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in nucleus called CHROMATIN, thread is the hereditary material. But not all biologists were convinced.
like stained bodies seen in nucleus. The nucleosomes in chromatin are seen as ‘beads - on - The Genetic Material is DNA
string’ structure under electron microscope. It is packaged to form chromatin fibers that are m The UNEQUIVOCAL proof that DNA is the genetic material came from the
further coiled and condensed at metaphase stage to form chromosomes. experiments of Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952), on bacteriophages, using
32 35
m Packaging of chromatin at higher level needs non-histone chromosomal (NHC) proteins. radioactive phosphorus P and sulphur S in separate medium, with E. coli.
In a typical NUCLEUS
(regions of chromatin) 7 PROPERTIES OF GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA VERSUS RNA)
A molecule that can act as a genetic material must fulfill the following criteria:
EUCHROMATIN HETEROCHROMATIN (i) Should be able to generate its replica (Replication)
1. Loosely packed. 1. More densely packed (ii) Should be stable chemically and structurally
2. Stains light 2. Stains dark (iii) Should provide the scope for slow mutation required for evolution.
3. Transcriptionally active 3. Transcriptionally inactive (iv) Should be able to express in the form of Mendelian characters.
m Both DNA and RNA can direct their duplications.
m The DNA has two complementary strands, if separted by heating can again come
8 RNA WORLD
together when appropriate conditions are provided.
RNA was the first genetic material. The essential life processes like metabolism, translation, m 2¢-OH group present at every nucleotide in RNA is reactive and makes it easily
splicing evolved around RNA. RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as a catalyst, so was degradable.
reactive and hence unstable. Therefore, DNA has evolved from RNA with chemical modifications
m RNA is also catalytic, hence reactive. Among the two nucleic acids, DNA is a better
that make it more stable.
genetic material.
m Presence of thymine at the place of uracil also confers additional stability to DNA
9 REPLICATION m Both DNA and RNA are able to mutate. Being unstable RNA mutate at a faster rate.
Watson and Crick had immediately proposed a scheme for replication of DNA while proposing the m RNA can directly code for the synthesis of proteins and can easily express the
double helix structure of DNA, i.e., the two strands would separate and act as a template for the characters. DNA, however is dependent on RNA for synthesis of proteins.
synthesis of new complementary strands. After completion of replication each DNA molecule would m DNA being more stable is preferred for storage of genetic information. For transmission
have one parental and one newly synthesised strand, termed as semi-conservative DNA replication of genetic information RNA is better.
92 Molecular Basis of Inheritance NCERT Maps
10 EXPERIMENTAL PROOF 11 THE MACHINERY AND THE ENZYMES 5¢ 3¢

Semiconservative DNA replication was shown first in Escherichia coli, then in higher Template
m m E. coli completes replication in 18 minutes. The average DNA
organisms like plants and human cells. (Parental
14 rate of polymerisation is 2000 bp/sec.
m Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl, performed the experiment (1958) using normal N strands)
m Energetically replication is a very expensive process. 5¢
15
and non-radioactive N isotope of Nitrogen as source of NH4Cl, and centrifugation in a 3¢
(1) Act as substrate
cesium chloride (CsCl) density gradient. The various samples were separated Deoxyribo Serve
independently on CsCl gradients to measure the densities of DNA. (E. coli divides every 20 nucleoside
minutes) Dual (2) Provide energy for
triphosphates
purpose polymerisation
3¢ 5¢ Newly 3¢ 5¢
Generation I m Replication occur within a small opening of DNA synthesised
Generation II
strands
15N-DNA 14N-DNA helix called replication fork.
14N-DNA Fig: Replicating Fork
15N-DNA
15N-DNA
m DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (main enzyme) catalyses the polymerisation process
in 5¢ ® 3¢ direction, so on one strand (template with polarity 3¢ ® 5¢) replication is
20 min 40 min 14N-DNA
continuous, while on other (template with polarity 5¢ ® 3¢) it is dis-continuous.
14N-DNA m Discontinuously synthesised fragments are later joined by DNA ligase.
m There is a definite region in E. coli DNA where replication originates is termed ori-
site (origin of replication).
15N15N 14N15N 14N14N 14 15
N N m During recombinant DNA procedures, requires a vector, which provide origin of
Heavy hybrid Light Hybrid
replication.
(Separation of DNA by Centrifugation)
m In eukaryotes, replication of DNA takes place at S-phase of the cell-cycle.
Replication of DNA and cell-division cycle should be highly co-ordinated. A failure in
m Taylor and colleagues (1958) used radioactive thymidine and Vicia faba (Faba beans),
cell-division after DNA replication results in POLYPLOIDY (Chromosomal anomaly)
to prove that DNA in chromosomes also replicate semi-conservatively.
12 TRANSCRIPTION
m It is process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA into RNA.
Transcription start site
m Principle of complementarity governs transcription (except, adenosine forms pair with uracil instead of
PROMOTER TERMINATOR
thymine). In transcription only a segment of DNA and only one of the two strands is copied into RNA. Structure gene
3¢ 5¢
Otherwise, one segment of DNA would be coding for two different proteins. Also, the two RNA molecules Template strand
if produced simultaneously would be complementary to each other, hence would form a double stranded
RNA. This would prevent translation. 5¢ 3¢
Coding Strand
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT : A transcription unit in DNA primarily has three regions
Fig: A transcription Unit
(i) A promoter
(ii) The structural gene m Promoter is located towards 5¢-end (upstream) of structural gene (in
reference to coding strand). It provides binding site for RNA
(iii) A terminator
polymerase.
m The DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyses polymerisation in only one direction 5¢ ® 3¢. The strand m Terminator is located towards 3¢-end (downstream) of coding strands
that has polarity 3¢ ® 5¢ act as a template. The other strand with polarity 5¢ ® 3¢ and the sequence same and defines end of transcription.
as RNA (except thymine at place of uracil), is referred to as coding strand.
13 TRANSCRIPTION UNIT AND THE GENE m There are at least three RNA polymerase in the nucleus (in addition to RNA polymerase
m Genes are located on the DNA which is functional unit of inheritance. DNA sequence found in organelles) and a clear cut division of labour.
coding for tRNA or rRNA also define a gene.
ENZYME FUNCTIONS
m Cistron is defined as a segment of DNA coding for polypeptide.
m The structural gene is monocistronic (mostly in Eukaryotes) or polycistronic (mostly in 1. RNA pol-I Transcribes 28S, 5.8S and 18S rRNA
bacteria or prokaryotes). In Eukaryote genes are split between coding sequences or 2. RNA pol-II Transcribes mRNA precursor i.e. hn-RNA
EXONS, which appear in mature RNA and INTRONS or intervening sequence. The split
gene arrangement further complicates the definition of a gene in terms of a DNA segment. 3. RNA pol-III Transcribes 5S rRNA, tRNA and Sn RNAs
Regulatory sequences are defined as regulatory genes, even though they do not code for
m The primary transcript (hn RNA) is subjected to SPLICING, where INTRONS are removed
any RNA or protein.
TYPES OF RNA AND THE PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION and EXONS are joined in a defined order. hn-RNA undergoes additional processing called
m A single DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyses transcription of all three types of RNA capping and tailing to form mRNA. In CAPPING an unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine
(mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) in bacteria. triphosphate) is added to 5¢ -end of hn RNA. In TAILING, adenylate residues (200-300) are
m RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates transcription. It uses nucleoside added to 3¢-end in a template independent manner. Fully processed hn-RNA is called
triphosphates as substrate and polymerises in a template depended fashion following the m-RNA that is transported out of the nucleus for TRANSLATION. The split-gene
rule of complementarity. It somehow also facilitates opening of the helix and continues arrangement represent probably an ancient feature of the genome. The presence of
elongation.
introns is reminiscent of antiquity, and the process of splicing represents the dominance of
m Only a short stretch of RNA remains bound to the enzyme. Once the polymerase
RNA-world.
reaches the terminator region, the nascent RNA and RNA polymerase falls off.
This results in termination of transcription.
m RNA polymerase is only capable of catalysing the elongation process. It associates 14 GENETIC CODE
transiently with initiation factor (s) and termination factor (r) to initiate and terminate the m George Gamow, suggested, that the genetic code should be triplet.
transcription respectively. m Chemical method developed by Har Gobind Khorana was instrumental in synthesising
m In bacteria, mRNA does not require any processing, so transcription and translation are
RNA molecules with defined combinations of bases. Marshall Nirenberg’s cell-free system
coupled. In Eukaryotes, there are two additional complexities.
for protein synthesis finally helped the code to be deciphered. Severo Ochoa enzyme
(Polynucleotide phosphorylase) was helpful in polymerising RNA with defined sequences
5¢ 5¢
in a template independent manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA)
3¢ 3¢
3¢ mRNA Salient Features of Genetic Code :

Capping Cap Intron
m m The codon is Triplet. 61 codons code for amino acids and 3 codons are stop codons.
Gppp
5¢
Exon RNA splicing Polyadenylation m The code is DEGENERATE, i.e., some amino acids are coded by more than one codon.
m
Gppp 3¢ m The codon is read on mRNA in contiguous fashion i.e., there are no punctuations.
5¢ Poly A tail
m The code is nearly universal. (eg : UUU codes for phenylalanine from bacteria to humans).
m
Gppp
5¢ Exception = some variations have been found in mitochondrial codons and in some
m 3¢
Gppp protozoans.
5¢
Messenger RNA m AUG has dual function. It codes for methionine and act as initiator codon.
Fig. : Transcription in Eukaryotes.
m UAA, UAG and UGA are stop terminator codons.
94 Molecular Basis of Inheritance NCERT Maps
15 MUTATIONS AND GENETIC CODE 17 REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

m Insertion or deletion of one or two bases changes the reading frame from the point of Gene expression results in formation of a polypeptide. It can be regulated at several levels.
insertion or deletion and called frame shift mutations. In Eukaryotes, the regulation could be exerted at
m Insertion or deletion of three or its multiple base, insert or delete in one or multiple codon (i) Transcriptional level (Formation of primary transcript)
hence one or multiple amino acids, and reading frame remains unaltered from that point (ii) Processing level (Regulation of Splicing)
onwards. (iii) Transport of mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm.
tRNA- the Adapter Molecule (iv) Translational level
m Francis Crick postulated the presence of an adapter molecule, that would read the code m Metabolic, physiological or environmental conditions regulate expression of genes.
and bind to specific amino acid. The tRNA, then called sRNA (soluble RNA) was known m Development and differentiation of embryo into adult organisms are also a result of
before genetic code was postulated. tRNA has an anti-codon loop that has bases the coordinated regulation of expression of several set of genes.
complementary to the code, and it also has an amino acid acceptor end to which it binds m In prokaryotes, control of the rate of transcriptional initiation is the predominant site for control
to amino acids. tRNAs are specific for each amino acid. For initiation, there is another of gene expression.
specific tRNA that is called initiator tRNA. There are no tRNAs for stop codons.
m Secondary structure of tRNA looks like a cloverleaf, though the actual structure is a 18 THE Lac OPERON
compact molecule which looks like inverted L. m Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod were the first to elucidate a transcriptionally regulated
system, the lac operon (lac refers to lactose), a polycistronic structural gene regulated by a
common promoter and regulatory gene, called operon.
16 TRANSLATION
m Lac operon consists of one regulatroy gene (i) and three structural genes (z, y and a). i gene
m Translation refers to the process of polymerisation of amino-acids to form a (i refers inhibitor) codes for repressor, z-for b-galactosidase (b-gal), y-for permease and gene
polypeptide. The order and sequence of amino-acids are defined by the sequence of a codes for transacetylase. All three gene products in lac operon are needed for metabolism of
bases in the mRNA. lactose.
m Lactose is the substrate of b-galactosidase and it regulates switching on/off of operon, so
m In the first phase amino acids are activated in the presence of ATP and linked to their
called INDUCER. Regulation of lac operon is regulation of enzyme synthesis by its substrate.
cognate tRNA by a process called charging of tRNA, or aminoacylation of tRNA.
m Regulation of lac operon by repressor is negative regulation however lac operon is under
Protein synthesis takes place on the ribosomes. control of positive regulation as well.
m Ribosomes consist of structural RNAs and about 80 different proteins. It has two sub- m Regulatory proteins can act both positively (activators) and negatively (repressors).
units. When the small sub unit encounters an mRNA, the process of translation begins. m Each operon has its specific operator and specific repressor.
There are two sites in the large subunit, for subsequent amino acids to bind and thus, be
close enough to each other for the formation of a peptide bond by the catalyst
(23 S rRNA in bacteria is the enzyme- ribozyme). Presence of catalyst would enhance
the rate of peptide bond formation. Growing polypeptide chain
m A translational unit in mRNA is flanked by a start condon (AUG) and the stop codon. The tRNA
untranslated additional sequence on mRNA are called untranslated regions, (UTRs), tRNA
present at both 5¢-end (before start codon) and at 3¢- end (after stop codons). UTRs are
required for efficient translation.
tRNA tRNA
m The ribosome moves from codon to codon along the mRNA. Amino acids are added
one by one and translated into polypeptide sequences. At the end, a release factor
binds to the stop codon, terminating translation and releasing the complete polypeptide
from the ribosome. mRNA Ribosome
19 HUMAN GENOME PROJECT - (HGP) 20 DNA FINGERPRINTING

m Launched in 1990, a 13 year project was co-ordinated by U.S. department of energy and m 99.9% base sequence among humans is same. 0.1% differences in sequence of DNA
National Institute of Health, Wellcome trust (UK), Japan, France, Germany, China make every individual unique in their phenotype. DNA fingerprinting involves identifying
participated. It was completed in 2003. difference in repetitive DNA, a small stretch of DNA repeated many times, called
m
9
Human genome has approx. 3 × 10 bp and the cost of sequencing in the beginning was satellite DNA. Depending on base composition (A:T or G:C rich), length of segment and
number of repetitive units, the satellite DNA is classified into micro-statellites and mini-
US$3 per bp, i.e. 9 billion US dollars. HGP lead to the rapid development of a new area in
satellites. They do not code for any proteins. They form large portion of human genome
biology called bioinformatics.
and show high degree of polymorphism and form the basis of DNA fingerprinting. Since
m Many non-human model organisms like bacteria, Yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans,
DNA from every tissue (blood, hair-follicle, skin, bone, saliva, sperm), show same
Drosophila, plant (rice and Arabidopsis) have also been sequenced.
degree of polymorphism, they have forensic application.
METHODOLOGIES : m Polymorphisms are inheritable from parent to child so DNA finger printing solves
m Expressed sequence tags (ESTs): Focused on identifying all genes that expressed as paternity disputes.
RNA.
m The technique of DNA finger printing was initially developed by Alec Jeffreys.
m Sequence annotation: Blind approach of sequencing the whole genome containing
coding and non coding sequences; needing vectors like BAC (Bacterial artificial Steps = Isolation of Digestion by Separation of DNA fragments by
DNA (I) restriction Electrophoresis
chromosomes) and YAC (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes).
endonuclease (III)
SALIENT FEATURES OF HUMAN GENOME : (II)
m Human genome contains 3164.7 million bp. Average gene consist of 3000 bases. Detection of hydribised Hybridisation Blotting on nitrocellulose
m Largest gene DYSTROPHIN of 2.4 million bases. Total genes estimated at 30,000. DNA Fragments by using labelled or Nylon membrane
AUTORADIOGRAPHY VNTR probe (IV)
m Almost 99.9% nucleotide bases exactly same in all people. Functions unknown for 50%
(VI) (V)
discovered genes. Less than 2% genome codes for protein. Chromosome 1 has most
genes (2968) and Y-chromosome has the fewest (231). Significance
m At 1.4 million locations single base DNA differences (SNPs - single nucleotide m VNTR are called min-statellite, a small DNA sequence arranged tandemly in many
polymorphism, snips) occur. SNPs can help in tracing human history.
copies. The size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 20 kb. So after hybridisation with VNTR
probe, the autoradiogram gives many bands of differing sizes. These bands give a
m The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencer that worked on characteristic pattern for an individual DNA. It differs from individual to individual in a
the principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger. population except in MONOZYGOTIC twins.
m The sequence of chromosome-1 was completed only in May 2006. This was the last m The sensitivity of the technique has been increased by use of polymerase chain
of the 24 human chromosomes (22 autosomes and X and Y) to be sequenced. reaction (PCR).
21
m The repressor of operon is synthesised (all the time-constitutively from the ‘i’ gene)
m A very low level of expression of lac operon has to be present in the cell all the time otherwise lactose cannot enter the cells. Lactose or allolactose is the inducer of lac operon. Glucose or
galactose cannot act as inducers for lac operon.
m Allelic sequence variation has traditionally been described as a DNA polymorphism, if more than one variant (allele) at a locus occurs in human population with a frequency greater than 0.01.
m DNA fingerprinting has much wider application in determining population and genetic diversities. Currently, many different probes are used to generate DNA fingerprints.
m The hallmark of double-stranded helical structure of DNA is the hydrogen bonding between the bases from opposite strands.
Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
5
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 4
With ever-increasing population of the world, Plant breeding programmes are carried out in systematic way worldwide in government m Agriculture accounts for approximately 33 percent
institutions and commercial companies. The main steps are of India's GDP.
enhancement of food production is a major
(i) (ii) m The development of several high yielding varieties
necessity. Biological principles as applied to Evaluation and selection of parents : of wheat and rice in the mid 1960s, as a result of
Collection of variability :
animal husbandry and plant breeding have a Genetic variability is the root of Germplasm is evaluated, selected plants are various plant breeding techniques led to dramatic
major role in our efforts to increase food breeding programme multiplied and used for hybridisation. Purelines increase in food production in our country. This
production. Several new techniques such as are created wherever desirable and possible. phase is often referred to as the Green
(v) Revolution.
embryo transfer and tissue culture play vital
Testing, release and (iii) Wheat and Rice :
role in enhancing food production. m During the period 1960 to 2000, wheat production
commercialisation of Cross hybridization among
STEPS increased from 11 million tonnes to 75 million
2 PLANT BREEDING new cultivars : The the selected parents :
Very time consuming and tonnes while rice production went up from 35
m Green revolution was dependent to a large material is evaluated million tonnes to 89.5 million tonnes. This was due
in comparison to the tedious process
extent on plant breeding techniques for It is not necessary that the to the development of semi-dwarf varieties of
development of high yielding and disease best available local crop wheat and rice.
hybrids do combine the
resistant varieties in wheat, rice, maize etc. cultivar. desirable characters. m Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug, at International
Centre for Wheat and Maize Improvement in
What is plant breeding?
(iv) Mexico, developed semi-dwarf wheat.
m Plant breeding is the purposeful Selection and testing of superior recombinants : This step is crucial to the m In 1963, several varieties such as Sonalika and
manipulation of plant species in order to success of the breeding objective and requires careful scientific evaluation of Kalyan Sona, which were high yielding and disease
create desired plant types that are better progeny. This step yields plants that are superior to both the parents. resistant, were introduced all over the wheat-
suited for cultivation, give better yields and growing belt of India.
are disease resistant. m Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8,
The entire collection of plants/seeds having all the diverse alleles for all genes
in a given crops is called germplasm collection. (developed at International Rice Research Institute
m Today, all our major food crops are derived
(IRRI), Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (from
from domesticated varieties. Taiwan). The derivatives were introduced in 1966.
m Classical plant breeding involves crossing 5 PLANT BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE Later better-yielding semidwarf rice varieties Jaya
or hybridization of pure lines, followed by m Cultivars resistant to disease, enhance food production and also helps to reduce the and Ratna were developed in India.
artificial selection to produce plants with dependence on use of fungicides and bacteriocides. Sugarcane:
desirable traits of higher yields, nutrition m Method of breeding for disease resistance : Breeding is carried out by the m Saccharum barberi was originally grown in north
and resistant to diseases. With conventional breeding techniques or by mutation breeding. India, but had poor sugar content and yield.
Tropical canes grown in south India
advancement in genetics, molecular Crop Variety Resistance to Disease Saccharum officinarum had thicker stems and
biology and tissue culture, plant breeding
Wheat Himgiri Leaf and stripe rust, hill bunt higher sugar content but did not grow well in north
is now increasingly being carried out by India. These two species were success-fully
Brassica Pusa Swarnim White rust
using molecular genetic tools. (Karan rai) crossed to get sugar cane varieties combining the
Cauliflower Pusa Shubhra, Black rot and Curl blight black rot desirable qualities of high yield, thick stems, high
Characters that breeders want to sugar content and ability to grow in the sugar cane
incorporate into the crops plants are Pusa Snowball K-1
Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight areas of north India.
increased crop yield, improved quality, Millets:
increased tolerance to environmental Chilli Pusa Sadabahar Chilly mosaic virus, Tobacco mosaic
virus and Leaf curl m Hybrid maize, jowar and bajra have been
stresses like salinity, drought, extreme successfully developed in India. Hybrid breeding
temperature, resistance to pathogens Resistance of the host plant is the ability to prevent the pathogen from causing have led to the development of several high
and increased tolerance to insect pests. disease and is determined by the genetic constitution of the host plant yielding varieties resistant to water stress.
100 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production NCERT Maps
6 8 PLANT BREEDING FOR IMPROVED FOOD QUALITY

m Conventional breeding is often constrained by the availability of limited number of disease resistance m More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food to meet
genes that are present and identified in various crop varieties or wild relatives. their daily food and nutritional requirements. They suffer from hidden hunger .
m Inducing mutations in plants through diverse means and then screening the plant materials for Biofortification : Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals, or
resistance sometimes leads to desirable genes being identified. higher protein and healthier fats – It is the most practical means to improved
m It is possible to induce mutations artificially through use of chemicals or radiations and selecting and public health.
using the plants that have the desirable character as a source in breeding, this process is called mutation
Biofortification is done with the objectives of improving
breeding.
1. Proteins content and quality 2. Oil content and quality
In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced by mutations 3. Vitamin content and 4. Micronutrient and mineral content
whereas in Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculantus) resistance to yellow mosaic virus was transferred from a m In 2000, maize hybrids that had twice the amount of the amino acids, lysine and
wild species and resulted in a new variety of Abelmoschus esculentus called Parbhani Kranti. tryptophan were developed. Wheat variety, Atlas 66 having a high protein
content, has been used as a donor for improving cultivated wheat.
m IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) has
7 PLANT BREEDING FOR DEVELOPING RESISTANCE TO INSECT PESTS developed/released several vegetable crops that are rich in vitamins and
m Another major cause for large scale destruction of crop plant and crop produce is insect and pest minerals and proteins. e.g.
infestation. Vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin, vitamin C enriched bitter gourd,
m Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical or physiological bathua, mustard, tomato. Iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua and
characteristics. protein enriched beans (Broad, lablab and french) and garden peas.
m Source of resistance genes may be cultivated varieties, germplasm collections of the crop or wild
relatives.
10 TISSUE CULTURE
Crop Resistance to insect/pest Reason of resistance Type of resistance
Wheat Stem saw fly Solid stem Morphological m As traditional breeding techniques failed to keep pace with demand and to
provide sufficiently fast and efficient systems for crop improvement, another
Wheat Leaf beetle Hairly leaves Morphological
technology called tissue culture got developed.
Cotton Jassids Hairly leaves Morphological m Explant : Any plant part taken out and grown in a test tube under sterile
Cotton Bollworms Smooth leaves and absence Morphological and conditions in special nutrient media.
of nectar Biochemical m The capacity to generate whole plant from explant is called totipotency.
Maize Stem borers Low nitrogen, sugar and high Biochemical m It is possible to achieve propagation of a large number of plants through tissue
aspartic acid culture called micropropagation.
Some released crop varieties bred by hybridisation and selection for insect pest resistance are given m Each of these plants will be genetically identical to the original plant from which
below: they grown i.e. they are somaclones.
Crop Variety Insect Pestst m Many important plants like tomato, banana, apple etc. have been produced on
Brassica Pusa Gaurav Aphids commercial scale by using this method.
(rapeseed mustard) m Another important application of the method is the recovery of healthy plants
Flat bean Pusa Sem 2, Jassids, aphids and from diseased plants. Even if the plants is infected with the virus, the meristem
Pusa Sem 3 fruit borer is free of virus.
Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani Shoot and Fruit borer m Scientists have even isolated single cells from plants and after digesting their
cell walls have been able to isolate naked protoplasts.
Pusa A-4
m Isolated protoplasts from two different varieties of plants can be fused to get
hybrid protoplasts which can be further grown to form a new plant. These
9 SINGLE CELL PROTEINS (SCP) hybrids are called somatic hybrids while the process is called somatic
m More than 25 per cent of human population is suffering from hunger and malnutrition. One of the alternate hybridization.
sources of proteins for animal and human nutrition is single cell protein (SCP) m Protoplast hybrid of potato and tomato called pomato was created but
unfortunately this plant did not have all the desired combination of
m Organisms / Microbes grown as a source of good protein are Spirulina, Methylophilus methylotrophus, characteristics for its commercial utilization.
mushrooms and some fungi.
m Microbes like Spirulina can be grown easily on waste water from potato processing plants, such
One can remove the meristem and grow it in vitro to obtain virus free plants.
utilisation reduces environmental pollution.
Microbes in Human Welfare
6
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
m Microbes are the major components of biological systems on Requires growing microbes in fermentors Chemicals, Enzymes & other Bioactive Molecules
this earth. They are present everywhere-in soil, water, air, Fermented Beverages m Aspergillus niger (a fungus) – Citric acid
inside our bodies and that of other animals and plants. m Acetobacter aceti (a bacterium) – Acetic acid
m Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is used for beverages
m Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium) – Butyric acid
m They are present even at sites where no other life-form could production and called brewer's yeast. It is also used for
fermenting malted cereals & fruit juices to produce ethanol. m Lactobacillus (a bacterium) – Lactic acid
possibly exist-like deep inside the geysers (thermal vents)
m Saccharomyces cerevisiae – Ethanol
where the temperature is 100°C, deep in the soil, under the m Wine & beer are produced without distillation, whereas
whisky, brandy & rum are produced by distillation of m Lipases – Used in detergent formulations.
layers of snow several metres thick and in highly acidic
fermented broth. m Streptokinase produced by bacterium Streptococcus &
environments. modified by genetic engineering is used as a 'clot buster' for
m Microbes are diverse-protozoa, bacteria, fungi and Antibiotics (Anti = against, bio = life) removing clots from blood vessels of myocardial infarction
m Penicillin-first antibiotic was a chance discovery, by patients.
microscopic animal & plant viruses, viroids and also prions.
Alexander Fleming, while working on Staphylococci m Cyclosporin-A, used as immunosuppressive agent in
m Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on bacteria, when he observed that they didn't grew due to the organ-transplant patients, is produced from Trichoderma
nutritive media to form colonies, that can be seen with naked growth of mould Penicillium notatum. Its full potential was polysporum (a fungus).
eyes. Such cultures are useful in studies on micro-organisms. discovered by Chain & Florey. Fleming, Chain & Florey m Statins produced by yeast Monascus purpureus is a blood-
m Microbes can be harmful and disease causing but many are were awarded Nobel prize in 1945. cholesterol lowering agent.
useful to man in diverse ways.
4 MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT
2 MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS m The municipal waste water is called sewage. A major component of this waste water is human excreta. It contains large
amounts of organic matter & microbes.
m Lactobacillus & others (LAB) grow in milk & convert it to curd.
LAB produce acids that coagulate & partially digest milk m Before disposal into natural water bodies like rivers and streams, it is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) to make it less
proteins, at suitable temperatures. It also improves its polluting.
m Treatment of waste water is done by the heterotrophic microbes naturally present in the sewage.
nutritional quality by increasing vit-B12.
In our stomach too, LAB play beneficial role in checking Treatment is carried in two stages
pathogenic microbes.
m The dough used for dosa, idli is fermented by bacteria. Primary Treatment (Physical treatment) Secondary Treatment (Biological treatment)
m Involves physical removal of particles- In anaerobic sludge digester anaerobic bacteria Primary effluent is passed into large
m Dough which of used for making bread, is fermented using aeration tanks
large & small from the sewage through digest bacteria & fungi in the sludge. Produce a
baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). ¯
filtration and sedimentation mixture of CH4, H2S, CO2 (Biogas) Constantly agitated and air is
m Toddy is fermented sap from palms.
m Floating debris is removed by pumped into it
m Microbes are used to ferment fish, soyabean & bamboo
sequential filtration ¯
shoots to make foods. A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back
Allows vigorous growth of useful
m The characteristic texture, flavour, taste and specificity of m Grit (soil & small pebbles) removed by into aeration tank to serve as inoculum. Rest is aerobic microbes into flocs. (Bacteria
cheese is due to the microbes: sedimentation pumped into anaerobic sludge digesters + fungal filaments to form mesh
like structures)
a. Swiss cheese: Large holes are due to large amount of m Solids that settle form the primary
¯
CO2 produced by the bacterium. Propionibacterium sludge & the supernatant forms the Effluent passed into settling tank, where bacterial Microbes grow & consume the major
sharmanii. effluent. 'flocs' sediment, called Activated sludge and then part of organic matter, significantly
The effluent is taken for secondary reducing the BOD.
b. Roquefort cheese: Ripened by a specific fungi, which m effluent from secondary treatment plant can be
gives the specific flavour. treatment. released into natural water bodies.
NCERT Maps Microbes in Human Welfare 105
5 MICROBES IN PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS 6 BIOGAS PLANT 9

1. Biogas is a mixture of gases (predominantly methane) m Consist of a concrete tank (10-15 feet deep) in which bio-
produced by microbial activity. wastes are collected and a slurry of dung is fed.
m The puffed-up appearance of dough is due to CO2 gas.
2. Methanogens, like Methanobacterium, grow anaerobically m A floating cover is placed over the slurry, which rises when gas
is produced due to microbial activity. m Toddy is a traditional drink of some parts of Southern
on cellulosic material to produce large amount of CH4 along
m It has outlet to transfer biogas. India.
with CO2 and H2. m Slurry is removed and may be used as fertiliser.
3. These bacteria are commonly found in anaerobic sludge m Antibiotics mean against life, in the context of disease
m Biogas can be used for cooking and lighting.
during sewage treatment, rumen of cattle. causing organisms, but in context to human life they are
m The technology of Gas
4. In rumen, these bacteria help in the breakdown of cellulose & 'pro life'.
biogas production
play an important role in nutrition of cattle. The excreta of Bottled juices are clarified by use of pectinases and
was developed in m
cattle (dung), commonly called Gobar is rich in these Gas-holder
India mainly due to proteases.
bacteria. Dung Water (CH4 + CO2 + ----) Sludge
the efforts of Indian
5. Dung can be used for generation of biogas, so commonly m Statins act by competitively inhibiting the enzyme
Agricultural
called Gobar gas. responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.
Research Institute
(IARI) & Khadi & m BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) is the amount of
7 MICROBES AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS Digester
Village Industries oxygen consumed if all the organic matter in one liter of
m Biocontrol refers to the use of biological methods for Commission (KVIC). water were oxidised by bacteria.
controlling plant diseases and pests.
m BOD test measures the rate of uptake of oxygen by micro-
m As use of insecticides and pesticides are harmful and 8 MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS
polluting, our soil is also polluted by weedicides. organisms in a sample of water. BOD is a measure of the
m Organic farming uses biofertilizers. organic matter present in the water.
Biological control of pests & diseases
m Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of m In our country, a number of biofertilisers are available
m It relies on natural predation.
the soil. commercially in the market and farmers use these
m The process does not eradicate pests, instead keeps it at
m Main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and regularly to replenish soil nutrients and reduce
manageable levels by a complex system of checks and
cyanobacteria. dependence on chemical fertilizers.
balances.
Chemical methods kill both useful and harmful life forms m Root nodules in leguminous plants is formed by symbiotic
m m Microbes are a very important component of life on earth.
indiscriminately. association of Rhizobium, to fix atmospheric nitrogen into
Not all microbes are pathogenic. Many are very useful.
l Beetle with red & black markings-the ladybird & dragon- organic forms.
m Microbes play a major role in treating millions of gallons of
flies are useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes m Free-living N2-fixers like Azospirillum and Azotobacter enrich waste water everyday across the globe. Till date, no man-
respectively. the soil. made technology has been able to rival the microbial
l Butterfly caterpillars are controlled by bacteria Bacillus
m Fungi-plant root, symbiotic association is called mycorrhiza. treatment of sewage.
thuringiensis (Bt) on plants such as brassicas & fruit
Glomus form mycorrhiza. Fungi-absorb phosphorus from soil
trees. m The ministry of Environment and Forests has initiated
& passes to the plant. Plants also show resistance to root-
l Bt toxin genes is introduced to produce Bt-cotton. Ganga Action Plan & Yamuna Action Plan to save these
borne pathogens, tolerance to salinity and drought and overall
l Fungus Trichoderma, common in the root ecosystems, major rivers of our country from pollution.
increase in growth and development.
effective against several plant pathogens. m The biocontrol measures help us to avoid heavy use of
m Cyanobacteria like Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria etc. fix
l Baculoviruses attack insects and other arthropods. toxic pesticides for controlling pests.
Majority of Baculoviruses are in the genus atmospheric N2, in paddy fields.
m It is clear from the diverse uses human beings have put
Nucleopolyhedrovirus, they are species-specific, narrow m BGA (blue green algae) also add organic matter to the soil and
microbes to that they are important for our survival.
spectrum insecticidal applications. increase its fertility.
Organisms and Populations
7
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 2 ORGANISMS AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

m Living world is fascinatingly diverse and m Ecology at the organismic level is essentially physiological
ecology which tries to understand how different organisms are
amazingly complex. Complexity can be adapted to their environments in terms of survival and
Mean annual temperature (°C)

investigated at various levels of biological reproduction.
m The rotation of our planet around the sun and the tilt of its axis
organisation-macromolecules, cells, cause annual variations in the intensity and duration of
tissues, organs, individual organisms, temperature, resulting in distinct seasons. These variations
together with annual variation in precipitation (both rain and snow)
population, communities, ecosystems account for formation of major biomes such as desert, rain forest
and biomes. and tundra.
m Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the
m Ecology studies interactions among
formation of a wide variety of habitats. Temperature, water, light
organisms and between organism and its and soil affect the habitat.
m The habitat of an organism is characterised by physico-chemical
physical (abiotic) environment. Ecology is (abiotic) components and biotic components like-pathogens,
basically concerned with four levels of parasites, predators and competitors - of the organism with which
they interact constantly.
biological organisation-organisms, m Over a period of time, the organism evolved to optimise its survival Mean annual precipitation (cm)
populations, communities and and reproduction in its habitat through natural selection.
m Niche of an organism has an invariably defined range of conditions
biomes. The chapter explores ecology at that it can tolerate, diversity in the resources it utilises and a distinct
organismic and population levels. functional role in the ecological system.
3 MAJOR ABIOTIC FACTORS RESPONSE TO ABIOTIC

4
FACTORS
(1) TEMPERATURE (2) WATER (3) LIGHT (4) SOIL Abiotic conditions of many habitats
m Ecologically most important m Life originated in water m Plants need light for photo- m Nature of soil depends on vary drastically in time and organisms
factor m Productivity and synthesis and photoperiod climate, weathering and
living in such habitats need to evolve
m Affects enzyme kinetics, distribution of plants is for flowering. transportation.
strategies to survive or manage with
metabolic activity & physiology dependent on water. m Animals also need light for m Composition, grain size, pH,
SALINITY measured in ppt the stressful conditions.
m Eurythermals tolerate wide m foraging, reproduction & minerals and topography
temperature fluctuations. is:- migration. determine vegetation which
m Stenothermals restricted to 1) < 5 in inland water. m UV light is harmful. dictates the type of animals
narrow range. 2) 30-35 in sea m Red algae are found in supported.
m Thermal tolerance determines 3) >100 in some deepest water.
geographical distribution. hypersaline lagoons
m Osmotic problems affect
living organisms.
110 Organisms and Populations NCERT Maps
5 ORGANISMIC RESPONSE TO ABIOTIC STRESS
s
er
REGULATE CONFORM MIGRATE SUSPEND rm
n fo
m Maintain homeostasis by m 99% animals & nearly all m Temporarily move away to m Thick walled SPORE in Co Regulators
Internal level
physiological (or behavioural) plants. escape the condition and bacteria, fungi & lower plants.
means. Dormancy in higher plants. Partial regulators
m Their body temperature return when the period is m
m Which ensures constant body
temperature and osmotic changes with the ambient over e.g. siberian cranes m Hibernation in bears and
concentration. temperature. visit Bharatpur every Aestivation in snails and fish
m All birds, mammals and very winter. m Diapause, or suspended
few lower vertebrates and development in zooplanktons. External level
invertebrates are capable of
Diagrammatic representation of
this. organismic response
m Success of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain constant body temperature and thrive in antarctica or in Sahara desert.
6 ADAPTATIONS- TO COPE WITH EXTREME ENVIRONMENT 8 POPULATION GROWTH

(1) Population for any species is not a static
(1) GENETICALLY FIXED (2) PHYSIOLOGICAL (3) BEHAVIOURAL parameter.
(2) Food availability, predation pressure and
m Kangaroo rat in North American deserts. m Altitude sickness, Symptoms-Nausea, m Desert lizards-bask in the sun & adverse weather are the factors which
- internal fat-oxidation for water fatigue & heart palpitations. absorb heat when their body affect population.
- ability to concentrate urine m Gradually the body compensates low temperature drops below comfort
(3) Population density, in a given habitat
oxygen by increasing RBC production, zone, but move away into shade
m CAM plants like Opuntia. during a given period, fluctuates due to
decreasing the binding affinity of when ambient temperature starts
Allen's Rule- Shorter extremities of changes in FOUR basic processes, two
m
haemoglobin and increasing the increasing.
mammals in cold climate to reduce heat loss. of which (natality, immigration) increase
breathing rate. m Some species hide in burrow to density and two (mortality, emigration)
m Thick blubber in seal. escape from the above-ground decrease it.
heat.
Tiger census in our national parks & tiger
m Organisms living in extreme environments like hot springs, deep sea hydrothermal vents, antarctic fishes in freezing
reserves is often based on pug marks
conditions or at > 100 times normal atmospheric pressure - show biochemical adaptations.
and fecal pellets.
7 POPULATION
POPULATION ATTRIBUTES: m If N is the population density at time t, then its density at
IMMIGRATION
m Birth rates and Death Rates: refer to per capita births and deaths. time t + 1 is Nt + 1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
(+)
m Sex-ratio: e.g. 60 percent of the population are females & 40 l If births plus immigration (B + I) is more than Deaths
percent males.
plus emigration (D + E) population density will
m Age-pyramids : Shows percent individuals of a given age or age (+) (–)
increase. Population
group. For human population age pyramids generally show age NATALITY Density (N) MORTALITY
distribution of males and females in a diagram. The shape of the l Under normal conditions births & deaths are most
pyramids reflects the growth status of the population. important factors influencing population density.
(–)
m Evolutionary changes through natural selection takes place at l If a new habitat is just being colonised, immigration is
population level. more significant to population growth than birth rates. EMIGRATION
NCERT Maps Organisms and Populations 111
9 GROWTH-MODELS 10 LIFE HISTORY VAIRATION
m Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness, also called

Darwinian fitness (high 'r' value), in the habitat in which they live and
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH LOGISTIC GROWTH
evolve towards the most effective reproductive strategy.
m When resources in the habitat are m In nature resources are limited.
Population density (N)

dN
unlimited. = rN m This leads to competition. REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES IN ORGANISMS
m Then population grows in an a dt
K m The fittest survive and
exponential or geometric fashion.
reproduce.
m Integral form of the exponential
growth equation
rt b
dN
dt ( (
= rN K-N
K
m So, it shows, lag,
acceleration, deceleration and
(1) Breed only once in their life
time.
(1) Breed many times during
lifetime.
Nt = N 0 e
Where = finally asymptote. e.g., Pacific salmon fish e.g., Most birds & Mammals.
Bamboo. (2) Others produce a small number
Nt = Population density at time 't' m It gives Verhulst-Pearl
Time (t) logistic curve. (2) S o m e p r o d u c e l a r g e of large-sized offsprings.
N0 = Population density at time number of small-sized e.g., Birds & Mammals
zero. m Logistic model is realistic. offsprings
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase (a) Exponential plot Asymptote : When population
m e.g., Oysters, Pelagic fishes
e = base of natural logarithms (b) Logistic plot density reaches the carrying
(2.71828). (k) Is carrying capacity. capacity
11 POPULATION INTERACTIONS
No organism in nature (animals, plants and microbes) can live in isolation but interact in various ways to form a biological community. These interactions can be beneficial (+); detrimental (–)
or neutral (0)
(1) PREDATION (+;-) (2) COMPETITION (–;–) (3) PARASITISM (+;–) (4) COMMENSALISM (+;0) (5) MUTUALISM (+;+)
m Predators act as conduits for energy m Darwin said interspecific m Free lodging and meals. m An orchid growing as an m Lichens, Mycorrhizae,
transfer across trophic levels. competition is a potent force in m Parasites are host specific, i.e., co- epiphyte on a mango m Plant - animal relationships-
organic evolution. evolve.
m Keep prey population under control. branch. for pollination.
Totally unrelated species can m Parasitic adaptations = loss of sense
m Used as biological control method for m
organs, presence of adhesive organs or m Plants offer rewards or fees
pest-control. compete for same resources. m Barnacles growing on
suckers, loss of digestive system & high like pollen, nectar for
m Maintain species diversity by m The fitness ('r' the intrinsic rate of capacity of reproduction. back of a whale.
increase) of one species is pollinators and fruits for
reducing competition among prey m Human liver fluke depends on a snail and a Cattle egret and grazing
significantly lower in presence of
m seed dispersers.
eg. Pisaster & 10 species of fish to complete life cycle.
another species. m Parasites reduce survival, growth and cattle. m And safeguards against
invertebrates.
m Competitive release - The reproduction of host. Make them weak. m Sea anemone that has cheaters.
m Predators in nature are prudent.
distributional range increase m Brood parasitism in birds eg. Cuckoo and m It also shows co-evolution
m Prey species evolved defences:- crow. The eggs of parasitic bird had stinging tentacles and
dramatically when the superior and one to one relationship
(a) Camouflage - insects & frogs species is removed. evolved to resemble host's egg in colour clown fish that lives
(b) Monarch butterfly- Chemical and size. like fig and partner wasp.
eg. Balanus & Chathamalus among them.
defence m Ectoparasites on surface and
m Gause's competitive exclusion
(c) Thorns - Cactus, Acacia Endoparasites inside host.
principle= eg. Abingdon tortoise Mediterranean orchid
Many plants produce and store m Life cycles of Endoparasites are more In Amensalism one
m and Goats in galapagos island. Ophrys employs 'sexual
complex because of their extreme species is harmed
chemicals that make herbivore sick Co-Existence by resource deceit' to get pollination
m specialisation. Their morphological and
when they are eaten, e.g., Calotropis partitioning eg 5 closely related whereas the other is done by a species of bee,
anatomical features are simple but
unaffected. by pseudo copulation.
produces cardiac glycosides species of warblers. reproductive potential is very high.
Ecosystem
8
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS FUNCTION AS A UNIT IN THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS

m Ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms
interact among themselves and the surrounding physical
environment, e.g., a small pond, a large forest or a sea. PRODUCTIVITY DECOMPOSITION ENERGY FLOW NUTRIENT CYCLING
m Entire biosphere is a global ecosystem, composite of all local
ecosystems on Earth. PRODUCTIVITY
m Amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis is primary
m Forest, grassland and desert are terrestrial ecosystems; pond, –2 –2
lake, wetland, river and estuary are aquatic and crop fields and production, expressed in terms of weight (gm ) or energy (K cal m ).
–2 –1 –2 –1
an aquarium are man-made ecosystems. m Rate of biomass production is productivity, expressed as gm yr or (K cal m ) yr . It can be divided into:
m Input (productivity), transfer of energy (food chain/web, nutrient (i) Gross primary productivity (GPP), is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
cycling) and the output (degradation and energy loss) are the (ii) Net primary productivity (NPP), is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and
major functions of ecosystem. decomposers)
2 ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION GPP – R (respiratory loss) = NPP.
m Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical m Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. It also depends on environmental factors,
structure. availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. It varies in different ecosystems.
l Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is approximately = 170 billion tons (dry wt.) of organic matter.
m Vertical distribution of different species occupying different
l Productivity of oceans (70% of surface) = 55 billion tons, rest is on land
levels is called stratification, like trees at top vertical strata,
shrubs second and herbs and grasses occupy bottom layers. m Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
5 ENERGY FLOW 4 DECOMPOSITION

m Unidirectional from sun to producers and then to
m Breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like CO2, water and nutrients is decomposition.
consumers.
m Detritus, i.e. dead plant remains like leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter, is the raw material for
SUN PAR (< 50%) Plants decomposition.
(Incident solar
m Largly oxygen requiring process
radiation) DECOMPOSITION (Important steps)
Photosynthetic bacteria FRAGMENTATION LEACHING CATABOLISM HUMIFICATION MINERALISATION

2-10% of PAR
(autotrophs) Break down of Water soluble inorganic Bacterial and fungal Accumulation of dark, amorphous HUMUS Humus is further
detritus into smaller nutrients go down into enzymes degrade which is highly resistant to microbial degraded by
particles by the soil horizon and get detritus into simpler action. Colloidal reservoir of nutrients microbes to release
Sustain the Food (simple
detritivores (eg., precipitated as inorganic substances Humus undergoes decomposition at an inorganic nutrients
ENTIRE sugars)
earthworm) unavailable salts extremely slow rate in soil
WORLD
m Fragmentation, leaching and catabolism operate simultaneously on the detritus.
RATE OF DECOMPOSITION COMPOSITION OF DETRITUS CLIMATIC FACTORS
SLOWER Rich in lignin and chitin Low temperature and anaerobiosis
QUICKER Rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances like sugar Warm and moist environment. Oxygen requiring process
m Temperature and soil moisture are most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition.
116 Ecosystem NCERT Maps
6 TROPHIC LEVELS IN AN ECOSYSTEM 7 DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN (DFC) GRAZING FOOD CHAIN (GFC)
m Amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. m Begins with dead organic matter. m Sun is the source of energy.
m Only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower m Made up of decomposers which are m Autotrophs assimilate food using simple
trophic level (10% Law).
heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and inorganic materials and radiant solar energy.
TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient m The energy flows from autotrophs to heterotrophs
ECOSYSTEM ECOSYSTEM requirements by degrading dead organic matter as per the law of thermodynamics.
Tertiary Fourth trophic level (T4) Man, lion Large fishes or detritus. Known as Saprotrophs. m In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit
consumer (secondary carnivores) m In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction for energy flow.
of energy flows through the DFC than through the
HETEROTROPH
GFC.
Secondary Third trophic level (T3) Birds, wolf Fishes

consumer (primary carnivores)
8 STANDING CROP STANDING STATE
m Each trophic level has a certain mass of living m Organisms need a constant supply of nutrients to
material at a particular time called as the grow, reproduce and regulate various body
Primary Second trophic level Insects, birds, Zooplanktons,
standing crop. functions.
consumer (T2) (herbivores) mammals molluscs
m Standing crop is measured as the mass of living m The amount of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen,
organisms (Biomass) or the number in a unit phosphorus, calcium etc., present in the soil at any
area. given time, is called standing state.
Primary First trophic level (T1) Herbaceous, Algae,
producer m Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is m It varies in different kinds of ecosystems and also
(green plants) woody plants phytoplanktons
(AUTOTROH) and higher plants more accurate. on a seasonal basis.
9 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

m Food or energy relationship between organisms at different trophic levels, is expressed in terms of number, biomass or m It does not take into account the same species belonging
energy. to two or more trophic levels.
m The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or top level m It assumes a simple food chain, that never exists in
consumer. nature. It does not accommodate a food web.
m The trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in m Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological
the same ecosystem at the same time. eg. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eat seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
consumer when it eats insects and worms. ecosystem
m Three types of ecological pyramids are usually studied – (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of
energy.
PYRAMID OF NUMBER PYRAMID OF BIOMASS PYRAMID OF ENERGY

m Upright in most ecosystems m Upright in most ecosystems. m Always upright and can never be inverted
m A big tree ecosystem is inverted or spindle shaped m In sea, it is generally inverted m When energy flows from a particular trophic level to next trophic level some energy is
always lost as heat
NCERT Maps Ecosystem 117
10 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION 11 SUCCESSION OF PLANTS
m The composition and structure of all communities constantly change in response to the HYDRARCH (In wet areas) XERARCH (Xeric/dry conditions)
changing environmental conditions, which is orderly and sequential, parallel with changes in Phytoplankton Submerged Submerged free Lichens Bryophytes Higher
the physical environment, leading finally to a community that is in near equilibrium to the (pioneer) plant stage floating stage (pioneer) plants
environment and is called climax community. species
species
m This gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called Reed-swamp
stage
ecological succession.
m The entire sequence of communities that sucessively change in a given area are called Forest Scrub stage Marsh-meadow
(climax) MESIC stage MESIC (climax) Forest
SERE(s) and individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral
communities.
12 NUTRIENT CYCLING
m In the successive seral stages change in diversity of species of organisms, increase in the
number of species and organisms as well as an increase in total biomass is seen. m Nutrients which are never lost from the ecosystems, they are recycled time and again
indefinitely. It is called biogeochemical cycles (bio-living organism, geo-rocks, air, water).
m Actually succession and evolution would have been parallel processes. m Nutrient cycles are of two types:
m Primary succession starts in an area where no living organisms ever existed, like on bare rock, (a) Gaseous (eg. nitrogen, carbon cycle)
newly cooled lava, newly created pond or reservoir, so it is slow and can take several hundred (b) Sedimentary (eg. sulphur, phosphorus cycle)
to thousand years. CARBON-CYCLE PHOSPHORUS-CYCLE
m Natural reservoir is atmosphere. m Phosphorus is major constituent of
m Primary succession is very slow process. m Carbon constitutes 49% of dry weight of biological membranes, nucleic acids and
m Secondary succession takes place in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that organisms and is next only to water. cellular energy transfer system.
existed there, like abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded. m 71% of global carbon is dissolved in m Needed to make shells, bones and teeth.
Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession. oceans, which regulates amount of CO2 in m Natural reservoir is rock.
atmosphere.
m In secondary succession, since soil is already there, the rate of succession is much faster and m Fossil fuel represent a reservoir of carbon. m Herbivores and other animals get it from
hence, climax is also reached more quickly. 13 plants.
m 4 × 10 kg of carbon is fixed annually in
m As succession proceeds, the numbers and types of animals and decomposers also change. biosphere through photosynthesis. m There is no respiratory release of
m Respiratory activities of producers and phosphorus into atmosphere.
m The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. m Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus
consumers return a lot of CO2 to the
m After several more stages ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed. atmosphere. Decomposers contribute through rain fail are much smaller than
carbon inputs and secondly gaseous
substantially to CO2 pool
exchanges of phosphorus between
14 m Burning of wood, forest fire, fossil fuel, organism and environment are negligible.
volcanic activity, deforestation etc. also
m In ecosystem there is unidirectional movement of energy towards higher trophic levels and its
contribute to the atmospheric CO2.
dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
m Some organisms of DFC are prey of the GFC animals. 13 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
m Some animals like cockroaches, crows etc. are omnivores. m Healthy forest ecosystem purify air and water, mitigate droughts and foods, cycle nutrients,
m Both hydrarch and xerarch lead to medium water conditions (MESIC). generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide
storage site for carbon and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values.
m Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc., regulate the rate of release
m Robert Constanza tried to put price tags of average US $ 33 trillion a year for these
of nutrients into the atmosphere.
ecosystem services, which is largely taken for granted, because they are free. This is
m The climax community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged. nearly twice the value of global GNP of US $ 18 trillion.
m Products of ecosystem processes are named as ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, e.g., purification m Out of the total cost soil formation accounts for about 50%, recreation and nutrient cycling
of air and water by forests. less than 10% each and climate regulation and habitat for wildlife 6% each.
Biodiversity and Conservation
9
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 2 BIODIVERSITY
m The rich variety of living organisms with which we share this planet m Immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the species level but at all levels of biological organisation
never ceases to astonish and fascinate us. ranging from macromolecules within cells to biomes.
m There are more than 20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of m The term 'Biodiversity' was popularised by the socio biologist Edward Wilson. The most important of them are
beetles, 28,000 species of fishes and nearly 20,000 species of GENETIC DIVERSITY SPECIES DIVERSITY ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
orchids. m A single species might show high m Diversity at the species level m At the ecosystem level
diversity at genetic level over its m E.g., Western ghats have a m E.g., India with its deserts, rain
distributional range. greater amphibian species forests, mangroves, coral reefs,
3 HOW MANY SPECIES ARE THERE ON E.g., Genetic variation shown by
m diversity than Eastern ghats. wetlands, estuaries and alpine
EARTH AND HOW MANY IN INDIA? Rauwolfia vomitoria in different meadows has a greater ecosystem
m According to IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal Himalayan ranges in potency diversity than a Scandinavian country
species described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million. and concentration of reserpine like Norway.
m For many taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete
* India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.
in temperate than in tropical countries.
m Some extreme estimates range from 20 to 50 million, but a more
4 PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
conservative and scientifically sound estimate made by Robert May
places the global species diversity at about 7 million. A. LATITUDINAL GRADIENTS
Interesting Aspects of Earth's Biodiversity: l Species diversity decreases as we move from equator towards the poles. LARGELY TROPICAL AMAZON
a. More than 70% of all species recorded are animals, while plants l Tropics (23.5° N to 23.5°S) harbour more species than temperate or polar R A I N F O R E S T I N S O U T H
(including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and areas. AMERICA- has greatest biodiveristy
Eg., Colombia Newyork Greenland India on Earth.
angiosperms) comprise no more than 22% of the total.
m 40,000 species of plants
b. Among animals, insects make more than 70% of total, i.e., out of Near Equator 41° N temperate 71°N poles Tropics
m 3,000 of fishes
every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects. 1,400 bird 105 bird 56 bird 1,200 bird
m 1,300 of birds
c. Number of fungi species is more than fishes, amphibians, reptiles species species species species
m 427 of mammals.
and mammals combined. l A forest in a tropical region like Equador has upto 10 times more vascular m 427 of amphibians
m Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species there
plants, as a forest of equal area in temperate midwest of USA. m 378 of reptiles
might be, as conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for l Scientists estimate that in the Amazon rain forests, there might be at least
identifying microbial species and many are not culturable under m More than 1,25,000 invertebrates
two million insect species waiting to be discovered and named.
laboratory conditions. Their diversity alone might run into millions.
m Although, India has only 2.4% of world's land area; its share of the Ecologists and Evolutionary biologists have proposed various hypotheses to explain greater biological
global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 percent. diversity at the tropics.
m India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world. Nearly a. Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes remained
45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been undisturbed, having long evolutionary time for species diversification.
recorded from India. b. Constant, less seasonal tropical environments promote niche specialisation and lead to greater species
m If we accept May's global estimates, only 22 percent of the total diversity.
species have been recorded so far, then, India has more than 1,00,000 c. More solar energy in tropics contributes to higher productivity and might contribute indirectly to greater
plant species and 3,00,000 animal species yet to be discovered. diversity.
122 Biodiversity and Conservation NCERT Maps
B. SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIPS (by German naturalist Alexander Von Humboldt) 6 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
l Species richness within a region increased with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit. m The colonisation of tropical pacific islands by humans led to extinction of
l The relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa (angiosperms, birds, bats, more than 2,000 species of native birds. The IUCN red list (2004)
freshwater fishes) is a rectangular hyperbola. On a logarithmic scale, it is a straight line, described by the documents extinction of 784 species (including 338 vertebrates, 359
invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 yrs.
equation
m The last 20 years alone witnessed disappearance of 27 species.
logS = logC + Z logA
m Amphibians appear more vulnerable to extinction.
where S = species richness; A = Area; Z = Slope of the line (regression coefficient); C = Y intercept.
m 15,500 species world-wide are facing threat of extinction.
l The value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 regardless of region or taxa.
m There were five episodes of mass extinction of species in the past,
l But, the slope of the line is much steeper in very large areas like the entire continents. e.g., for frugivorous
before humans appeared.
birds and mammals in tropical forests the slope is 1.15.
m The 'Sixth Extinction' presently in progress is 100 to 1000 times faster
than pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the faster
5 IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY rates.
TO THE ECOSYSTEM m If the present trends continue, nearly half of all species on earth might
m Communities with more species, tend to be more stable than those with less species. A stable community be wiped out within the next 100 years.
should not show too much variation in productivity from year to year; it must be resistant or resilient to m Loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in plant
production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental perturbations like
occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and it must also be resistant to invasions by alien species.
drought, and (c) Increased variability in plant productivity, water use and
m David Tilman's long-term ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots show that plots with more species pest and disease cycles.
showed less year-to-year variation in total biomass and increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.
m Rich biodiversity is essential for ecosystem health and imperative for the very survival of human race on this Recent Extinctions
1. Dodo – Mauritius
planet.
2. Quagga – Africa
m The 'rivet popper hypothesis' of Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich, puts the importance of a species in proper
3. Thylacine – Australia
perspective.
4. Steller's sea cow – Russia
AIR PLANE ECOSYSTEM 5. Three sub-species of tiger – Bali, Javan & Caspian
Rivets Species
Rivet on the wings Key species. Species Facing Threat of Extinction in World
(i) Popping a rivet (causing a species to become extinct) may not affect flight safety (proper functioning of 12% Birds
ecosystem) initially, but if more rivets are removed the plane will become dangerously weak. 23% Mammals
(ii) Loss of rivets on the wings (Key species, that drive major ecosystem functions) will be serious. So each 32% Amphibians
species is important for the ecosystem 31% Gymnosperms
7 CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSES: THE EVIL QUARTET-FOUR MAJOR CAUSES

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Over-Exploitation Alien Species invasions Co-Extinctions
m Most important cause. m When need turns to greed, there is over- m Nile perch introduced in Lake Victoria in m Seen in obligatory associations.
m Tropical rain forests once covered more than 14% exploitation. East-Africa led to the extinction of 200 sps m When a host species becomes
of earth's land, now it is just 6%. m In the last 500 years steller's sea cow, of Cichlid fish in the lake. extinct, its parasites meets the
m Amazon rain forest (lungs of the planet), being cut passenger pigeon became extinct due m Carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and same fate.
for soyabeans cultivation and grasslands for to over-exploitation. water hyacinth (Eichhornia) are invasive m Co- evolved plant-pollinator
raising beef cattle. m Marine fish populations are over weeds. mutualism is another example
m Mammals and birds requiring large territories and harvested, endangering commercially m African catfish Clarias gariepinus are
animals with migratory habits are badly affected, important species. posing threat to indigenous cat fishes.
leading to population declines.
NCERT Maps Biodiversity and Conservation 123
8 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION Invertebrates Vertebrates

Other animal groups Mammals
Why should we conserve biodiversity?
Crustaceans Fishes
Narrowly Utilitarian Arguments Broadly Utilitarian Arguments Ethical Arguments Molluscs Birds
m Humans derive countless direct m Biodiversity plays a major role in m Philosophically or spiritually we
economic benefits from nature – many ecosystem services that nature have to understand that each Insects
Reptiles
food, firewood, fibre, construction provides. species has a intrinsic value.
material, industrial products and m Amazon rain forest produce approx m We have a moral duty to care for Plants Amphibians
medicinal products. 20% of total oxygen of Earth's their well-being. Ferns and
Mosses allies
m More than 25% drugs are derived atmosphere by photosynthesis. m We need to pass on our biological
from 25,000 sp. of plants. m Pollination by bees, bumble-bees, legacy in good order to future
m Nations endowed with rich birds and bats. generations.
biodiversity can reap enormous m Aesthetic pleasures of walking Fungi Angiosperms
benefits by 'bioprospecting' - through woods, watching spring
exploring molecular, genetic and flowers bloom, waking upto a bulbul's
species level diversity for products song etc. Algae Lichens
of economic importance. Representing global biodiversity
9 HOW DO WE CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY?

When we conserve and protect whole ecosystem, i.e., saving the entire forest to save the tiger it is called
m The historic Convention on Biological diversity (The Earth Summit) was held
in-situ (on site) conservation. And organisms facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild, in near future,
in Rio de Janeiro (1992) for biodiversity conservation and sustainable
needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, then ex-situ (offsite) conservation is desirable.
utilisation of benefits.
In-situ Conservation Ex-situ Conservation m World summit on sustainable development (WSSD) held in 2002 in
Johannesburg pledged for significant reduction in current rate of biodiversity
m Biodiversity Hot Spots: Regions with very high m Zoological Parks, Botanical gardens and
loss at global, regional and local levels by 2010.
levels of species richness and high degree of wild-life Safari parks serve this purpose.
m If the present trend of species extinction continues nearly half of all species on
endemism (species confined to a particular region & m Many animals have become extinct in the
not found anywhere else). wild but are maintained in zoological Earth might be wiped out within the next 100 years.
Total number are 25 (initially) +9 (added later) = 34. parks. m More than 1.5 m species have been recorded in the world, but there might still
Three of these – western ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo- m Cryopreservation- to protect and preserve be nearly 6 million species on earth waiting to be discovered and named.
Burma & Himalaya – Cover our country's regions. gametes of threatened species in viable m The group fungi has more species than all the vertebrate species combined.
They (all 34) cover less than 2% of Earth's land area and fertile condition. m Earth's fossil history reveals incidence of five mass extinctions in the past, but
and their strict protection could reduce the ongoing m Plants can be propagated using tissue the present rates of extinction, largely attributed to human activities, are 100
mass extinctions by 30%. culture methods. to 1000 times higher.
m 14 biosphere reserves, 90 National Parks and 448 m Seeds of different genetic strains, of m Earth's rich biodiversity is vital for the survival of mankind.
wild life sanctuaries provide legal protection in India. commercially important plants can be m Nearly 700 species have become extinct in recent times and more than
m Sacred groves in Khasi and Jaintia Hills of kept for long periods in seed banks. 15,500 species (of which >650 are from India) currently face the threat of
Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills (Rajasthan), Western extinction.
Ghats, Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar regions m In many cultures, tracts of forests were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife
(Madhya Pradesh) are the last refuges of rare and within were venerated and given total protection, they are sacred groves.
threatened plants. m Biodiversity hot spots are the regions of accelerated habitat loss.
Environmental Issues
10
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 3 CONTROLLING VEHICULAR AIR-POLLUTION–A CASE STUDY OF DELHI

th
m Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, m In the 1990s, Delhi ranked 4 among the 41 most polluted cities of the world and a PIL was
land, water or soil.
filed in the Supreme Court of India and under its directives:
m Agents that bring about such undesirable change are called pollutants.
l All buses of Delhi were converted to run on CNG by the end of 2002, as CNG burns
m The government of India passed the Environment (protection) Act, 1986 to protect and
improve the quality of our environment. efficiently, was cheaper and cannot be siphoned off by thieves and adulterated like petrol
and diesel.
2 AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL l Old vehicles were phased out.
m We are dependent on air for our respiratory needs. l Use of unleaded petrol.
m Air pollutants cause injury to all living organisms as they reduce the yield of crops and also
l Use of low-sulphur petrol/diesel.
deleteriously affect the respiratory system of humans and animals.
m Harmful effects depends on concentration of pollutants, duration of exposure and the l Use of catalytic converters and stringent pollution norms etc.
organism. m More stringent norms for fuels means steadily reducing sulphur and aromatic content in
m Smoke stacks of thermal power plants, smelters and other industries release particulate and petrol and diesel fuels.
gaseous air pollutants. These pollutants must be separated/filtered out before releasing the
m Euro III Norms stipulate sulphur at 350 ppm in diesel and 150 ppm in petrol. Aromatic
harmless gases into the atmosphere.
m According to CPCB, particulate size 2.5 mm or less in diameter (PM2.5), can be inhaled deep hydrocarbon at 42%. Road map is to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and
into the lungs, causing respiratory symptoms, irritation, lungs damage and premature death. aromatic hydrocarbon to 35%.
Control Strategies
m Electrostatic Precipitator can remove 99% particulate matter present in exhaust from a 4 WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
thermal power plant.
m Government of India passed the water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974 to
m Scrubber can remove gases like SO2. safeguard our water resources.
m Catalytic Converter with platinum, palladium and rhodium-as catalysts, in automobiles, m Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents
convert unburnt hydrocarbons into CO2 and H2O, and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to l A mere 0.1% impurities make domestic sewage unfit for human use.
CO2 and nitrogen gas. But they need unleaded petrol as lead inactivates the catalyst.
l Domestic sewage primarily contains biodegradable organic matter, which decomposes
Noise as an Air Pollutant readily by the help of bacteria and other micro-organisms.
m The Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981, was amended in 1987, to include l Amount of biodegradable organic matter in sewage is estimated by measuring the
NOISE as an air-pollutant.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
m Noise is undesired high level of sound.
l Micro-organisms involved in biodegradation of organic matter in the receiving water body
m A brief exposure of extremely high sound level 150 dB or more generated by jet plane or
consume a lot of oxygen, as a result there is a sharp decline in Dissolved Oxygen (DO),
rocket can damage ear drums and can cause permanent loss of hearing ability.
causing mortality of fishes and other aquatic creatures.
m Chronic exposure of lower noise level may permanently damage hearing abilities.
m Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heart beat, altered breathing pattern, thus
considerably stressing humans.
m To control noise pollution use of sound-absorbent materials or by muffling noise; delimitation m Air pollution primarily results from burning of fossil fuel, e.g., coal and petroleum in
of harm-free zones, timings for loudspeakers etc. need to be enforced. industries and automobiles.
128 Environmental Issues NCERT Maps
l Large amounts of nutrients causes algal bloom, which imparts colour to water bodies, 6 SOLID WASTES
deteriorates water quality and cause fish mortality. Bloom forming algae are extremely m Everything that goes out in trash is solid waste.
toxic to human beings and animals. (A) Municipal solid waste: Comprise paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals, rubber,
l Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) world’s most problematic aquatic weed also leather, textile, etc. Burning reduces volume of wastes. Open dumps serve as breeding
called Terror of Bengal; was introduced in India for their lovely flowers, have caused grounds of rats and flies.
havoc by excessive growth and blocking water ways. Sanitary land fills is a substitute for open burning dumps. Wastes are dumped in a
depression or trench after compaction and covered with dirt everyday.
4A - Biomagnification 4B - Eutrophication
m Increase in the concentration of toxicant at m Natural aging of lake by nutrient Landfills get filled in metros due to large amount of garbage, also there is danger of
successive trophic levels, in the aquatic enrichment of its water, which may span seepage of chemicals which pollute underground water resources.
food chain. As the toxic substance is neither thousands of years. (B) Electronic wastes (e-wastes): Irreparable computers and other electronic goods.
metabolised nor excreted, so passed on to m Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication: E-wastes are burried or incinerated.
next trophic level. Pollutants from man’s activities like Over half of e-wastes generated in developed world are exported to developing
e.g: Mercury or DDT. effluents from industries and homes can countries like China, India and Pakistan where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickel
radically accelerate the aging process. and gold are recovered during recycling process. Recycling is the only solution for
Water ¾® Zooplanktons ¾® Small fish Prime contaminants are nitrates and treatment of e-wastes.
(0.003 ppb) (0.04 ppm) (0.5 ppm) phosphates, which act as plant nutrients.
They overstimulate algal growth causing (C) Hospitals generate hazardous wastes, that contain disinfectants and other harmful
¾®
unsightly scum and unpleasant odours, chemicals and pathogenic micro-organisms. The use of INCINERATORS is crucial to
robbing water of dissolved oxygen vital to disposal of hospital waste.
Fish-eating birds ®¾ Large fish
(25 ppm) (2 ppm) other aquatic life.
Other pollutants flowing into a lake may 7 CASE STUDY OF REMEDY FOR PLASTIC WASTE
Fig: Biomagnification of DDT poison whole populations of fish. The lake m Ahmed Khan, realised that plastic waste was a real problem.
in an aquatic food chain. can literally choke to death.
m Polyblend, a fine powder of recycled modified plastic, was developed by his company. This
Heated (thermal) Waste Waters from thermal power plants, eliminates or reduces the number mixture is mixed with bitumen that is used to lay roads.
of organisms sensitive to high temperature and may enhance the growth of plants and fish in m In collaboration with R.V. College of Engineering and Bangalore city corporation, Ahmed
extremely cold areas, after causing damage to indigenous flora and fauna.
Khan proved that blends of polyblend and bitumen, when used to lay roads, enhanced the
5 CASE STUDY-INTEGRATED WASTE WATER TREATMENT bitumen’s water repellant properties and helped to increase road life by a factor of three.
m Town of Arcata - along Northern coast of California (with biologists from Humboldt state m The raw material is any plastic film waste. So against the price of Rs. 0.40/kg Khan now
university) utilising a mix of artificial and natural processes the towns people created an offers Rs. 6 to ragpickers.
integrated waste water treatment process within a natural system. The cleaning occurs at m Using Khan’s technique by the year 2002, more than 40 kms of road in Bangalore has already
two stages: been laid.
l The conventional sedimentation, filtering and chlorination.
l The biologists developed six connected marshes over 60 hectares of marsh land, seeding
8 AGRO-CHEMICALS AND THEIR EFFECTS
appropriate plants, algae, fungi and bacteria, which neutralise, absorb and assimilate the
pollutants and water flows through the marshes and gets purified naturally. The marshes m Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc. are toxic to non-target organisms, that are important
constitute a sanctuary with high biodiversity. Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) is components of soil ecosystem.
responsible for the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project.
Case Study of Organic Framing
m ‘Ecosan’ toilets - Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human excreta,
using Dry Composting Toilets - a practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to m Integrated organic farming is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure, where waste products from
human waste disposal. one process are cycled in as nutrients for other processes. This allows maximum utilisation of
m By this method, human excreta can be recycled into natural fertilizer, which reduces the need resource and increases the efficiency of production.
of chemical fertilizers. Ecosan toilets are working in many areas of Kerala and Sri Lanka.
m Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana, includes bee-keeping, dairy
management, water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of processes and
allow an extremely economical and sustainable venture.
m Domestic sewage, most common source of pollution of water bodies, reduces DO but
m No need to use chemical fertilizers, cattle dung used as manure, crop waste to create
increases BOD of receiving water.
m Domestic sewage is rich in nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus which cause compost or used to generate natural gas for energy needs of farm. Dagar created the
eutrophication and algal blooms. Haryana Kisan Welfare Club, with membership of 5000 farmers.
NCERT Maps Environmental Issues 129
9 RADIOACTIVE WASTES m Montreal protocol signed in 1987 (effective in 1989) controls emission of ODS, i.e., CFCs.
Nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems m Thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the ground to the top of the atmosphere is
measured in terms of dobson units (DU).
m Ozone hole over Antarctica develops each year between late August and early october.
m Accidental Leakage m Safe disposal of radioactive wastes 12 DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILISATION AND MAINTENANCE
l Three mile island l Radiation from nuclear waste causes
l Chernobyl mutations at a very high rate. m Soil Erosion and Desertification

l Higher doses is lethal; lower doses l Development of top-soil takes centuries.
creates various disorders like cancer. l But over-cultivation, unrestricted grazing, deforestation and poor irrigation degrades it
making arid patches of land.
m Storage of nuclear waste, after sufficient pre-treatment should be done in suitable containers l Large barren patches meet to form desert .
buried in rocks, about 500 m deep below earth’s surface. l Desertification has become a major problem due to increased urbanisation.
m Water Logging and Soil Salinity

10 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING
l Irrigation without drainage results in water logging.
m Greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon responsible for heating Earth’s l Water logging draws salt on surface of soil, depositing in a thin crust or collects at the
surface and atmosphere. Without this average temperature at surface of Earth would be roots, affecting growth.
chilly - 18°C rather than the present average of 15°C.
l Water logging and salinity have come due to Green Revolution.
m Greenhouse gases absorb long wave (infrared) radiation from Earth and emit it again
m Deforestation
towards the Earth. The cycle continues till the Earth’s surface has no long wave radiation to
l 40% forests have been lost in tropics compared to only 1% in temperate region.
emit.
l National forest policy (1988) of India recommended 33% forest for plains and 67% for
m Relative contribution of various greenhouse gases to total global warming is CO2 (60%); CH4 hills.
(20%); CFCs (14%) and N2O (6%). l Slash and burn agriculture (Jhum cultivation) in North-East of India contribute to
m Increase in level of greenhouse gases led to considerable heating of Earth leading to deforestation.
GLOBAL WARMING and odd climatic changes (e.g. El Nino effect), melting of polar ice caps l Enhanced CO2 concentration, loss of biodiversity, disturbed hydrologic cycle, soil erosion
and Himalayan snow caps, rise in sea-level and submergence of coastal areas. and desertification are the consequences of deforestation.
11 OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE 13 CASE STUDY-PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN CONSERVATION OF FOREST
Ozone (Types) m A Bishnoi woman Amrita Devi, her three daughters and hundreds other lost their lives saving
trees by hugging and daring king’s men at Jodhpur.
m The Government of India instituted Amrita Devi Bishnoi wildlife protection award for
individuals or communities from rural areas that have shown extraordinary coverage and
Good Ozone Bad Ozone dedication in protecting wildlife.
Found in upper atmosphere, the m Found in lower atmosphere, the
m m Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas (1974): Local women showed bravery in
stratosphere acts as a shield absorbing troposphere, that harms plants and
animals. protecting trees. People all over world have acclaimed Chipko movement.
UV radiation from sun m Government of India in 1980s introduced Joint Forest Management (JFM). Local
m DNA and proteins absorb UV rays, so it communities protect and manage forest, in return they get benefit of various forest products
is highly injurious to living organisms. (fruit, gum, rubber etc.).
m Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFC) used as refrigerants degrade ozone layer, by releasing
cl-atoms.
m Disposal of hazardous wastes like defunct ships, radioactive wastes and e-wastes
m CFC have permanent and continuing effects on ozone levels.
requires additional efforts.
m UV radiations, shorter to UV-B are completely absorbed by ozone layer. m Soil pollution result from pesticides and leachates from solid wastes deposited over it.
m UV-B-damages DNA, causes aging of skin, inflammation of cornea called snow blindness m Enhanced greenhouse effect is warming the earth, it may drastically change rainfall
cataract, etc. pattern, global temperature, besides deleteriously affecting living organisms.

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The Living World

dogs represent taxa at different levels.

6 ORGANISMS WITH THEIR TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES

1 INTRODUCTION 4 KINGDOM MONERA

Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present l Are photosynthetic autotrophs.

l Completely lack cell wall.

m Body look likes soap box. m Responsible for red tides.

predators in absence of sunlight. material.

7 KINGDOM PLANTAE 9 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS

1 INTRODUCTION 2 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

m Our understanding of the plant

3 BRANCHES OF TAXONOMY 4 ALGAE

water and marine) organisms.

5 THE THREE MAIN CLASSES OF ALGAE

CHLOROPHYCEAE PHAEOPHYCEAE RHODOPHYCEAE

6 BRYOPHYTES (Mosses and Liverworts) 7 PTERIDOPHYTES (Horsetails and Ferns)

1 INTRODUCTION 4 MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT 5 THE STEM

Region of Some epidermal cells 6 THE LEAF TYPES OF LEAVES

m Gynoecium occupies m Gynoecium situated in m Margin of thalamus grows

Attachment with other floral whorl Attachment with each other

m Attachment with petals

13 THE FRUIT AND SEED

Seed coat (Testa, tegmen) Embryo

15 DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

14 Semi technical description of a typical flowering plant

4 COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES (MADE OF MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF CELLS)

5 6 Epidermal tissue system

THE TISSUE SYSTEM

Cortical Parenchymatous Large parenchymatous Closed - cambium absent

9 COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT LEAF 11 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WOODS

Features Dicotyledonous leaf Monocotyledonous leaf Spring wood Autumn wood

Heart wood Sapwood

11 CYTOSKELETON 12 CILIA AND FLAGELLA

m Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical Plasma

m Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as

m Such cycles of growth and division allows single cell to form

m Most dramatic period of cell cycle 5 M5PHASE (MITOSIS)

Kinetochore is disc shaped

8 MEIOSIS I (Reductional Phase)

10 MEIOSIS II-(Equational Phase ) - Resembles a normal mitosis

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II

1 INTRODUCTION 3 PLANT-WATER RELATIONS

2. Solute Potential : The magnitude of lowering of

6. Pressure Potential : Pressure builds up in a plant

OSMOSIS PLASMOLYSIS IMBIBITION 4 LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT

5 WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT

7 UPTAKE AND TRANSPORT OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS

1. Food, primarily SUCROSE, is transported Tip of stem

9 Mechanism of absorption of elements : 15 Nodule formation

16 The ammonia synthesis by nitrogenase requires Product Reductive amination Transamination

Chl-b, carotenoids and xanthophyll 8 SPLITTING OF WATER

4 FERMENTATION Glucose Major pathways 5 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

6 TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE (TCA cycle or Kreb's cycle)

8 ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM (ETS) 9 RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET

1 INTRODUCTION 4 GROWTH RATES

Size/weight of the organ

Height of the plant

5 QUANTITATIVE COMPARISONS BETWEEN 7 DIFFERENTIATION DE-DIFFERENTIATION RE-DIFFERENTIATION

Cell Division Death Darwin studied phototropism in canary

A m Produced by growing apices of stems

2 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 3 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

4 EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

5 PRE-FERTILISATION EVENTS 6 FERTILISATION

1 INTRODUCTION 3 STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM