Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pecs

Evolution, challenges and path forward for low temperature

combustion engines
TagedPD39X XAvinash Kumar AgarwalDa,
40X X *, D41X XAkhilendra Pratap SinghDa42X X , D43X XRakesh Kumar MauryaDb4X X
a
TagedP Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Punjab, India

TAGEDPA R T I C L E I N F O TAGEDPA B S T R A C T

Article History: Universal concerns about degradation in ambient environmentD,45X X stringent emission legislations, depletion of
Received 13 June 2016 petroleum reserves, security of fuel supply and global warming have motivated research and D46X X development
Accepted 16 February 2017 of engines operating on alternative combustion concepts, which also have capability of using renewable as
well as conventional fuels. Low temperature combustion (LTC) is an advanced combustion concept for inter-
nal combustion (IC) engines, which has attracted global attention in recent years. LTC concept D47X X is different
TagedPKeyword:
from the conventional spark ignition (SI) combustion as D48X X well as compression ignition (CI) diffusion combus-
Low temperature combustion
tion concepts. LTC technology offers prominent benefits in terms of simultaneous reduction of both oxides
Premixed charge
Heat release rate
of nitrogen (NOx)D49X X and particulate matter (PM), in addition to reduction in specific fuel consumption (SFC).
Combustion control However, controlling ignition timing and combustion rate are primary challenges to be tackled before LTC
Exhaust gas recirculation technology can be implemented in automotive engines commercially. This review covers fundamental
Mode switching D50X X development of LTC engines and its evolution, historical background and origin of LTC concept,
aspects of
D51X X
encompassing LTC principle, its advantages, challengesD 52X Xand prospects. Detailed insights into preparation of
homogeneous charge by external and internal measures for mineral diesel and gasoline like fuels are cov-
ered. Fuel requirements and fuel induction system design aspect for LTC engines are also discussed. Com-
bustion characteristics of LTC engines including combustion chemistry, heat release rate (HRR), combustion
duration, knock characteristics, high D53X X load limit, fuel conversion efficiencies and combustion instabilityD54X X are
summarized. Emission characteristics are reviewed along with insights into PM and NOxD5X X emissions from
LTC engines. Finally, different strategies for controlling combustion rate and combustion timings for gaso-
line and mineral diesel like fuels are discussed, showing the way forward for this technology in future
D56Xtowards
X its commercialization.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1. Principle of LTC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2. Advantages of LTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3. Challenges of LTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Historical evolution of low temperature combustion concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5. Different variations of LTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2. Premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.3. Partially premixed combustion (PPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.4. Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.5. High efficiency clean combustion (HECC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.6. Spark assisted LTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.7. Laser assisted LTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. Homogeneous charge preparation for LTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1. External charge preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: akag@iitk.ac.in (A.K. Agarwal).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2017.02.001
0360-1285/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

2.1.1. Port fuel injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.1.2. External charge preparation using fuel vaporizer/ mixing device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2. In-Cylinder charge preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1. Early direct injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2. Late direct injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3. Fuel requirement in LTC engines and fuel management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1. Fuel for LTC: Properties and reaction mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2. Applicability of alternate fuels in HCCI engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4. HCCI combustion characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1. In-cylinder combustion kinetics of HCCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2. HCCI operating window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3. Heat release rate and combustion duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.4. Engine efficiency of HCCI combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5. High load limit and knocking characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.6. Cycle-to-cycle variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5. Emission characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1. Regulated gaseous emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.1. Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1.2. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.1.3. Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2. Unregulated emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3. Particulate emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6. Combustion control strategies for LTC operating window expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1. Dual-fuel control strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2. Variable valve timing (VVT) and variable compression ratio (VCR) strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.3. EGR strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.4. Fuel additives strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.5. Split injection and spray targeting strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.6. Closed loop control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.7. Dual mode operation strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.8. Other strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7. Path forward for LTC technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

1. Introduction TagedP ttention of researchers and automotive industry alike. Significant

a
efforts are being made to understand the physical and chemical pro-
TagedPAutomotive industry desperately requires technologies, which are cesses involved in LTC, which affect engine performance and emis-
cleaner and efficient, improve ambient air quality in an efficient man- sions. Most common form of LTC is HCCI combustion, which works on
ner, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help energy security. Fuel same fundamental principle as a 4-stroke engine and uses basic ele-
and engine technologies used in transportation sector are therefore ments of CI and SI engines. The HCCI combustion is shown in Fig. 1.
facing twin challengesD3X6 X of improving fuel economy and reducing emis- TagedPDuring the intake stroke, a D65X X nearly homogeneous fuel-air mixture
sions. Considering stringent emission regulations and scarcity of pri- is introduced in the cylinder. After intake valve closing (IVC), the
mary energy resources, development of new highly efficient and piston starts compressing the fuel-air mixture, which increases in-
environment friendly combustion concepts and systems, capable of cylinder temperature and pressure. As the piston approaches top
utilizing alternative fuels in addition to conventional fuels, has dead center (TDC), charge attains auto-ignition conditions. Chemical
become increasingly important. Several experimental studies have kinetics of charge can be enhanced by increasing charge temperature
been carried out to develop novel combustion concept namely low in the beginning of the compression stroke by preheating the intake
temperature combustion (LTC), which has demonstrated prospects of air or by retaining a fraction of hot combustionD6X X gas from the previous
meeting most stringent environmental legislations imposed on the engine cycle in the cylinder. In both strategies, chemical reactions
automotive sector. In recent years, researchers have focused on LTC occurring in the homogeneous fuel-air mixture accelerate due to rel-
technologies primarily due to its potential for lowering emission and atively higher charge temperature and pressure of residualsD67X [X 2]. Start
achieving higher efficiency compared to conventional combustion of combustion (SoC) in HCCI mode can be controlled by a combina-
modes. LTC includes several techniques such as homogeneous charge tion of variables such as compression ratio (CR), inlet charge temper-
compression ignition (HCCI), premixed charge compression ignition ature and pressure, turbulence level and mixture inhomogeneity. As
(PCCI), reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI), etc. All these soon as the auto-ignition temperature is attained during compres-
techniques are same as far as the fundamental principle is concerned sion stroke, fuel starts oxidizing quickly and its chemical energy is D68X X
however they differ in methodology of implementation. This paper released instantaneouslyD.69X X Auto-ignition in HCCI engine occurs simul-
reviews important research related to fundamental understanding, taneously at several locations throughout the engine cylinder and
development and challenges of LTC engine technology and prospects these spots are called hot spots. This quick heat release causes pres-
in the direction of commercialization. sure rise in a significantly shorter time span compared to conven-
tional engines, while the peak cylinder temperature still remains
1.1. Principle of LTC relatively significantly lower. The fuel-air mixture temperature and
pressure therefore increases further during the combustion. During
TagedPLTC engines have a great potential to achieve high engine effi- the expansion stroke, work is done by expanding gases on the piston
ciency and ultra-low emissions of NOx4X6D X and PM. This has attracted to produce net D70X X positive torque, which is available at the crankshaft
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 3

Abbreviations MULDIC MULtiple stage diesel combustion

NADI Narrow angle direct injection
NTC Negative temperature coefficient
AR ActiveD57X rX adical
NVO Negative valve overlap
ATAC Active thermo atmosphere combustion
OI Octane index
AVT Active valve train
NOxD59X X Oxides of nitrogen
AAC Avalanche activated combustion
OHC Oxygenated hydrocarbons
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
PPC Partially premixed combustion
BTE Brake thermal efficiency
PM Particulate matter
BD Burn duration
PFI Port fuel injector
CPS Cam profile switching
PVO Positive valve overlap
CO2 Carbon dioxide
PCCI Premixed charge compression ignition
CO Carbon monoxide
PCI Premixed compression ignited
CDPF Catalyzed diesel particulate filter
PREDIC Premixed lean diesel combustion
COV Coefficient of variation
rp Premixed ratio
CA50 Combustion phasing (crank angle position corre-
PRFs Primary reference fuels
sponding to 50% heat release)
PID Proportional, integral and derivative
CI Compression ignition
RCM Rapid compression machine
CIDI Compression ignition direct injection
RoPR Rate of pressure rise
CIHC Compression ignition homogeneous charge
RCCI Reactivity controlled compression ignition
CR Compression ratio
RON Research octane numberD62X X
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
RI Ringing intensity
CAI Controlled auto ignition
SMPS Scanning mobility particle sizer
DOC Diesel oxidation catalyst
SOF Soluble organic fraction
DPF Diesel particulate filter
SACI Spark assisted compression ignition
DEE Diethyl ether
SI Spark ignition
DISI Direct injection spark ignition
SFC Specific fuel consumption
DTBP di-tertiary butyl peroxide
SoC Start of combustion
EPAIT Elevated pressure auto ignition temperature
SRM Stochastic Reactor Model
EoI End of injection
TDC Top dead center
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
TS Toyota Soken
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
ULSD Ultra-low sulfur diesel
EVC Exhaust valve closing
UNIBUS Uniform bulky combustion system
eEGR External exhaust gas recirculation
VCR Variable compression ratio
FTMS Fast thermal management system
VVA Variable valve actuation
CH2O Formaldehyde
VVT Variable valve timing
FTIR Fourier transform infrared
VOC Volatile organic compounds
FIP Fuel injection pressure
GC Gas chromatography
HRR Heat release rate
TagedPfor doing useful work. The cycle is D71X X completed after the piston
HECC High efficiency clean combustion
ascends to TDC during the exhaust stroke, forcing the products of
HSDI High speed direct injection
combustion out of the cylinder. In summary, HCCI combustion con-
HTHR High temperature heat release
sists of the following steps:
HPLI Highly premixed late injection
HCCI Homogeneous charge compression ignition
(TagedP a) Preparation of a highly diluteD72X Xfuel-air mixture using exhaust gas
HiMICS Homogeneous charge intelligent multiple injec-
recirculation (EGR) to control combustion and HRR.
tion combustion system
TagedP(b) At the end of compression stroke, fuel-air mixture temperature
HCLI Homogeneous charge late injection
approaches D73Xauto-ignition
X temperature, leading to D74simultaneous
XX
ISFC Indicated specific fuel consumption
spontaneous ignition of entire cylinder charge at D75XmultipleX
ITE Indicated thermal efficiency
locations.
ISHR Initial slow heat release
IVC Intake valve closing
IVO Intake valve opening
IC Internal combustion
LNT Lean NOxD58X tX rap
LQG Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian
LTC Low temperature combustion
LHV Lower heating value
MPRR Maximum pressure rise rate
MEP Mean effective pressure
MTBE Methyl-tert-butyl ether
MPC Model predictive control
MK Modulated Kinetics
MON Motor octane number
MIMO Multiple input multiple output Fig. 1. Homogeneous charge compression ignition processes [1] (Courtesy of
Dr. Rayn T.).
4 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

Fig. 2. Image sequence of HCCI combustion (20 images per CAD) (Reprinted from [4]
with permission of SAE).
TagedP(c) Precise control of HRR to achieve trade-off between combustion
efficiency and emissions [3].
TagedPDue to volumetric combustion throughout the combustion cham-
ber, HCCI combustion does not have any flame propagation. Fig. 2
shows the image sequence of HCCI combustion, in which non-flame
combustion can be clearly observed.
TagedPFig. 2 clearly shows that combustion starts at several locations in
the combustion chamber simultaneously 2° BTDC. D76X X After SoC at active
sites, the in-cylinder temperature and pressure increases and results
in bulk charge ignition over few crank angle degrees (0
3 CAD). It
can be noticed that combustion duration is significantly shorter in
HCCI combustion engines (6
15 CAD) compared to conventional
engines (30
90 CAD). HRR significantly affects the HCCI combustion
because very short combustion duration results in violentD7X X knocking
combustion, whereas too long combustion duration may cause
incomplete combustion or misfire due to relatively lower in-cylinder
temperature in the expansion stroke. To avoid very high HRR,
charge is often diluted. Combustion duration is affected by dilution
of charge (by excess air or EGR or N2) because diluent absorbs heat
generated during combustion, thereby lowering peak in-cylinder
temperature. As a consequence, HCCI engine emits significantly D78X X
lower NOxD79X X emissions compared D80X X to a conventional engine [5].
M TagedP ixture dilution by EGR also reduces HRR, thereby reducing knock-
ing probability.
TagedPIn HCCI combustion, chemical reactions are not intimately cou-
pled to turbulent mixing processes such as those occurring in con-
ventional SI and CI engine combustion. Turbulent flow and heat
transfer mainly influenceD81X X the initiation of auto-ignition process in
the in-cylinder charge. Prior to the main heat release, combustion
chemistry does not influence the fluid mechanics. Once heat release
starts, the combustion chemistry has a significant influence on flow,
primarily because of pressure and temperature rise in the combus-
tion chamber. However, the auto-ignition heat release is fast enough
to have insignificant effect on the flow in HCCI combustion. After the
main heat release, turbulent diffusion of combustion products is
likely to be coupled however very little heat is released [6].
TagedPHCCI combustion can be achieved by both conventional fuels
namely mineral diesel and gasoline however different fuel proper-
ties of gasoline and mineral diesel require appropriate methodolo-
gies to achieve and control the HCCI combustion. Due to higher
evaporation temperature of mineral diesel compared to gasoline, it
cannot be injected in relatively colder combustion chamber condi-
tions. This means that port-injection or very early direct-injection
during intake stroke would D82X X not be helpful. Homogeneous mixing
of mineral diesel with air is another serious challenge for achieving
diesel HCCI because very early injection results in issues such as
wall wetting, while very late injection leads to insufficient mixing.
Due to relatively lower auto-ignition temperature of mineral diesel,
HCCI engines cannot be operated at high CRs (i.e. normally used for
conventional diesel combustion). Lower cetane number of diesel
also necessitates EGR to control HRR during premixed combustion
phase. In contrast to mineral diesel, gasoline is highly volatile and
more resistant to auto-ignition. Therefore, necessary arrangements
are made so that fuel-air mixture temperature is sufficiently high in
order to facilitate auto-ignition closer to the end of the compression
stroke. In literature, several approaches such as intake air heating,
higher CR, variable valve timing (VVT), and re-circulating hot com-
bustion products have been investigated experimentally however
each method has its own merits and challenges [7].
TagedPHCCI incorporates best features of both SI and CI combustion.
HCCI engines are far more efficient compared to SI engines and
approach the thermal efficiency of a CI engine. Improved thermal
efficiency is a result of three distinct features: (i) elimination of
throttling losses, (ii) use of high CRs (similar to CI engines), and (iii)
shorter combustion duration [8]. Comparison of basic D83X X features of
HCCI combustion and conventional combustion concepts (SI and CI)
D84X X presented in Table 1 [9].
is

Table 1
Comparison of basic combustion concepts in IC Engines.

Basic Characteristics SI CI HCCI

Fuel Requirements High resistance to auto-ignition Low resistance to auto-ignition Matches with CR
Fuel Gasoline like fuels Mineral dD36Xiesel
X like fuels Flexible fuels
37X X
Fuel-air mDixture preparation Port fuel injection (PFI)/ gasoline direct DI PFI/ Early DI/ Fumigation
technique injection (GDI)
Air-fuel ratio Almost constant, independent of load; Depends linearly on engine load; Very lean λ D 2
8 (Depending on fuel)
λ»1 λ D 1.2
2.2
Ignition Spark Ignition Auto-Ignition Auto-Ignition
Flame front Turbulent flame propagation Diffusion flame propagation No flame propagation, Homogeneous
oxidation
Combustion type Premixed, 2D combustion Premixed and diffusion combustion Premixed volumetric combustion,
dominated by chemical kinetics
Ignition timing control Spark timing Injection timing Pressure and temperature history
Throttling Throttled Un-throttled Un-throttled
Thermal Efficiency Low at part load High High
Emissions Very low with 3-way catalyst NOxD38X aX nd soot are high Extremely low soot and NOx, High HC
and CO [5]
Combustion temperature High Presence of high temperature zones Low temperature combustion
(»2500 K) (» 1800 K at lower engine loads)
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 3. Equivalence ratio versus temperature map (Reprinted from [10] with permis-
sion of SAE).
TagedPHCCI combustion has potential to greatly reduce NOxD85X X and
particulate emissions simultaneously. The region for formation of
NOxD86X X and soot has been conceptualized in an equivalence ratio

temperature map, shown in Fig. 3 [10].
TagedPNOx formation takes place at low equivalence ratio and high
adiabatic flame temperature. Reduction in NOx formation can be
achieved by lowering the flame temperature to a level below
2200 K. On the other hand, soot formation takes place in regions
D87Xhaving
X high equivalence ratio (i.e. fuel-rich mixtures) and mod-
erate temperature. Net soot emission from the engine is a bal-
ance between soot formation and soot oxidation. Therefore, soot
emission can be reduced either by increasing fuel-air mixing or
by increasing soot oxidation rate [10]. NOxD8X X and soot emissions
are strong functions of flame temperature and equivalence ratio
hence direct approach for simultaneous reduction of NOx and
soot emission is to control the flame temperature and local
equivalence ratio of charge in the combustion chamber. Main
benefit of HCCI combustion is to concurrently reduce the flame
temperature and allow sufficient fuel-air mixing by increasing
mixture homogeneity of a lean charge [11]. HCCI engine operates
on lean homogeneous mixtures therefore has lower peak cylin-
der temperatures in the combustion chamber, which minimizes
formation of NOxD89X X and particulate simultaneously.
1.2. Advantages of LTC
TagedPThis section describes potential advantages and scientific chal-
lenges in exploiting full spectrum of advantage of this novel LTC con-
cept. LTC offers several advantages over conventional combustion
modes [9,12]:
 TagedP LTC employs higher CR (depending on fuel quality) and has
shorter combustion duration. Thus, it approximates a constant
volume combustion and achieves relatively higher thermal effi-
D90X X
ciency due to its lower combustion temperature thereby lower
radiation losses. Throttling losses are also absent in LTC engineD.91X X
TagedP LTC has potential of significantly lower emissions compared to
compression ignition direct injection (CIDI) and direct injection
spark ignition (DISI) engines and simultaneously reduces NOxD92X X
and PM emissions. There is no flame front i.e. there is complete
absence of localized areas of excessively high temperature and
rich mixtures due to superior homogeneity of fuel-air mixture.
Therefore, there is no soot production in an ideal LTC cycle. Fur-
ther, there are low-temperature conditions and more uniform
distribution of bulk gas temperature in the cylinder; therefore,
5
TagedPNOx emissions are restricted to ultra- low levels. HenceD,93X X LTC is
not affected by soot-NOxD94X tX rade-off.
agedPT Another main advantage of LTC is its capability to utilize both
gasoline and mineral diesel like fuels. Fuel flexibility of LTC
engines enableD95X X use of various alternative fuels that could offset
D96X X
rapid depletion of D97X X petroleum reserves [13
15]. LTC can be
achieved by a wide range of fuels including gasoline, mineral
diesel, biodiesel, alcohols etc.
agedPT LTC engines are suitable for replacement of conventional SI and

D98X X
CI engines. These engines can be coupled with advanced hybrid
engines, to combine the advantages of highly efficient IC engines
with electric series hybrid powertrains.
1.3. Challenges of LTC
TagedPDue to several challenges associated with LTC, this technology
has not yet crossed commercialization threshold. While the process
itself has been known from over three decades, LTC can be achieved
only with those commercial engines, which are equipped with mod-
ern electronic control systems. Several technical challenges need to
be resolved before LTC can be utilized in high-volume production
and having applications in a wide range of vehicles, which can com-
pete with SI and CI engines. This section describes the main chal-
lenges encountered in developing practical LTC engines for
transportation sector [9,12
20] (Fig. 4).
TagedP(i) Ignition timing and combustion rate control
TagedPExpanding controlled operation of LTC engines over a wide range
of speeds and loads is a major challenge. Unlike conventional
engines, a direct method for controlling SoC (such as spark or fuel
injection) is not available in case of LTC engines. SoC in LTC is mainly
governed by chemical kinetics therefore LTC can be controlled by
physical and chemical properties of the fuel and the temperature-
time history of fuel-air mixture. Combustion phasing of LTC engines
is affected by several factors such as auto-ignition properties of test
fuel, relative fuel-air ratio, flow rate and reactivity of residual gases,
fuel-air mixture homogeneity, latent heat of vaporization of test
fuel, CR, intake air temperature, engine temperature, heat transfer
from the cylinder, and few other engine-dependent parameters [7].
The most challenging task for LTC implementation is to ensure that
auto-ignition occurs close to TDC, under various engine operating
conditions for optimal thermal efficiency.
TagedPFor a perfectly homogeneous mixture, LTC ignition timing, com-
bustion characteristics, engine load, combustion efficiency and emis-
sions are governed mainly by these four factors: (a) Initial charge
composition; (b) Initial charge pressure and temperature condition;
(c) Rate and extent of compression work, and (d) Rate and distribu-
tion of heat transfer from the engine [20]. Heat transfer however
Fig. 4. Challenges of LTC.
6 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPcannot be used as combustion control parameter during engine
operation because heat transfer is primarily governed by engine
design and engine operating conditionD9X X[20]. Hence all engine perfor-
mance parameters are determined by the first three factors. There-
fore, any combustion phasing control method has to affect one or
more of these three factors. All combustion phasing methods
can be divided in two broad categories namely those D10X X which alterD10X X
(i) temperature-time history of the charge; and (ii) mixture reactiv-
ity. Various strategies proposed by researchers for changing the tem-
perature-time history includes modulating intake air temperature
[3,17
19], variable compression ratio (VCR) [20,21], variable EGR
[22], VVT and residual/ exhaust gas trapping [16,22
24], in-cylinder
injection timing control [25,26], variable coolant temperature [27]
and water injection [28]. Proposed strategies for changing mixture
reactivity includeD102X X modulating two or more fuels [29,30], fuel addi-
tives [31,32] and variable EGR [22]. Despite large number of pro-
posed solutions, each strategy has its own merits and challenges in
implementation in commercial engines [33]. Therefor for LTC con-
trol, additional research is required for development of new algo-
rithms, strategies and methodologies to control the fuel and air
systems by employing close-loop control using cost effective feed-
back sensors. Mostly closed loop control studies are conducted using
cylinder pressure sensors, which are expensive for D103X X commercial
applications. Advanced control theory and control arithmetic
using next-generation combustion sensors, and hardware-soft-
ware specialized for LTC needD104X X to be developed in order to opti-
mize combustion over wide D105Xrange X of load-speed combinations of
the engine.
TagedP(ii) Limited power density
TagedPSimilar to SI or CI engines, LTC engines are also expected to oper-
ate at high loads and speeds. However, LTC engines operate satisfac-
torily from low-to-medium loads only and experience difficulties at
high loads. At highD106X X loads, combustion rate is very high, resulting in
very high rate of pressure rise (RoPR) and as a consequence into
pressure oscillations. ThisD107X X leads to unacceptable noise, potential
engine damage, and higher NOx emissions. This also limits the power
output/ density and puts high structural demand on the LTC engines.
Research is therefore required to develop new methodologies and
understanding to slow-down chemical kinetics of fuel-air mixtures.
It would result in longer combustion duration at higher engine loads,
in order to prevent excessive noise and structural damage. To extend
operating range of LTC engines, one strategy is to boost the intake air
either by supercharging [34,35] or by turbocharging [36
38].
Another methodology to overcome the lower power density issue of
LTC engines is dual mode operation e.g. SI-HCCI [39,40] and CI-HCCI
[41,42] hybrid combustion modes.
TagedP(iii) High combustion noise, CO and HC emissions
TagedPIn a LTC engine, ignition occurs simultaneously throughout the
combustion chamber. Hence, at higher loads, relatively richer fuel-
air mixtures are used, leading to higher RoPR and high-frequency
noise/ intensive ringing, compared to conventional DICI or DISI
engines [42].
TagedPIn general, LTC engines emit significantly lower NOxD108X X and PM
emissions but they emit relatively higher hydrocarbon (HC) and car-
bon monoxide (CO) emissions. In homogeneous combustion, signifi-
cant portion of charge enters the crevices during compression stroke
and escapes during expansion stroke without combustion. More-
over, burnt gas temperature is too low to consume much of this
unburned charge, when it re-enters the cylinder during expansion
stroke. This result in significant increase in HC and CO emissions
compared to conventional combustion modes [12]. In addition, the
peak burnt gas temperatures are too low (lower than 1400 K or
1500 K) to complete CO to carbon dioxide (CO2) oxidation reactions
at low loads therefore the combustion efficiency also deteriorates
[43]. At low engine loads, CO emission can be reduced by applying
direct in-cylinder injection technique however at higher engine
lTagedP oads, after-treatment devices are essential to control HC and CO
emissions [12]. Unfortunately, lower exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
of LTC engineD109X X results in relatively lower effectiveness of after-
treatment devices. Therefore, low temperature oxidation catalysts
need to be developed so that future emission standards for HC and
CO can be complied by LTC engines [12].
TagedP(iv) Cold start capability
TagedPIn LTC engines, ignition is extremely sensitive to the intake
charge temperature. Temperature required to achieve auto-ignition
varies according to test D10X X fuel properties and engine operating condi-
tions. During cold start, lower temperature of the compressed-
charge prevents LTC engine from firing. For improving the cold start
during LTC, several techniques such as use of glow plugs, fuel addi-
tives and increasing the CR using VCR or VVT were D1X X investigated [12].
D12X X
However, the most practical approach is the dual mode, in which
the engine is started in SI or CI mode and then switched over to LTC
mode after adequate warm-up.
TagedP(v) Homogeneous mixture preparation
TagedPHomogeneous mixture preparation and avoiding fuel-wall inter-
actions are crucial for achieving high thermal efficiency, reducing
HC and PM emissions, and preventing oil dilution in LTC engine.
This is particularly very important, while using relatively low vola-
tility test fuels such as mineral diesel in LTC [16]. Mixture homoge-
neity significantly affects the auto-ignition reactions, which directly
controls LTC combustion phasing [44]. For homogeneous fuel-air
mixture preparation, fuel could be injected in a highly turbulent
port flow stream in case of gaseous and highly volatile liquid fuel
usage [45,46] and early in-cylinder injection using sophisticated
fuel injectors for mineral diesel like fuels [44].
TagedP(vi) Cyclic and cylinder-to-cylinder variations
TagedPCyclic variations in LTC engines are typically lower compared
to conventional SI engines however these variations can be much
larger under certain operating conditions (e.g. very lean engine
operations, low intake temperatures) [47,48]. Cyclic variations
directly influence two major aspects of LTC engine i.e. limited low
load boundary (power output) and challenging combustion phas-
ing control. LTC does not have direct control on combustion phas-
ing such as injection timing/ spark timing in case of conventional
CI and SI engines. Due to cycle-to-cycle variations in LTC, combus-
tion timing control challenges become extreme (especially during
transient engine operations) because of no direct control on the
combustion timings [49]. Rapid mode switching between LTC and
conventional combustion (CI/ SI) is a good strategy to extend
engine's operating range [12]. To implement mode switching, con-
trol of combustion phasing is required on cycle-to-cycle basis and
cyclic variations affect these control methods. In-cylinder pro-
cesses responsible for cyclic variations need to be investigated
thoroughly and controlled for making LTC more stable [50]. Most
LTC experiments have been conducted on single-cylinder engines.
However, when LTC was applied to multi-cylinder engines, the
engine exhibited cylinder-to-cylinder variations as well due to its
structure and different lengths of D13Xindividual X manifolds. These
small differences causeD14X X ignition timings and combustion rates to
vary greatly. Therefore, it is essential to produce suitable intake
and exhaust manifold designs for multi-cylinder engines, which
can overcome the challenge of maintaining strict uniformity in
inlet and exhaust flows for each cylinder.
TagedP(vii) Accurate chemical reaction mechanism and combustion
model development
TagedPDuring R&D, a large number of design options and research
strategies rely on numerical calculations and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulations. To accurately predict specific features
and emissions from LTC engines, it is necessary to develop multi-
dimensional CFD combustion models that can be coupled with
detailed chemical kinetics models to overcome the challenge of
rapidly and inexpensively evaluating combustion system designs.
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
1.4. Historical evolution of low temperature combustion concepts
TagedPThe idea of LTC has been around for over 100 years [51]. Carl W.
Weiss first patented his invention of a hot-bulb 2-stroke oil engine
in 1897 [52]. In Weiss' engine, kerosene or raw fuel was injected
onto the surface of a hot-bulb to prepare a homogenous vaporized
mixture in a heated pre-chamber. Fuel injection timing was kept
very early in the compression stroke so that plenty of time was avail-
able for fuel vaporization and mixing with air. Prepared homoge-
neous fuel-air mixture was supplied to the engine cylinder, where
the mixture was auto-ignited at the end of the compression strokeD.15X X
During start-up, the hot bulb was heated on the outer surface using
a torch or a burner. Once the engine starts, the bulb D16X X was maintained
hot by the burning gas [51]. Russian scientist Nikolai Semenov and
his colleagues established that the first theoretical and practical
exploitation of chemical-kinetics controlled combustion for mineral
diesel engine was done in 19300 s [51]. Later in 19700 s, Turkish et al.
[53] built the first controlled auto ignition (CAI) engine, in which
combustion was controlled using 7X1D X active species, which were dis-
charged from partially burned mixtures in a separate pre-chamber
and the process was called “Avalanche Activated Combustion” (AAC).
TagedPThe most recognized and pioneering systematic early investiga-
tions using compression ignition of homogeneous mixtures are
credited to Onishi [54], who developed active thermoD-atmosphericD 18X X
combustion (ATAC) concept and Noguchi et al. [55], who developed
Toyota-Soken (TS) combustion concept on two-stroke engines in
late 19700 s. The basic idea was to run a 2-stroke engine with lean
fuel-air mixture at part-load. At throttled operation, large quantity
of burnt gas remains trapped in the cylinder during scavenging,
which increases the mean charge temperature to a degree, where
auto-ignition occurs. Onishi also provided an ideal model for ATAC
principle (Fig. 5), which explained basic difference between an ATAC
and SI combustion.
TagedPIn ATAC, fuel was consumed simultaneously at a lower rate and
there was no flame propagation [54]. Noguchi et al. [55] also differ-
entiated the process from classic “run-on” by presenting Schlieren
photography of combustion initiation at multiple sites, away from
the cylinder walls [55]. They referred LTC as a combination of pri-
mary low temperature reactions and secondary combustion reac-
tionDs120X X and identified the role of radicals from previous combustion
cycles in controlling the onset of first stage reactions. It was
observed that formaldehyde (CH2O), hydroperoxyl (HO2), and
atomic oxygen (O) radicals were present and behaved as ignition
kernels for initial stage of TS combustion. Upon formation of signifi-
cant number of hydroxyl (OH) radicals, D12X X combustion reactions com-
menced [55]. In both cases (ATAC and TS), significant fuel savings
were realized, along with mitigation of cycle-to-cycle variability,
which is normally present in 2-stroke SI engines. Several detailed
studies of ATAC combustion followed shortly after Onishi's first pub-
licationD12X X [57
62]. After the pioneering research by Onishi and Nogu-
chi, R&D on 2-stroke gasoline engines culminated inD123X X introduction of
Fig. 5. Onishi
s ideal model for spark ignition and ATAC. The area inside the rectangle
symbolizes total heat released, Q [56] (Courtesy of Dr. Erlandsson).
7
TagedP rst production CAI automotive engine by Honda, the 2-stroke ARC-
fi
250 motorbike engine and this concept was named active radical
(AR) combustion [63,64].
TagedPLTC was first investigated in a 4-stroke engine and named
“CDompression
124X X 125X X
IDgnition 126X X
HDomogeneous D127X X
Charge” (CIHC) by Najt and
Foster [65]. They reiterated that there was lack of a flame front in
CIHC engine and further elaborated on the nature of 2-stage com-
bustion reactions. Similar to Onishi and Noguchi, they also observed
low cyclic variability in 4-stroke engine operations. Thring intro-
duced a new terminology “homogeneous charge compression igni-
tion” (HCCI) in his research paper investigating the effect of external
EGR and air-fuel ratio on HCCI combustion [66]. Since 1990'D128 s, X X HCCI
concept has grown as an attractive research topic worldwide in the
engine community due to prevailing highD129X X fuel prices and stringent
emission regulations worldwide [67
69]. First time, Stockinger
et al. [70] showed a four-cylinder gasoline engine operated by D130X X auto-
ignition in a very limited speed and load range, by employing higher
CRs and preheating of intake air. Olsson et al. [71] demonstrated
heavy-duty gasoline engine (12-litre six-cylinder) with auto-ignition
combustion in late 19900 s. By employing various combinations of
isooctane and heptane through a closed loop control, turbocharging,
high CR, and intake air heating, they achieved auto-ignition over a
wide speed and load range.
19X X TagedPD13X X
Numerous research studies spread over several decades demon-
strated the feasibility and potential of CAI in 4-stroke gasoline
engines however they failed to represent a practical implementation
of auto-ignition combustion concept in a production grade engine.
In order to develop a production viable gasoline auto-ignition com-
bustion engine for vehicular applications, it was necessary to operate
the engine without external charge heating or with extremely high
CRs, or on special fuel blends [51]. Over the last few decades of LTC
research, LTC has been referred to by different names such as Active
Thermo-Atmosphere Combustion (ATAC) [54], Activated Radical
(AR) combustion [63,64], Toyota Soken (TS) Combustion [55], Com-
pression-Ignited Homogeneous Charge (CIHC) Combustion [65],
Homogeneous-Charge Compression-Ignition (HCCI) [66], Controlled
Auto ignition (CAI) [72], Premixed Lean Diesel Combustion (PREDIC)
[73], MULtiple stage DIesel Combustion (MULDIC) [74], Premixed-
Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI) [46], UNIform BUlky combustion
System (UNIBUS) [75], Homogeneous charge intelligent Multiple
Injection Combustion System (HiMICS) [76], Narrow Angle Direct
Injection (NADI) [77], Optimized Kinetic Process (OKP) [78], Pre-
mixed Compression- Ignited (PCI) combustion [79], Modulated
Kinetics (MK) combustion [80], etc. All seemingly different D132X X names
contain description of two fundamental characteristics of the com-
bustion process: (1) premixed fuel-air D13X X mixture, and (2) auto-ignited
combustion. LTC engines exhibit a large diversity in size range and
have been demonstrated successfully in large engines (12-liter six-
cylinder) as well as in very small engines (4.1 cc) [81]. LTC can be
extended to D134X X all kinds of transportation engines ranging from small
motorcycles to large ships. It can also D135X X be used for stationary applica-
tions such as power generation [12].
1.5. Different variations of LTC
TagedPLTC is based on port injection/ fumigation or early/ late direct
D136Xinjection
X of fuel in order to achieve a chemically and physically
homogeneous fuel-air mixture before auto-ignition. LTC cycle was
found to be closer to Otto D137X X D138X X large fraction of the
cycle. During LTC, a
fuel burns in premixed combustion phase and combustion D139X X of homo-
geneous lean mixture takes place throughout the combustion cham-
berD.140X X This unique feature of LTC offers ultra-low NOxD14X X (due to low
in-cylinder temperature) and soot emissions (due to premixed com-
bustion) simultaneously. At higher engine loads, EGR is D142X X used to con-
trol the HRR. This is the fundamental principle of LTC however in
order to overcome numerousD143X X challenges (Section 1.3), this concept
8 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 6. LTC and conventional CI combustion regimes in ’-T space (Adapted from [82]).
TagedPhas been modified with time and several new concepts and strate-
gies similar to LTC have emerged. Difference between different LTC
derivatives has been shown in Fig. 6 [82].
TagedPHCCI combustion is an ideal LTC concept, in which homogeneous
fuel-air mixture is supplied to the combustion chamber however in
other derivatives of LTC such as PCCI or PPC, fuel-air mixture is not
homogeneous. In partially premixed combustion (PPC), fuel is injected
closer to TDC and combustion is controlled by EGR. In PCCI combus-
tion, fuel injection takes place early in the compression stroke, which
leads to premixed fuel-air mixture formation. PPC is therefore an
intermediate technique between PCCI and CI combustion. HECC is
another derivative of LTC in which high EGR reduces NOx4X 1D X emissions
5X41D X
and the use of after-treatment devices controls the emissions.
TagedP1.5.1. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)
TagedPHCCI combustion concept is the most ideal form of LTC in which
homogeneous fuel-air mixture auto-ignites and results in lower NOxD146X X
and soot emissions. HCCI combustion using mineral diesel was
explored by researchers after achieving gasoline fueled LTC, due to
its potential for simultaneous reduction of NOxD147X X and PM [29,34,44].
Khandal et al. [83] presented a D148X X road map of HCCI technology devel-
opment. They showed importance of HCCI combustion by comparing
it with advanced CI engine technologies. Several research groups
started experimental exploration of mineral diesel HCCI in mid-
1990's. For diesel fueled HCCI, main challenge was preparation of
homogeneous fuel-air mixture since mineral diesel hasD149X X extremely
low volatility [41]. To resolve this issue, elevated air temperature
was used to vaporize mineral diesel so that premixed homogeneous
charge can be formed however significant cool combustion chemis-
try of mineral diesel limited use of this technique [67]. During the
compression stroke, when the temperature of diesel-air mixture
exceeded 800 K, rapid auto-ignition inside the combustion chamber
causesD150X X excessive knocking. Therefore, in-cylinder mixture prepara-
tion using early direct injection and late direct injection were
employed for achieving mineral diesel HCCI however poor fuel-air
mixing from these techniques resulted in relatively inferior combus-
tion. For diesel, port fuel injection was found to be the most straight
forward approach to obtain a premixed charge. It was an external
mixture preparation approach, which was based on fumigation of
mineral diesel at elevated temperatures [7]. In this technique, turbu-
lent flow velocities at intake port promoted fuel-air mixing and
resulted in formation of more homogenous charge. Ryan and Calla-
han [67] used port fuel injection for homogeneous charge prepara-
tion. In this technique, an intake air heater was installed upstream of
fuel injector to vaporize D15X X the fuel. In a similar study carried out by
Gray and Ryan [84], three key issues were reported for mineral die-
sel-fueled HCCI. First issue was very premature ignition and knock-
ing at high CRs. Therefore, a suitable range of CR (8 to 13) was
recommended, which can be varied depending on intake air
tTagedP emperature and EGR. Second issue was related to very high intake
air temperature (135 °C-205 °C) to reduce the accumulation of liquid
fuel droplets on the intake manifold surfaces. Third issue was rela-
tively higher unburned HC emissions due to lower CRs, inferior com-
bustion and non-optimal combustion phasing. Control over mineral
diesel fueled HCCI combustion timings and HRR were another main
challenges. Problems associated with design and operational param-
eters related to mineral diesel HCCI were evaluated by Gan et al.
[85]. They reviewed mineral diesel HCCI technology and discussed
various control and performance parameters, which affect HCCI
combustion. They concluded that for long-term development of
mineral diesel HCCI combustion systems and superior mixture for-
mation and control, flexible fuel injection strategies and use of EGR
will be the most critical control approaches. Lu et al. [86] used EGR
and evaluated the effect of EGR on important combustion character-
istics. They reported that combustion phasing retarded with increas-
ing EGR, which resulted in relatively longer combustion duration.
This aspect was further investigated by Nakano et al. [87] using
model analysis. They simulated an EGR controlled HCCI system and
showed excellent control capabilities of EGR. Komninos [88] and
Kamninos and Kosmadakis [89] also performed a multi-zone model
analysis based on heat and mass transfer in HCCI combustion sys-
tem. The multi-zone model included sub-models for heat transfer
between different zones and to the cylinder wall and mass transfer
between hotter and colder regions of the combustion chamber.
TagedPNissan Motor Co. developed the most successful commercial con-
cept, quite close to HCCI called MK system for a 4-stroke direct injec-
tion diesel engine using high CRs [80]. In this combustion concept,
injection timing was retarded and by using EGR, ignition delay (ID)
D152X X
was increased. This means that there should be longer time available
for fuel vaporization and charge mixing. In combination with high
swirl gas motion, premixed combustion phase increased. EGR and
late ignition timings reduced the NOxD153X X formation and soot was sup-
pressed by the high fraction of premixed combustion. In last few
years, approaches such as residual gas trapping and exhaust gas
rebreathing [90] for initiating and controlling CAI have gained popu-
larity, since they appear to offer the best chances of incorporating
CAI combustion in a production grade gasoline engine in short-to-
medium term, and require no radical (expensive) changes to vehicle
or engine architecture [51]. To control HC and CO emissions from
HCCI engine, double fuel injection strategy was used by Canakci and
Reitz [91]. They developed a micro-genetic algorithm based on
intake air temperature, start of injection (SoI) timings, and split
injection parameters for HCCI combustion optimization.
TagedP1.5.2. Premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI)
TagedPTo achieve LTC, light-duty diesel engines were operated in PCCI
mode. PCCI is a promising combustion technique that simulta-
neously reduces both NOxD154X X and PM emissions. PCCI combustion can
be achieved by increasing EGR rate, advancing SoI timings, and
increasing FIP. These modifications lead to a more homogeneous
combustion flame in the engine cylinder as opposed to a stratified
flame that occurs along the fuel spray during conventional mineral
diesel combustion [92]. In PCCI combustion, emissions from the
engine reduce drastically due to homogeneous fuel-air mixture com-
bustion. Despite a lot of research related to PCCI combustion, there
D15X X
are still some aspects, which are not completely understood. Higher
CO and HC emissions along with problems related to high engine
loads are some of these issues, which are yet to be resolved.
TagedPKimura et al. [80] suggested that PCCI combustion is a single-
stage combustion process, similar to premixed phase of conven-
tional diesel combustion however in HCCI combustion, two different
combustion regions of low and high temperature oxidation can be
seen. Compared to HCCI combustion, PCCI combustion results in rel-
atively higher NOxD156X X and soot emissions, however PCCI combustion
offers significantly lower HC and CO emissions compared to HCCI
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPcombustion. Cao et al. [93] evaluated PCCI combustion using experi-
ments and computational modelsD157X X and explored the effect of fuel
injection timings on fuel-air mixing and emissions. They observed
fuelD-rich158X X pockets with late injection timings and reported that these
fuel- rich pockets are useful for triggering auto-ignition and advanc-
ing the combustion phasing. Parks et al. [94] used a light-duty diesel
engine (4-cylinder, 1.7-l Mercedes) for investigating PCCI combus-
tion. Experimental results showed lower NOxD159X X and PM emissions but
relatively higher CO and HC emissions in PCCI combustion. For better
understanding of PCCI combustion, Benajes et al. [95] carried out
experimental and simulation D160X X studies to explain mixing and auto-
ignition processes in PCCI combustion. They used a high speed direct
injection (HSDI) diesel engine with variable EGR, SoI timings, and
fuels (diesel and gasoline). Results showed that addition of gasoline
had highest impact on fuel-air mixing and auto-ignition compared
to any other variable. They also reported that ID D16X X could be increased
by advancing SoI timing, together with high EGR. Both these
extended the time available for fuel-air mixing i.e. the time interval
between end of injection (EoI) and SoC. To solve the basic problem
of PCCI combustion i.e. high CO and HC emissions, Parks et al. [94]
performed PCCI experiments using after-treatment devices. Three
different technologies namely lean NOxD162X X trap (LNT), diesel oxidation
catalyst (DOC), and diesel particulate filter (DPF) were investigated
for PCCI combustion. LNT was studied at various engine loads and
speeds while the engine was operated in PCCI and CI combustion
modes. DOC/ DPF were investigated to determine their effectiveness
in controlling CO and HC emissions from PCCI engine. LNT worked
better with PCCI combustion because lower NOxXD163 X emissions were
further reduced by the catalyst. DOC was particularly effective in
oxidizing higher formaldehyde and acetaldehyde emissions from
PCCI combustion. Due to lower soot formation, DPFs also benefitted
from PCCI combustion because of reduced soot removal require-
ment. PM from PCCI combustion was observed to be significantly
smaller in size but had higher organic solubility. Laguitton et al.
[96] studied the impact of low CR on PCCI combustion under differ-
ent part load conditions. The results showed that reduction in CR
offered similar benefits as retarded fuel injection timings, but noise
increased due to combined premixed and diffusion combustion.
Araki et al. [97] also studied the effects of CR on mineral diesel
fueled PCCI combustion in order to overcome the issues of knocking
under high load conditions and cyclic variations under low-load
conditions. They suggested that the operating range of PCCI engine
could be extended from low loads to high loads by reducing the CR.
However, reduction in CR resulted in relatively higher CO emission
due to relativelyXD164 X inferior combustion efficiency. Several researchers
proposed wall wetting as the main source of higher HC emissions
from PCCI engines [80,93]. To investigate this, PCCI experiments
were performed using narrow cone angle injectors. Kim and Lee
[98] also investigated the effect of narrow fuel spray angle injection
and dual injection strategy on the exhaust emissions from XD165 X a com-
mon-rail diesel engine operating in LTC mode. For achieving LTC,
early fuel injection from a narrow cone angle injector was used
under low CR. In the LTC experimentD,X16 X a dual injection strategy was
found to be very effective for NOxD167X X emission reduction, while the XD168 X
combustion efficiency reduced (Fig. XD169 X 7). This strategy consisted of an
advanced first injection for PCCI combustion and a retarded second
injection.
TagedPKanda et al. [99] used a conventional wide angle injector to inject
the fuel very close to TDC in a re-entrant type combustion chamber
and compared the results with PCCI combustion in shallow dish type
combustion chamber using NADI. In these studies, they found lower
NOxD170X X emissions by using NADI. However, the problem of fuel adher-
ing (spray impingement on D17X X piston bowl) to the surface of piston
bowl resulted in relatively higher HC and CO emissions and limitedD172X X
the use of this technique. However, with wide angle injectors and
injection timing set close to TDC, they were able to alleviate this
9
Fig. 7. Effect of injection timings on NOxD1X X emissions in PCCI engine (Reprinted from
[98] with permission of Elsevier).
Fig. 8. Different combustion chambers used for conventional and NADI injectors
(Reprinted from [99] with permission of SAE).
iTagedP ssue and attained lower emissions along with improved combustion
stability (Fig. 8).
TagedPMurata et al. [100] analyzed the effect of variations in valve tim-
ings on NOxD173X e X missions. They used late IVC to reduce the temperature
inside the combustion chamber, which in-turn increased the ID D174X X and
provided more time for pre-mixing of fuel and air. Combined effect
of pre-mixing and lower in-cylinder temperature resulted in lower
soot and NOxD175X X emissions. Jia et al. [101,102] performed a 3-dimen-
sional full engine cycle CFD simulation to analyze the effect of IVC
and SoI timing on performance and emissions from PCCI combus-
tion. They controlled ignition timings by controlling IVC timings and
SoI timings. They suggested that late IVC coupled with optimized SoI
resulted in significantly lower NOxD176X Xemissions. However, too early SoI
led to wall wetting issues and retarded SoI resulted in improper mix-
ing leading toD17X sX ignificantly higher CO and HC emissions Fig. D178X X 9.
TagedPSu and Yu [103] investigated the effect of different control
parameters such as boost pressure, EGR etc. on engine's thermal effi-
ciency and emissions. D179X X They observed that gross indicated thermal
efficiency (ITE) increased with increasing boost D180X X pressure. In addition
to experiments, various mathematical models were developed to
depict the effect of injection parameters on LTC. An extension of pre-
viously stated work of Jia et al. [101] was performed D18X X by Alstine et al.
[104]. They developed a simple, control oriented analytical model,
which enabled them to predict SoC timings for PCCI engine with
advanced fuel injection system. Desantes et al. [105] developed
chemical kinetics software to simulate standard mineral diesel as
well as low temperature combustion. D182X X They predicted thermal NOxD183X X
formation in the engine by D184X X considering inputs such as reaction tem-
perature (both initial and final), mixture fraction and oxygen mass
fraction etc. Detailed study of injection parameters, effect of EGR
and fuel spray impingement on emission characteristics was per-
formed by Kiplimo et al. [106]. They suggested that an increase
in fuel injection pressure (FIP) resulted in lower HC, PM and NOxD185X X
emissions. However, CO emissions did not show significant D186X X varia-
tions with changing FIP. Ogawa et al. [107] studied the effect of fuel
injection parameters on thermal efficiency of PCCI diesel engines.
They found relatively higher (»3%) variations in indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP) at higher FIP.
10 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 9. Variations in HC, CO, NOxD2X aX nd soot emissions from PCCI combustion (Reprinted from [101] with permission of Elsevier).
TagedP1.5.3. Partially premixed combustion (PPC)
TagedPIn CI engines, intermediate HCCI concept is known as partially
premixed combustion (PPC). When operating an engine in PPC
mode, ID D187X X depends on the SoI timing. Long ID D18X X leads to greater degree
of premixed charge, which shifts emission characteristics closer to
HCCI than a CI engine [108]. EGR can be used to reduce the tempera-
ture of the charge. When fuel is injected closer to TDC, lower tem-
perature and higher specific heat of the gas causes an increase in ID
so that the fuel, air and burned gases have enough time for mixing.
This leads to reduced NOxD190X X and PM D19X X emissions. However, LTC leads to
reduction in combustion efficiency, and higher emissions of UHC
and CO. Compared to HCCI, PPC offers better control over combus-
tion since combustion phasing is controlled by the SoI timing D192X X
[108,109]. Fridriksson et al. [110] investigated PPC combustion
experimentally and carried out a CFD analysis for its performance
and emission characterization. A commercial CFD code AVL FIRE was
used for evaluation of engine performance and emissions for differ-
ent percentage of heat rejection. Engine performance was measured
in terms of specific fuel consumption and estimated power output,
while the calculated net soot and accumulated NOxD193X X were used for
comparing the emission levels. Results showed better performance
in conventional CI combustion mode however PPC mode of combus-
tion was found to be superior in terms of emissions. Zhang et al.
[111] investigated the partially premixed compression ignition
(PPCI) mode of combustion using blends of gasoline and mineral
diesel (dieseline). PPCI combustion was achieved using different
injection timings and different EGR D194X X rates. Dieseline fueled PPCI
D195X X
combustion resulted in »95% reduction in smoke and NOxD196X X emission
D197Xcompared X to conventional CID198X X combustion. Total particle number con-
centration reduced by »90% and the mean particulate diameter
reduced from 54 nm for conventional mineral diesel to 16 nm for
G50 fueled PPCI. Lewander et al. [112,113] carried out experiments
for determining the operating region of single injection PPC for
three different fuels; dDiesel, 19X X low octane gasoline with similar charac-
teristics as diesel, and higher octane standard gasoline. High octane
fuel was found to be superior for D20X X PPC combustion because it gave
longer IDD201X X which extended the operating region of single injection
PPC significantly.
TagedP1.5.4. Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI)
TagedPAfter extensive
D20X X D203X X
research on LTC, researchers demonstrated an
advanced LTC technique namely reactivity controlled compression
ignition (RCCI) combustion, which seems to be more promising com-
pared to HCCI and PPC. In RCCI combustion, high-reactivity fuels
such as diesel, dimethyl ether (DME), etc. are used to control the
ignition and combustion of low-reactivity fuels such as gasoline, eth-
anol, methanol, butanol, etc. RCCI combustion can be considered as a
PPC strategy based on dual-fuel operation. To achieve RCCI combus-
tion, high-reactivity fuel is directly injected into the cylinderD,204X X and
TagedPlow-reactivity fuel is supplied to the intake manifold [114,115]. RCCI
combustion results in relatively higher brake thermal efficiency
(BTE) compared to HCCI combustion and other derivatives of LTC,
while maintaining relatively lower NOxD205X a X nd PM emissions [116].
TagedPFor improving RCCI combustion, researchers investigated differ-
ent parameters including EGR levels, swirl intensity levels of intake
charge, FIP, SoI timings and number of injections for both DI injec-
D189X X tors and PFI injectors. Walker et al. [117] investigated the effect of
direct FIPD206X o X n RCCI and reported that combustion phasing was signifi-
cantly affected by FIP of the primary fuel. Hanson and Reitz [118]
carried out RCCI experiments using mineral diesel as the primary
fuel and gasoline as the secondary fuel. During transient conditions,
they observed that approximately 80 cycles were required to
achieve steady load conditions in RCCI combustion. Curran et al.
[119] also carried out similar experiments using diesel/ gasoline
combination to achieve RCCI combustion and reported that NOxD207X Xand
PM emissions decreased by more than 90%. Ma et al. [120] investi-
gated the effect of SoI timings on gasoline (port)
diesel (in-cylinder)
dual-fuel RCCI engine performance and emission characteristics and
reported that early pilot injection timings resulted in improved ISFC
with significantly lower NOxD208X a X nd soot emissions.
TagedPSeveral researchers have proposed that RCCI combustion
can be easily achieved by using alternative fuels. Various low reac-
tivity fuels, including natural gas [121
125], methanol/ ethanol
[114,126
131] and butanol [132
136], have been studied to explore
their effects on load extension in RCCI combustion. A D209X X common con-
clusion is that stable and extended RCCI operation can be achieved
with these low reactivity alternative fuels. Alcohols have shown
D210X X
good prospects for application in RCCI because of their higher latent
heat of vaporization and lower reactivity. Park et al. [137] compared
the effect of secondary fuel on RCCI combustion and reported that
port injection of bioethanol led to longer IDD21X X compared to gasoline,
which resulted in higher IMEP. They also reported that increasing
premixed ratio (rp) for bioethanol caused greater increase in HC and
CO emissions compared to gasoline. Hanson et al. [138] investigated
RCCI combustion on a light-duty, multi-cylinder diesel engine fueled
by E20 (20% ethanol blended with mineral diesel) as secondary fuel.
They reported that ethanol developed an increased reactivity gradi-
ent due to its relatively lower reactivity compared to gasoline, which
led to lower RoPR. Due to lower auto-ignition tendency of ethanol,
E20 resulted in a relatively higher peak load compared to gasoline.
Splitter et al. [139] performed RCCI experiments using E85-diesel
blend and reported »56% gross ITE. Park and Yoon [140] investigated
the performance and emission characteristics of RCCI combustion
using diesel-biogas and diesel-gasoline combinations. They reported
that IMEP increased upon increasing rp with very early in-cylinder
injection timing. Increasing rp resulted in a longer IDD,21X X which led to
retarded combustion phasing (CA50). This resulted in ultra-low NOxD213X X
and soot emissions as well as the reduced total particle number
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 10. HECC operating regime in ’-T space (Adapted from [149]).
TagedPemissions. Qian et al. [132] carried out RCCI combustion investiga-
tions in a single-cylinder engine to investigate the performance and
emission characteristics of RCCI combustion. They used n-heptane
as primary fuel combined with ethanol, n-butanol and n-amyl alco-
hol as secondary fuels. They found that soot emissions decreased sig-
nificantly with increasing rp at constant overall lower heating value
(LHV) per cycle, however NOxD214X X emissions first increased and then
decreased. At a constant rp, increasing overall LHVD215X p X er-cycle resulted
in higher NOxD216X X and soot emissions. Combustion characteristics of
different secondary fuels showed that the ID D217X X of ethanol RCCI was
slightly longer compared to n-butanol and n-amyl alcohol. This was
mainly due to the retarded combustion phasing of ethanol at higher
rp. These results indicated that alcohols have a great potential to D218X X be
utilized in RCCI combustion due to their higher latent heat of vapori-
zation and higher molecular oxygen. Isik and Aydin [141] carried out
RCCI combustion experimentD219X X in a constant speed engine using
blends of mineral diesel and biodiesel as primary fuel (high reactiv-
ity fuel) and ethanol as secondary fuel (low reactivity fuel). They
reported that addition of ethanol improved the engine combustion
characteristics and resulted in significantly lower NOxD20X X emissions at
D21X X cost of slightly higher HC and CO emissions.
the
TagedPSeveral researchers carried out computational investigations to
explore the RCCI combustion characteristics using different numeri-
cal methods. Nieman et al. [121] used the CFD software KIVA3V and
the chemical kinetics analysis tools of CHEMKIN to investigate the
Fig. 11. (a). Particulate-NOxD3X Xemissions trade-off for conventional and LTC (Adapted from [151]) (b). Composite emission indices for HECC under different conditions (Reprinted
from [150] with permission of SAE).
11
R TagedP CCI combustion fueled by diesel/ CNG dual fuel. They reported that
up to medium engine loads, RCCI combustion could be achieved
without EGR, which resulted in higher thermal efficiency however
exhaust emissions did not increase significantly. Kokjohn and Reitz
[142] carried out a CFD study to investigate the effect of rp on com-
bustion characteristics of RCCI combustion and reported that rp can
be varied in between 0.75 and 0.85 to avoid the excessive RoPR and
combustion stability. At rp higher than 0.86, BTE decreased signifi-
cantly due to inferior combustion and at rp less than 0.75, higher
RoPR resulted in excessive noise.
TagedPAlthough RCCI has shown advantages compared to other com-
bustion concepts, there are obstacles D2X X that need to be resolved. One
of the major issues is high load extension, which is mainly restricted
by either an excessive RoPR or by NOx/D23X X soot emissions. Increasing rp
D24X X
could resolve this issue partly however too high rp resulted in gaso-
line-like HCCI combustion but was restricted by higher RoPR
[120,139,143
147]. Several researchers proposed that RCCI opera-
tion could D25X X be extended by enhancing the in-cylinder mixture stratifi-
cation, which can be achieved by injection strategy and system
optimization. Lim and Reitz [148] utilized a second gasoline DI injec-
tor in addition to mineral D26X X 27X X
diesel DI injector to inDduce stronger mix-
ture stratification, in order to extend the upper load limit.
TagedP1.5.5. High efficiency clean combustion (HECC)
TagedPHigh efficiency clean combustion (HECC) is another new modi-
fied methodology for LTCD.28X X Park and Reitz [149] reported that HECC
results in high combustion efficiency (» 100%) and near zero NOxD29X X
and soot emissions. They varied equivalence ratio, inlet temperature,
IVC timing, engine speed and fuel quantity with an assumption of
ideal homogeneous charge. They identified low emission regions in
an equivalence ratio-peak cycle temperature map (Fig. 10). They
reported that the low emission region was on the relatively leaner
side of the stoichiometric equivalence ratio, when combustion tem-
perature generated by charge was in range of 1500
2000 K. In this
range, lower temperature limit ensured complete oxidation of CO
into CO2D230X X and the upper temperature limit ensured minimum NOxD231X X
formation. They suggested that low emissions could also be achieved
at reduced EGR levels by retarding the IVC timing, and the low emis-
sion window moved towards higher temperatures as engine speed
D23Xincreased.
X
TagedPFig. 11(a) shows the potential of LTC to replace conventional CI
combustion using two specific forms of LTC namely high-dilution
combustion (HDC) and HECC [150,151]. HDC is typically achieved by
using a high level of EGR to delay ignition and allowD23X X more time for
fuel
air mixing prior to combustion. Sluder and Wagner [150]
reported that HECC can be achieved by using a combination of high
EGR and modified fuel injection strategy. They investigated this
12 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPnovel concept with a modified Mercedes 1.7-liter direct-injection,
common-rail diesel engine. They modified high pressure EGR system
and connected an EGR cooler and a catalyzed diesel particulate filter
(CDPF) in the EGR loop. Using this modified system, they observed a
significant reduction in NOxD234X X and PM mass emissions however CO,
HC, and HCHO emissions increased significantly (Fig. 11(b)), which
reinforcesD235X X the need D236X X of using after-treatment devices to control
D237X X
emissions. Comparison of performance results showed that engine
BTE in HECC combustion mode was equivalent to that of baseline
engine with CR of 19.5.
TagedPWagner et al. [151] suggested two strategies for simultaneous
reduction of NOxD238X X and PM emissions under lean conditions. These
strategies were implemented at different engine loads, ranging from
low to moderate loads. The first strategy was based on EGR rate, in
which, they tested maximum EGR rate for each load condition. The
second strategy was based on combination of EGR and injection
parameters. They implemented both strategies and observed a sig-
nificant reduction in total particle number concentration and
D239X X
particulate size, which eventually reduced total PM mass. This
reduction in PM mass was associated with a small fuel penalty due
to high EGR. Parks et al. [94] carried out experimentD240X X to investigate
emission characteristics of HECC system with different NOxD241X Xtrap cat-
alysts. In the experimentD,24X X ultra-low NOxD243X w X as observed from the com-
bination of HECC combustion and LNT after-treatment at low
temperatureD24X X conditions. They also reported that CO and HC emis-
sions from HECC were controlled by LNT at higher temperature how-
ever LNT failed to do so at lower temperature. Gao et al. [108]
simulated NOxD245X X and PM generation in HECC system using two-zone
phenomenological model to improve fuel economy and emission
reduction. They also calibrated global reaction mechanism with
experimental pressure measurements and obtained corresponding
predictions for the trajectories in equivalence ratio, temperature,
and oxygen coordinates.
TagedP1.5.6. Spark assisted LTC
TagedPThere are several technical challenges associated with LTC and the
control over SoC is the most difficult X462D X one among them. Applicability
window of LTC is another challenge which is severely limited by
high combustion rates at higher loads and misfire at lower loads. The
load range can be extended when the in-cylinder temperature is too
low to maintain a reasonable combustion phasing with use of some
advanced techniques such as spark ignition or laser plasma ignition.
Spark assistance is one of the ways of increasing the temperature of
the charge during engine operating conditions that normally results
in partial or total misfire. Combustion phasing is influenced by the
total fuel quantity supplied to the engine hence X472D X the combustion
phasing is affected by load variations. Due to charge dilution by
residual gases, flame propagation becomes slower than conventional 8X24D X
SI engine. However, the flame propagation increases temperature
and pressure of unburned gas which improves conditions for auto-
ignition, resulting in advanced HCCI combustion phasing. Thus apply-
ing spark ignition to CAI combustion at low loads, combustion phas-
ing can be advanced with resulting increase in efficiency, or even
prevention of misfire. This concept is called spark assisted compres-
sion ignition (SACI). In SACI concept, the discharge of a spark fired
such as in an SI engine creates a flame front, which propagates
throughD9X42 X the combustion chamber. The SACI has been widely used to
expand the high load limit of LTC. Xie et al. [152] performed experi-
mentDX502 X using this concept and found that the load of SACI combustion
can be controlled by positive valve overlap (PVO) and external
exhaust gas recirculation (eEGR). SACI combustion was found to be
significantly affected by combustion timing under stoichiometric
conditions. Within the acceptable combustion stability range, small
PVO combined with high eEGR gives better fuel economy at constant
load conditions. The experiments also revealed the fact that using
optimized PVO strategy, stable SACI combustion is achieved in a
TagedPwider load range, with significant improvementDX512 X in X52D X fuel economy,
pumping loss and NOx3X52D X emissions. According to Wang et al. [153]
SACI combustion mode can be applied in medium-high load region in 4X25D X
high efficiency gasoline engines. In the experiments, they found that
SACI is a combustion mode combining partly flame propagation and
mainly auto-ignition. SACI has combustion characteristics comprising
of two-stage heat release and lower pressure rise rate. Hyvo € nen et al.
[154] used a modified VCR engine for investigating spark assisted
HCCI combustion and compared it with baseline HCCI combustion.
Combustion phasing was controlled by varying the CR. They mainly
emphasized on intermediate engine cycles during mode switching,
and experienced higher fluctuations in lean combustion mode.
Higher intake air temperature increased coefficient of variation
(COV) for intermediate cycles. Lower CR was reported to be the main
reason for ultra-low NOx5X D2 X and PM emissions from mineral diesel
fueled HCCI combustion. Zigler et al. [155] focused on describing and
explaining the spark-assisted homogeneous charge compression
ignition phenomena in a single-cylinder research engine and also on
understanding the role and effects of engine load on performance of
SACI combustion mode. The ignition system was successful in reduc-
ing NOxX56D2 Xand PM emissions simultaneously; however the issue of per-
sistent spark plug fouling due to short-circuiting caused by injected
liquid fuel could not be resolved. This behavior of fuel (mineral die-
sel) was due to its very low volatility which required high latent
heat to be available for complete evaporation of fuel spray droplets.
Insufficient latent heat was available in the combustion chamber
due to lower CR of the engine, which was unable to evaporate diesel
droplets at the time of spark and presence of liquid diesel film 7X25D X on
the spark plug at the time of high voltage spark led to its short-
circuiting. Enright et al. [156] optimized spark timings for both
2-stroke and 4-stroke engines for direct injection of diesel.
TagedPPersson et al. [157,158] investigated influence of spark
D258X X in a single
cylinder engine with optical access. They monitored the combustion
by in-cylinder pressure data and captured the high speed chemilu-
minescence images. They also explored the effect of negative valve
overlap (NVO) under different experimental conditions. Large NVO
and thus application of high residual fractions showed growing SI
flame that interacted and governed subsequent HCCI combustion.
Hyvonen [154] reported SACI combustion as a combination of SI and
HCCI combustion, in which initial slow heat release (ISHR) repre-
sented quantitative measure of SI combustion fraction. The HRR was
slow during initial flame propagation and relatively faster during
auto ignition in SACI combustion. Therefore iDt259X X was possible to
estimate how much of heat release was due to flame propagation.
Mathematically they formulated this term as:
Qthreshold
ISHR D ¢ 100½%
Q max
Where Qthreshold was the breakpoint, where the combustion changed
from flame propagation to auto ignition and Qmax was the maximum
accumulated heat released in the cycle. An accumulated heat release
trace for a spark assisted HCCI cycle can be seen in Fig. 12, where the
difference between slow and fast heat release is clearly visualized.
TagedPIn these two cases, a flame front develops from the ignition
source, which causes a temperature increase in yet D260X X unburned gas,
which eventually ignites at several locations simultaneously, and
HCCI combustion starts. Advancement in combustion phasing can
thus be achieved with improved D261X X efficiency and decreased cyclic var-
iations. Dahms et al. [159] investigated characteristics of spark
assisted HCCI system and analyzed combustion process by modeling
as well as experimentD.26X X They also reported mixed mode combustion
similar to Hyvonen [154].
TagedPBunting [160] also performed spark assisted HCCI experimentD263X X in
port fueled single cylinder engine. In the experimentD,264X X early closing of
exhaust valve was used to retain exhaust gas in the cylinder which
increased the temperature and pressure for subsequent compression
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 12. Heat release trace for a spark assisted HCCI cycle with slow flame propagation
and faster auto ignition [154] (Courtesy of Dr. Hyvo€ nen).
TagedPand combustion processes. In the experimentD,265X X they used different
fuel compositions to analyze its effect on HCCI operation and
D26Xreported
X improved combustion, performance and emission charac-
teristics with higher motor octane number (MON) fuels. To investi-
gate combustion stability, Daw et al. [161] and Glewena et al. [162]
performed spark assisted HCCI experiments and analyzed cyclic var-
iability. They reported that without a spark-induced primary com-
bustion process, the auto-ignition timing significantly retarded
beyond optimal engine operating conditions, which led D267X X to reduced
engine efficiency and higher emissions D268X X Fig. 13.
TagedP1.5.7. Laser assisted LTC
TagedPAn alternative to spark ignition is laser ignition, where a laser can
be used to ignite the charge and initiate flame propagation instead
of a spark plug. A short laser pulse is focused in a small volume of
fuel-air mixture, which results in a non-resonant breakdown of the
gas, similar to the one resulting from an electrical spark discharge, in
the focal region, followed by formation of hot & dense plasma [163].
After a short ID, D269X X flame propagates through the combustion chamber
like in a SI engine. In SI engines, cycle-to-cycle variations occur due
to heat loss to the spark plug electrodes, which make the ignitability
of charge in the electrode gap sensitive to local air/ fuel equivalence
ratio. This is not the case for laser ignition, where the plasma is
located well inside the charge, since no heat losses occur to the
€ nen).
Fig. 13. Mixed mode combustion analysis [154] (Courtesy of Dr. Hyvo
13
TagedPadjoining hardware of the engine. As a result, ignition process is far
more effective, resulting in shorter ID. D270X X Furthermore, multiple igni-
tion points can be used and focused in arbitrary D271X X locations inside the
combustion chamber since it is just an issue of optical arrangement.
High laser pulse energy resultsD27X X in plasma formation with signifi-
cantly higher temperature and pressure compared to plasma forma-
tion during the electrical spark ignition. Researchers have also
reported that laser ignition resultsD273X Xin relatively lower EGT compared
D274X X engines [163]. This was mainly because laser ignition can ignite
to SI
relatively leaner fuel-air mixtures, leading D275X X to lower peak in-cylinder
temperature, hence lower EGT, and NOxD276X X formation, which strongly
depends of peak in-cylinder temperature. Therefore lower EGR is
sufficient in case of laser assisted HCCI in order to control NOxD27X Xemis-
sions. Laser ignition is also known to be appropriate, when ignition
at high pressure is needed, since the plasma will ignite more of the
charge enclosed in a reference volume due to its higher energy den-
sity. Under these circumstances, the spark from a spark plug can be
quenched due to high pressure. The downside of D278X X laser ignition is its D279X X
cost. The spark plug is cheap and reliable while the laser components
are costly and optical access into the engine is difficult [164]. Laser
assisted LTC concept is based on the fact that most LTC engines are
operated with high EGR rates in order to slow-down rapid combus-
tion (auto-ignition), which gets completed within few CAD closer to
the TDC towards D280X X the end of the compression stroke/ early expansion
stroke. Kopecek et al. [165] investigated laser HCCI and generated
plasma to assist HCCI combustion thereby gaining some control over
the HCCI combustion. It was also reported that laser plasma could
sustain HCCI combustion even at much lower inlet air temperature
(Ti), compared to normal HCCI operation [165].
TagedPWeinrotter et al. [166] performedD281X X a comparative experimental
study for D28X X laser-assisted HCCI vs. spark plug-assisted HCCI combus-
tion. In the experimentD,283X X a mixture of 80% isooctane and 20% n-hep-
tane was used as test fuel. No significant improvement in overall
engine performance was observed due to large cyclic variations in
the spark/ laser assisted modes. Srivastava et al. [167] also investi-
gated a novel system to control the SoC using laser ignition. Auto-
ignition conditions were locally attained in aD284X X constant volume com-
bustion chamber under simulated EGR conditions and laser pulse
was used as a source of energy for ignition. They found that number
of laser pulses required for ignition of combustible mixture
decreased with increasing laser pulse energy. Herdin et al. [168]
investigated HCCI concept and found that controlling SoC D285X X was the
biggest challenge for HCCI. They also suggested laser-assisted HCCI
as a potential solution. In this concept, charge is brought near D286X X D287X X
the
point of D28X X self-ignition and combustion is D289X X then initiated at the desired
point of time by a laser pulse, thus gaining D290X X superior control over the
SoC.
2. Homogeneous charge preparation for LTC
TagedPCharge preparation i.e. mixing of fuel and air is a very important
feature of IC engines. The combustion process and its control are
D291Xdependent
X on quality of mixture and the technique employed for
charge preparation. One of the major challenges of LTC is to prepare
the premixed charge (highly diluted fuel-air mixture to give reason-
able burn rates) before auto-ignition temperature is attained and
combustion starts in the combustion chamber. In LTC engine, effec-
tive mixture preparation technique is required for achieving high
efficiency, low HC and PM emissions, and preventing lubricating oil
dilution. There are several techniques employed for charge prepara-
tion in LTC engines, depending on test fuel properties and control
strategies being used. In LTC engines, charge preparation techniques
can be divided into three main categories including external charge
preparation using port fuel injection (PFI), internal charge prepara-
tion (using in-cylinder direct injection) and concepts using both
D29X X
charge preparation techniques (dual-fuel mode). These strategies
14 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPdiffer from each other in terms of time available for fuel-air mixing
and in degree of mixture homogeneity, which is achieved at the
time of SoC [169].
2.1. External charge preparation
TagedPExternal charge preparation is one of the first concepts used for
achieving LTC. External charge preparation was done in two ways
namely; (i) port fuel injections, and (ii) using external mixing device.
Both techniques are elaborated in the following sub-sections.
TagedP2.1.1. Port fuel injection
TagedPIn PFID
D293X X 294X X system, fuel is introduced into the intake manifold,
upstream of the intake valve and fuel-air mixture gets homogenized
during the intake and compression strokes. Turbulence created by
the intake flow further improves D295X X the mixture homogenietyD296X X [170].
PFI system is a cheap and simple method for generating homoge-
neous fuel-air mixture [171]. This method delivers superior homoge-
nized fuel-air mixture compared to any other alternativeD,297X X since more
time is available for mixture preparation [172]. Fuel is injected very
early in the intake manifold and mixture homogenization takes
place much before the start of auto-ignition, therefore fuel injection
timing cannot be used to control the combustion phasing. This
method is quite suitable for inducting gaseous and highly volatiliteD298X X
liquid fuels such as gasoline. However, in case of low volatility fuels
such as mineral diesel, PFI D29X X results in poor fuel evaporation, inhomo-
geneous mixture formation as well as increased wall impingement
of the fuel spray droplets, leading to high HC and CO emissions,
higher fuel consumption and lubricating oil dilution [84,170,173].
PFI can possibly achieve lowest NOx and PM emissions by producing
most homogeneous fuel-air mixtures. However, PFI engines may
produce relatively higher HC and CO emissions. Port injected gaso-
line HCCI has limitations at very low loads, when the combustion
temperature falls under a critical value (1400
1500 K) and large
amount of HC and CO are formed, which reduce the combustion effi-
ciency [174]. Another drawback in PFI system is due to the wall film
formed inD30X X the intake manifold, which reacts rather slowly to engine
transients and could possibly obstruct the combustion control, when
VVT is used [49]. Several studies of HCCI combustion using gasoline
or gasoline like fuels have been conducted using PFID.301X X Generally, an
electronically controlled solenoid gasoline injector was used, and in
some cases, two injectors injecting two different fuels were used
[69,175]. Some initial experiments also explored using port injection
of mineral diesel using PFI system [67,69]. Higher boiling range of
mineral diesel resulted in poor evaporation of the fuel and non-
evaporated fuel adhered to the intake system and the combustion
chamber walls. Raising the air intake temperature reduced the fuel
wall-film in the intake system and reducedD302X X consequently reduced HC
emissions; however, they still remained on the higher side [69].
Increased intake air temperature however advanced the combustion
timing and reduced the power density of HCCI engine further. Some
Fig. 14. Summary of single fuel injection timing on combustion phasing (Reprinted from [51] with permission of Woodhead Publishing Ltd.).
sTagedP tudies utilized high pressure fuel injectors such as GDI injectors
operating at 5 MPa FIP [176,177], pintle nozzle injectors operating at
12 MPa FIP [178] etc. to prepare the homogenous charge.
TagedP2.1.2. External charge preparation using fuel vaporizer/ mixing device
TagedPDiesel HCCI combustion concept faces significant challenge of
design and integration of a fuel delivery system, which is expected
D30X X
to facilitate adequate charge homogenization for diesel. To achieve a
homogeneous mixture in diesel engines, two concepts namely inter-
nal mixture formation and external mixture formation have D304X X been
investigated. In the external mixture formation approach, homoge-
neous mixture could be achieved by injecting the fuel into the induc-
tion system [179
184]. The main challenge is to control fuel
injection system and charge temperature in order to completely
vaporize the fuel before it is inducted into the cylinder [185]. Several
approaches have been explored, such D305X X as using air-assisted injectors
[186] or high-pressure injectors [187]. In the air-assisted injection
system, fuel is injected using port fuel injector inside an air-assisted
cap, where it mixes with the atomizing air supplied externally.
Another method of external mixture preparation may be external
mixture preparation devices such as fuel vaporizer or fuel atomizer
[179
184]. Fuel vapors emitted from the fuel vaporizer form a very
light and dispersed aerosol, where due to small D306X X size, fuel droplets
lose their momentum at a short distance downstream of the nozzle
(no wall targeting) and follow the intake air motion very well. The
droplets have very fast evaporation due to very high surface to vol-
ume ratio, and disperse uniformly in the surrounding air stream. All
properties of this “gas-like”D
D307X X 308X X aerosol create a highly dispersed homo-
geneous mixture, minimal wall-wetting and very fast evaporation
during the compression stroke [181].
2.2. In-Cylinder charge preparation
TagedPIn this method, fuel is directly injected into the cylinder. Two
possible strategies for premixed charge preparation in direct injec-
tion are (i) early direct injection and (ii) late direct injection. The
main criterion for fuel injection strategy in these methods of pre-
mixed charge preparation is the end of fuel injection before auto-
ignition starts. Although port fuel injection works for gasoline-HCCI,
various studies revealed the advantages of using a GDI system
[51,174,188
192]. The possibility of stratifying the fuel-air mixture
with late direct-injection increases local in-cylinder temperature.
This resulted in lower HC and CO emissions hence increased com-
bustion efficiency at lower loads. Direct fuel injection also offers a
limited possibility of phasing the combustion timing using injection
timing [5,193]. Fig. 14 shows a control diagram for combustion phas-
ing by SoI timing in a lean-burn CAI DI gasoline engine. Variations in
SoI timings can control combustion phasing by governing thermal/
chemical effects caused by early injection during the NVO period, or
cooling effect of fuel-air mixture during the intake stroke, or fuel
stratification effect of late injection in the compression stroke [51].
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPDirect injection into the combustion chamber has been used for
current diesel engines in order to eliminate the need for elevated
intake temperature by addressing the vaporization problem encoun-
tered in port injected systems [85].
TagedPAn important task of direct injection strategy is to avoid fuel
adhering or condensing onto the cylinder walls. An important
parameter is to control the fuel penetration length, with D309X X an objective
to avoid any contact of liquid fuel droplets with cylinder walls. D310X X
Direct-injected diesel HCCI can be achieved by (i) early direct injec-
tion and (ii) late direct injection.
TagedP2.2.1. Early direct injection
TagedPThis method of fuel injection is called early direct injection
because the fuel is not injected towards the end of the compression
stroke, as is the case with CIDI engine, but is instead injected early
(well ahead of TDC) during the compression stroke [3]. During early
injection, lower mean gas temperature and density in the cylinder
reduces fuel vaporization rate and enhances fuel spray penetration
length. On the other hand, “later” early injection timing means rela-
tively higher gas densities and eventually vaporizing conditions,
which lower the jet penetration length and reduce the risk of wall
wetting [194]. Also, the rate of entraining gas mass into the spray is
higher for late injection timings, which create a leaner spray that
mixes faster leading to globally lean conditions [195]. These condi-
tions are illustrated with respect to in-cylinder gas density and tem-
perature in Fig. 15.
TagedPEarly direct injection offers three advantages compared to fuel
premixing in the intake manifold [51]: (1) Direct in-cylinder injec-
tion offers better fuel-air mixing, which is improved by higher tur-
bulence generated during the compression stroke [196]. Higher in-
cylinder temperature, densities and turbulence help in fuel vaporiza-
tion and promote mixing. (2) Use of narrow cone angle injector
reduces wall wetting tendency, which improves combustion effi-
ciency and reduces lubricating oil dilution [178]; and (3) Using early
direct injection, HCCI-CI mode switching can be achieved by a single
fuel injection system. Transition between HCCI and CI modes can be
achieved by varying the injection parameters such as SoI timings,
FIP etc. However, since early injection is performed in a low density
ambient environment, avoiding fuel impingement and cylinder wall
wetting could prove to be a major challenge, which might require
re-designing of either the fuel injection system itself (which presents
stability issues at low injection pressures) or the geometrical
arrangement [172]. If wall wetting can be avoided, an effective
reduction in unburned hydrocarbon emissions is obtained and fuel
efficiency increases [178,197].
TagedPDifferent strategies have been tested for early direct injection
fuel-air mixture formation in HCCI engines. These strategies can
Fig. 15. In-cylinder gas density and temperature with late and early direct injection
regimes [194] (Courtesy of Dr. Wahlin F).
15
rTagedP oughly be divided in impinging sprays [73,79,198], hollow cone
sprays [199,200], and ordinary mineral diesel sprays
often in com-
bination with a narrow included angle and/ or multiple injections
[201
204]. Several different diesel HCCI combustion concepts have
used early direct injection, utilizing one or more injectors and single
or multiple injections. The most important systems of this type are
PREDIC, MULDIC, HiMICS, PPCI, UNIBUS and NADI.
TagedP2.2.2. Late direct injection
TagedPOne of the most successful system achieving diesel fueled HCCI
engines is the late direct injection. DI-HCCI technique known as MK,
was developed by Nissan Motor Company in 1998. This combustion
system is currently used for lower loads and speeds only [205]. In
this concept, fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber
near or after TDC, but the IDD31X X is extended through the use of large
amount of cooled EGR, a reduction in engine CR, and vigorous swirl.
The net result is that the combustion reactions begin well after the
end of injection, and a diffusion-limited combustion jet is not estab-
lished. Late in-cylinder injection of mineral diesel appears to avoid
most problems associated with fuel wall impingement and provides
some control on combustion phasing, but short IDD312X X of diesel limits
this approach to low engine loads [7]. The MK-combustion mode is
functional at part loads however the load range can be increased by
increasing the IDD31X X by employing lower CRs and cooled EGR. Applying
a large diameter combustion chamber bowl reduces HC emissions
during cold-start, presumably due to lower wall-impingement of
the fuel spray. A higher FIP is effective in reducing NOxD314X X and PM
emissions from MK combustion D315[80]. XX Miles et al. [206] examined
late direct injection strategy and found that although longer IDD316X X
promoted formation of a more uniform mixture, it was still far
from homogeneous. It was suggested that the initial part of com-
bustion was dominated by chemical kinetics and a significant por-
tion of the mixture was fuel-rich. Subsequent part was mixing-
controlled combustion-similar to normal CID317X X operation. The “homo-
geneous charge late injection” (HCLI) and the “highly premixed
late injection” (HPLI) are the other diesel HCCI combustion con-
cepts based on late direct injection [207,208]. HCLI combustion is
used at low loads, HPLI combustion is used at medium loads, and
high loads could be achieved by conventional DIDCI 318X X combustion
mode.
3. Fuel requirement in LTC engines and fuel management
TagedPAn engine can be operated in LTC mode using practically any fuel
by choosing the right design and operating conditions. However,
with this constraint, practical commercial engines cannot be oper-
ated in LTC combustion mode because they operate over a wide
range of speed and load conditions with acceptable levels of noise,
stability and emissions. A suitable fuel selection enables this breadth
of operation. The development of fuels specifications for use in IC
engines has been an evolutionary process, in which, fuel-related
problems are encountered and critical fuel properties are identified,
and specific limits are D319X X enforced
D320X X to mitigate these problem. Important
fuel properties necessary for achieving LTC and based on these prop-
erties, development of suitable alternative fueled LTC engines have
been discussed in following sections.
3.1. Fuel for LTC: Properties and reaction mechanisms
TagedPPrevious studies have proved that chemical kinetics of fuel/ air
mixtures dominantly controlled LTC, which is dominated by decom-
position of H2O2 radicals [209] and reactions between OH radical
and fuel [210] under practical engine operating conditions [211].
In LTC, ignition and combustion are controlled by physical and
chemical properties of fuel, in which spatial and time history plays
a dominant role in combustion control. Several studies have been
16 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPundertaken, where different fuels with different chemical composi-
tions have been used in the LTC engines [13,37,212
219]. All these
studies showed that different fuels have different combustion phas-
ing in most cases but this difference was small in some engine
operating conditions. In most cases, combustion phasing did not
correlate with conventional measures of fuel's auto-ignition quality
such as Research and Motor Octane Numbers (RON and MON). In
last few years, a large number of studies on LTC using different alter-
native fuels have shown the need of specific fuel properties for LTC,
which cannot be fulfilled using a single component fuelD.32X X Therefore, it
becomes important to reform the molecular structure of different
fuel components to change its physical and chemical properties
according to the LTC requirements [9]. The most important require-
ment of LTC is formation D32X X of homogeneous fuel-air mixture, which
results in ideal LTC namely D324X X HCCI combustion.
TagedPFig. 16 illustrates the fundamental principle of fuel selection for
HCCI combustion engines. A large number of studies have shown
that chemical properties of fuel-air mixture in the combustion
chamber can be optimized using different fuel design concepts such
as fuel D325X X additives, fuel blending, dual-fueling and optimized fuel pro-
portion [9]. Different physical and chemical properties of fuel affect
several processes occurring in the combustion chamber. High cetane
number fuels have potential to improve engine’s cold start capabil-
ity, widen the lean burn limit, lower the cycle-to-cycle variations
and improve the mode transition characteristics but it has negative
effect on rich-burn limits. High octane fuels have opposite D326X X effect asD327X X
that of high cetane fuels [27]. These characteristics were explained
by Lutz et al. [220]. They compared the ignition characteristics of
three different fuels having different Octane and Cetane ratings.
These test fuels showed different ignition characteristics (Fig. 17).
TagedPFuel composition mainly affectD328X X the speed of low temperature
reactions that occur in HCCI engines. This in turn is affected depend-
ing on when these reactions are initiated and where in the cycle, the
main reactions occur. Fuels like gasoline exhibit little or no low tem-
perature reaction and initiation temperature is close to 950 K in
HCCI engines [13]. Fuels like mineral diesel exhibit significant low
temperature reactions and corresponding initiation temperatures
are in the range of 750 K in HCCI engines [13]. The volatility or distil-
lation characteristics of the fuel dominate spray D329X X droplet evaporation
in the combustion chamber. For true HCCI engine operation, fuel
must be evaporated and at least partially mixed prior to the SoC
reactions [13]. It is observed that if liquid fuel survives the start of
reactions, these fuel droplets, or packets, will burn in diffusion
Fig. 16. Principle of fuel selection for HCCI combustion (Adapted from [9]).
D4X X
Fig. 17. Constant volume ignition delay times for n-heptane, D5X X
isooctane and 70
30
blend of n-heptane and isooctane calculated using SENKIN code [220] (Courtesy of
Dr. Lutz).
TagedP ames, which would dramatically elevate the production of soot and
fl
NOx in the engine [67,84]. Therefore, it is important to improve the
fuel distillation characteristics, which directly influences fuel-air
mixture homogeneity. This results in absence of localized fuel-Drich 30X X
zones, thereby reducing the maximum combustion temperature
leading to reduction in NOx and PM formation [9]. Volatility and
ignition characteristics are the two main properties that will ulti-
mately differentiate HCCI fuels from gasoline and mineral diesel
[13]. Fig. 18 shows the range of auto-ignition and volatility charac-
teristics of different fuels and some common refinery components.
Gasoline like fuels would have an advantage over conventional min-
eral diesel like fuels because they are more volatile and also because
conventional diesel is prone to auto-ignition. Kerosene would there-
fore be better for HCCI combustion than conventional diesel because
of its D31X X superior volatility and lower cetane number (Fig. 18) [211].
TagedPIn HCCI combustion engines, it is quite challenging to maintain
proper ignition timings in the cycle over wide range of operating
conditions. Previous investigations suggested that the ignition
behavior of HCCI combustion cannot be determined by conventional
measurements of auto-ignition quality of fuels, such as RON and
cetane number [211]. Suitability of fuels for HCCI combustion is D32X X
decided by two parameters namely auto-ignition characteristics
(cetane number) and anti-knock quality (octane number), at both
lean and rich limits. Due to difference in molecular structures and
fuel components, HCCI combustion can have different SoC, HRR, and
exhaust emissions for a group of test fuels with the same cetane
Fig. 18. Auto-ignition quality vs. volatility of different fuels and refinery streams
(Reprinted from [211] with permission of Woodhead Publishing Limited).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 17

TagedPnumber or octane number [9]. Therefore, measurements of tradi- tTagedP he Aromatics (vol.D%). 34X X A smaller HCCI index demonstrates an
tional cetane or octane numbers are not enough to characterize increased ignitability, as is usually the case with octane number
the suitability of fuel for HCCI application. To resolve this issue, [9,219].
several research groups performed long range HCCI experiments to TagedPFuels having high cetane number lead D34X X to excessively early igni-
investigate the effects of different fuel properties such as octane tion, which eventually leads to knocking due to cool-flame reactions
number, molecular structure and D3X X D34X X
sensitivity to auto-ignition quality [224]. This condition can be avoided by reducing OH radical forma-
[9,221]. tion or by increasing D345X X the OH radical consumption, which reduces
TagedPFor identification of ignition quality of fuelsD35X X for HCCI combustion, HRR in low-temperature range [9]. This can be done by addition of
Kalghatgi et al. [222] defined a parameter called “Octane Index” (OI): inert additives [225]. Lu et al. [226,227] conducted experiments to
evaluate the effectiveness of n-heptane in HCCI combustion with dif-
OI D ð1¡KÞRON C KMON D RON¡KS
ferent inert additives, including methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and
Where K is a constant, which depends on the engine-operating con- MTBE. Similarly, high octane number fuels such as isooctane and tol-
ditions and S is the fuel sensitivity (RON-MON) [211]. uene exhibit D346X X a longer IDD347X X due to weak and slow low temperature
TagedPCombustion phasing of HCCI combustion is directly related to the reactions [9,228,229]. To precisely control the auto-ignition of gaso-
octane index [218]. Higher value of OI means more resistance to line-like fuels near TDC, additional methods including EGR, VCR, and
auto-ignition and retarded D36X X heat release. At each operating condition, VVT can be used. Additionally, by adding an active additive such as
there is also a fuel with OID OI0 such that heat release is centered at H2O2, 2-EHN, and di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP) to base fuel, condu-
TDC, i.e. CA50 D 0. OI0 can be considered to be engine's requirement. cive thermo-atmospheric environment could be created in the core
OI0 increases as the maximum compression pressure and tempera- areas of combustion chamber [9].
ture increases and decreases as engine speed is increased or the TagedPAlcohols are promising alternative fuels for automotive engines
mixture is made leaner or more dilute [211]. due to their origin from variety of renewable sources. Due to nearly D348X X
TagedPSouthwest Research Institute's researchers developed a fuel spec- similar fuel properties, ethanol can replace gasoline partially [45].
ification type test method for rapidly evaluating and rating the igni- Iida et al. [57] performed HCCI experimentD349X Xusing methanol in a two-
tion characteristics of HCCI fuels. The start of reaction temperature stroke engine and found that methanol can be used for wider range
is measured using ASTM D6890 specified apparatus. This tempera- of fuel-air ratio compared D350X X to gasoline. Oakley et al. [217] also
ture is called “Elevated Pressure Auto Ignition Temperature” (EPAIT). reported that alcohols have significantly higher tolerance to dilution
Based on the preliminary work, researchers proposed that EPAIT D351X X
compared to hydrocarbon fuels. To achieve ethanol HCCI combus-
specifications will likely fall in the range of 550 °C with cool flame tion, it is necessary to increase initial in-cylinder temperature signif-
heat release magnitudes in the range of 5
10% of total heat release icantly before the end of the compression stroke due to large latent
for HCCI engine [3]. D37X X The CAI index was employed to precisely quan- heat of vaporisation D352X X and higher octane number of ethanol [230].
tify fuel impact on four predefined CAI zones, including low speed/ Furthermore, addition D35X X of diethyl ether (DEE) to ethanolD354X X leads
D35X X the
low-load, low-speed/ high-load, high speed/ high-load, and high- superior combustion which D356X X approaches greater degree of comple-
speed/ low-load zones [213]. Fig. 19 gives the definition of AI index. tion [231]. Xie et al. [232] compared HCCI D357X X combustion behavior of
This index is used to evaluate suitability of fuel for HCCI application gasoline, E50, E100, M50, and M100. They reported that the ignition
by comparing the operating window of HCCI mode with that timing of M100 was significantly advanced compared to other test
obtained from the reference fuel. fuels and alcohols have better adaptive capabilities D358Xcompared X to
TagedPIn another study by D38X X Shibata and Urushihara [219], impact of fuel gasoline for lean combustion.
properties on HCCI combustion was investigated using three differ-
ent fuels (RON: 70, 80, and 92) with the same distillation character- 3.2. Applicability of alternate fuels in HCCI engines
istics by blending model fuels chosen from 12 hydrocarbon
constituents. In the experimentD,39X X they found fuel component selec- TagedPIn past
D360X X few decades, rapid technological advancements have
tion as one of the most important parameters in HCCI combustion. resulted in a significant increase in rate of depletion of petroleum D361X X
An HCCI index was proposed for considering the correlation of fuel resources. Extensive utilization of gasoline and mineral diesel in
components and HTR CA50 as follows [219]; transport sector has led to an increase in worldwide petroleum con-
HCCIindex D m:MON C aðn¡P Þ C bði¡PÞ C cðOÞ C dðAÞ C eðOX Þ C Y sumption. In such a scenario, compatibility with alternatDe 362X X fuels is an
important criterion for D36X X development of any advanced combustion
Where MON is motor octane number, n-P indicates the n-Paraffin technology such as HCCI. HCCI combustion concept has high fuel
D340X X i-P is the isoparaffin (vol. %),
(vol. %), D341X X O is the Olefins (vol. %),
D342X X and A is flexibility and can be applied to a wide range of liquid and gaseous

Fig. 19. Definition of CAI index (Reprinted from [223] with permission of Elsevier).
18 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPfuels having D364X X different octane numbers. HCCI fuels range from biodie-
sel [233,234], alcohols [235], natural gas [236,237], hydrogen [238],
ethers [239] and reformulated fuels [240]. Although HCCI is
fuel technology however fuel properties have a substantial effect on
HCCI combustion. In last few years, HCCI has D36X X
conventional fuels such as alcohols, natural gas, hydrogen etc. Yap
et al. [31] achieved natural gas HCCI combustion using exhaust gas
reforming. They reported that natural gas HCCI required high CR as
well as high intake air temperature due to high auto ignition tem-
perature of natural gas. Natural gas HCCI was controlled by hydrogen
blending and addition of hydrogen lowered the intake temperature
requirement. This resulted in lower NOxD367X X emissions however it also
increased HC and CO emissions. Bastawissi et al. [241] investigated
CNG-hydrogen blend fuelled HCCI using D368X X D369X X
multi-dimensional
tational fluid dynamic (KIVA-3VR2) code coupled with detailed
chemical kinetics. They utilized hydrogen as an additive to control
the auto-ignition timing and combustion phasing of CNG fueled
HCCI combustion. Relatively higher formaldehyde and hydroxyl rad-
ical formation was an important finding of this study. Formation of
these species due to low temperature oxidation was further pro-
moted by hydrogen addition. Noran and Aziz [242] compared the
HCCI combustion characteristics of CNG with pilot injection of gaso-
line and overall lean SI combustion of CNG in stratified charge mode.
Homogeneous charge from gasoline was created by manifold injec-
tion of fuel and the charge was heated by an air heater in order to
achieve HCCI combustion. High temperature charge helped in igni-
tion of directly injected stratified CNG at 80° BTDC. They reported
that HCCI combustion exhibited D370X X higher fuel conversion efficiency
compared to SI and lower emissions in a certain range of loads. Ish-
iyama et al. [243] explored natural gas direct injection PCCI combus-
tion with the main objective to resolve the issue of combustion
control in case of natural gas. They reported that by reducing the dis-
semination of fuel-air mixture, higher combustion efficiency could
be obtained in leanD371X cX onditions but at the costD372X o
Gomes et al. [244] discussed the hydrogen fueled HCCI combustion,
in which the combustion was controlled by controlling the intake air
temperature. Due to high energy content of hydrogen, they achieved
high brake D37X X thermal efficiency and high in-cylinder temperature with
relatively leaner charge. They reported that hydrogen fuelDed
engine resulted in significantly lower emissions compared to con-
ventional diesel engine. However at higher engine loads (relatively
richer fuel-air mixtures), in-cylinder temperature increased sharply,
which resulted in higher NOxD375X X emissions compared to lower engine
loads.
TagedPSwaminathan et al. [245] investigated the performance of biogas
fueled HCCI combustion, in which the combustion was controlled by
mineral diesel blending. They reported that high charge temperature
could be used in biogas HCCI because biogas does not knock even
beyond 100 °C. Biogas HCCI showed relatively lower HRR, leading to
higher CO and HC emissions. Haggith et al. [246] performed HCCI
experimentD376X X using a simulated biogas whose composition D37X X
producer gas. Various compositions of producer D379X X
gated and stable combustion was achieved over a wide range of
equivalence ratios with moderate air/ fuel mixture preheating.
Kozarac et al. [247] investigated the effects of addition of n-heptane
on combustion, performance, emissions and control of combustion
phasing of a biogas fueled HCCI engine. Main objective of thier study
was to explore the use of highly reactive fuel as an ignition pro-
moter, which enabled the operation of biogas fueled HCCI engine at
low intake temperatures. They reported that introduction of highly
reactive fuel significantly affected the optimum combustion phasing
acording to engine operating conditions. Lower NOx,D381X X lower HC and
slightly higher CO emissions due to addition of n-heptane was
another important finding of this study, which also showed
D382X X
significant influence of n-heptane on biogas fuelDed
Study carried out by Kozarac et al. [247] also showed that blending
TagedP f n-heptane controlled combustion phasing was more effectively
o
compared to mineral diesel [245]. This was mainly due to high reac-
D365X X a flexi- tivity and volatility of n-heptane, which generated more favourable
conditions for HCCI combustion.
been adopted to non- TagedPMaurya et al. [3,18,235] looked into the performance of HCCI
engine fueled with alcohols (ethanol and methanol). Experiments
were carried out to investigate the performance of HCCI combustion
at different air-Dfuel 384X X ratios. They reported reduction in HC emissions
and increase in CO emission with increasing air-fuel ratio. Zhang
and Wu [248] carried out methanol fuelDed 385X X HCCI experimentD386X X to
investiagate optimum control parameters namely intake charge
temperature, fuel
air equivalence ratio and engine speed for com-
bustion phasing control. They reported that intake charge tempera-
compu- ture influenced both the combustion phasing and heat release rate
significantly. Yang et al. [249] investigated fundamental properties
of a C5 alcohol (isopentanol) as a possible alternative fuel for HCCI
combustion. They performed HCCI experimentD387X X in D38X X a wide range of
engine speeds; intake air temperatures, intake pressure, and equiva-
lence ratios. They observed different ignition characteristics of iso-
pentanol as compared to gasoline since isopentanol did not show
two-stage ignition, which was similar to ethanol. Ng and Thomson
[250] performed model analysis of ethanol fueled HCCI combustion
and focused on the effects of ethanol reformed gas on the ignition
requirement and NOxD389X Xemissions. PCCI combustion was performed in
a single stage and split injection modes using ethanol blended min-
eral diesel by D390X X Mohammadi et al. [251]. In single injection strategy,
ethanol blended fuels offerred higher D391X X reduction in NOxD392X aX nd PM emis-
sions compared to diesel. However, reduced power output puts a
limitation on its usage. The split injection strategy resulted in further
reduction in NOxD39X X emissions without significantly affecting the ther-
mal efficiency of the engine. Emissions were further reduced by
employing cooled EGR along with split injection strategy. Mancaruso
and Vaglieco [252] performed PCCI experimentD394X X using ethanol/ air/
X f higher engine knock. diesel mixtures. They observed three stage combustion under vary-
ing rp of in-cylinder charge. They suggested ethanol addition as pre-
mixed charge to be responsible for this combustion behavior.
TagedPBiodiesel blends were used in diesel fueled PCCI engineD395X X by Fang
et al. [253]. Although biodiesel has higher cetane number, relatively D396X X
374X X HCCI higher boiling point of biodiesel resulted in longer IDD397X X compared to
D398X X
mineral diesel. Moreover, the spray impingement and larger pene-
tration length (for all test cases) was observed for biodiesel blends.
These issues were tackled by Lahane and Subramanian [254] by
modifying the injector nozzle (from 5 holes to 6 holes with a slight
reduction in nozzle diameter). The modified nozzle resulted in
reduced spray penetration and significant reduction in soot and NOxD39X X
emissions compared to mineral diesel. Szybist et al. [255] performed
HCCI combustion experimentD40X X in a single cylinder engine using
blends of soy biodiesel and ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD). The
results of HCCI combustion were also compared with simulation
results and major differences found D401X X D402X X
were in its dependence on bio-
resembledD378X X diesel concentration, duration D403X X of low temperature heat release
D380X X
gas were investi- (LTHR) and duration of main combustion event. Brakora and Reitz
[256] performed experimentD40X X to compare formation of nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from biodiesel and mineral diesel
fueled HCCI combustion. They showed higher NOxD405X X from biodiesel
compared to mineral diesel. Kitano et al. [214] investigated the effect
of cetane number and distillation characteristics on PCCI combus-
tion. They found that lower cetane number fuel increased IDD406X X under
high load conditions, which resulted in lower NOxD407X X emissions. They
also reported that lower distillation characteristics of fuel promoted
faster mixture formation, which reduced soot formation. Therefore,
it was suggested that PCCI engine fuel should have optimal cetane
number and distillation properties for effectiveD408X e X mission control.
TagedPD409X X
Disregarding the above mentioned issues with ethanol, biodiesel
38X X HCCI engine. etc., newly emerging fuels such as DME and JP-8 are currently being
explored by several researchers for LTC applications. Zhao et al.
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedP[257] carried out PCCI combustion using blends of DME and diesel.
They observed significant reduction in NOxD410X X and soot emissions with
increasing percentage of DME in mineral diesel. However, brake spe-
cific fuel consumption (BSFC) increased along with an increase in HC
and CO emissions. Jeon and Bae [258] compared PCCI D41X X combustion
using two test fuels and used double injection strategy of DME as
reference case and replaced DME main injection by hydrogen in the
second condition. To investigate the effect of hydrogen, they varied
hydrogen quantity. In the experimentD,412X X they observed stable combus-
tion for 100% D413X X DME PCCI combustion however hydrogen-DME PCCI
combustion resulted in relatively higher IMEP. Odaka et al. [177]
used gasoline-type injector for diesel manifold injection in order
to investigate premixed diesel fueled HCCI in combination with
a normal DI system. They used methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in
diesel as an additive for delaying the auto-ignition of premixed
charge. Cinar et al. [259] worked with DEE, which acted as a cetane
improver. During HCCI combustion, premixed DEE burnt and gener-
ated suitable conditions for ignition of accumulated diesel during IDD.41X X
Like all others fuels, DEE fueled HCCI produced significantly lesser
NOxD415X X and relatively higher CO and HC emissions [259]. JP-8 was
tested in a single cylinder PCCI diesel engine by Parks et al. [94]. The
fuel showed lower NOxD416X X and smoke emissions under low load condi-
tions due to its lower aromatic contentD417X,X lower cetane number and
higher volatility compared to baseline mineral diesel. However,
under conventional combustion strategy, NOxD418X e X missions were higher
than baseline mineral diesel because of its more dynamic premixed
combustion phase.
4. HCCI combustion characteristics
TagedPD419X X
Combustion characteristics inD420X X the combustion chamber affect
overall performance of the engine such as power output, emissions
etc. Following section shows important combustion characteristics
of HCCI engines.
4.1. In-cylinder combustion kinetics of HCCI
TagedPGasoline and mineral diesel are mostly used in conventional
engines. These fuels are D421X X primarily straight chain alkanes, branched
alkanes and aromatics. Investigations on primary reference fuels
(PRFs) show that the auto-ignition behavior of a test fuel mainly
depends on its composition, molecular size and structure. PRF (n-
heptane and isooctane) behave differently during auto-ignition in
HCCI engines. N-heptane is a reactive straight-chain paraffin and has
a low octane number, which shows D42X X D423X X
that it has relatively D42X X
lower resis-
tance to auto-ignition. Iso-octane is a less reactive branched- chain
paraffin, and has a higher octane number [260]. N-heptane and
other paraffinic fuels are characterized by a clearly distinguished
two-stage ignition. The first stage is related to LTHR period and the
second or main combustion is associated with the high tempera-
ture heat release (HTHR) period. The first stage ignition is also
regarded as “cool flame”, with negative temperature coefficient
(NTC) [209]. Fig. 20 illustrate D425typical XX two-stage heat release in HCCI
combustion showing LTHR (cool flame) and HTHR, using mixture
of isooctane and n-heptane as test fuel. Iso-octane (ON D 100)
bears high resistance to auto-ignition and undergoes a single-stage
ignition [260]. The difference between the two ignition mecha-
nisms has important consequences on the control of CAI combus-
tion [261
263].
TagedPFor alkanesD,426X X the chain reaction paths are divided into three main
routes [264]. Below 750 K, reactions are dominated by chain propa-
gating steps including oxygen molecules and generation of partially
oxidized species [264,265]. Between 800 K and 950 K, the chain
propagating steps involving oxygen D427X X molecules yield conjugate
alkenes and HO2 radicals [265]. Above 1000 K, the main fuel radical
reactions are thermal decomposition by C

C bondD,428X X forming alkenes
19
Fig. 20. Typical HRR for two-stage combustion in HCCI combustion (Adapted from
[260]).
TagedP nd smaller radicals [266]. Two different regions of chain reactions
a
are defined based on previous research (i) a low temperature kinet-
ics region or ignition process, below 950 K, and (ii) the high tempera-
ture kinetics region, where bulk of chemical energy is released [209].
TagedPAt low temperatures, the rate of chain branching for straight-
chain paraffins (n-heptane) is much more intense than that of
branched-chain paraffins (isooctane). This is due to the structure of
n-heptane radicals, which lead to higher rates of RO2 isomerization
that leads to chain branching from keto-hydro-peroxide decomposi-
tion [267,268]. Lower reactivity of branched-chain paraffins (isooc-
tane) is not only due to large number of less reactive methyl groups
but also due to presence of tertiary and quaternary carbon D429X X atoms in
its molecular structure. The homolysis reactions of tertiary and qua-
ternary structures compete with keto-hydro-peroxide formation,
contributing to lower reactivity of branched-chain paraffins [269].
All these indicate that a fuel, which has a long-chain and many
weakly bonded H atom has high isomerization rates, leading to rapid
ignition. For compact and highly branched fuels with a large fraction
of strongly bonded H atoms, ignition is inhibited [260,270].
TagedPChain branching processes playD430X X a major role in controlling
ignition of hydrocarbons. For hydrocarbons with two-stage igni-
tion behavior, the first stage of ignition is a result of “cool flame”
combustion and NTC behavior, which is mainly governed by
the low temperature (TD431X< X 1000 K) chemical kinetics [260,262].
At lower temperatures (up to 900 K), ignition is controlled by
degenerative chain branching processes, which are characterized
by production of chain branching precursors, RO2 radicals, which
start to decompose above 800 K [260]. Above 800 K, the decom-
position of keto-hydro-peroxide species into several fragments
takes place, in which some fragments act like radicals [209]. Due
to formation of these large number of radicals, chain branching
becomes quite rapid, which adds more energy and OH radicals
to the system [271]. The low-temperature reactions are exother-
mic, which further increase OH radical formation due to increas-
ing temperature of the system [266]. This corresponds to the
beginning of a temperature rise, referred to as “cool flame”. Dur-
ing D432Xcool X flames, formaldehyde is also created. Therefore, cool
flames can be traced back by formaldehyde analysis [2].
TagedPAt higher temperatures (900 to 1100 K), intermediate reactions
D43X X
dominate the low-temperature reactions, resulting in chain branch-
ing, as shown below [209,260].
RH C HO2 ! H2 O2 C R
H2 O2 C M ! OH C OH C M
20 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedP TagedPHere, M is any non-reactive third-body. Li et al. [272] suggested
another reaction for H2O2 formation:
HO2 C HO2 ! H2 O2 C O2
TagedPKey of the auto-ignition
D43X X for HCCI combustion system lies in H
concentration history. H2O2 is produced below 900
1000 K by low
and intermediate temperature pathways, as presented above. H2O2
concentration increases steadily, with H2O2 decomposition much
slower than its production. H2O2 decomposes rapidly at tempera-
tures around 1000 K, yielding large numbers of OH radicals. Increase
in OH radicals consumes any remaining fuel, resulting in ignition
[209,273].
TagedPWhen the temperature is high enough (over 1100 K), the high
temperature chain branching sequence (H C O2 ! O C OH) takes
place and quickly dominates overall D436X X reactions leading to starting of
main ignition. This main ignition temperature is identical for all
fuels [270]. This shows a distinctive feature that the high tempera-
ture chain branching reaction is “fuel type” independent [260]. The
important requirement for cool flames to induce in-cylinder com-
bustion is the energy requirement so that low temperature reactions
can increase the chamber temperature to the high temperature
region [274]. When the reactions become slower during the NTC
period, high cylinder temperature can be increased sufficiently by
external factors such as external heating or increasing CR, which
forces the engine operation towards high temperature regime by
increasing compression work during compression stroke [275]. At
temperatures above 1000 K, conversion of heptyl radicals to beta
decomposition products and conjugate olefins takes over due D438X X
addition on molecular oxygen. This is also possible by isomerization D439X X
reactions [2].
TagedPIf the temperature rises above 1200 K, the relatively high activa-
tion energy of reaction H C O2 ! O C OH is overcome and it
   
becomes the dominant chain branching step [209,276]. The reac-
tants, including one radical, lead to two product radicals. Since
molecular oxygen participates in this reaction, lean fuel-air mixtures
are more reactive in this high-temperature regime, whereas rich
fuel-air mixtures are oxidized quickly at low temperatures due to
chain branching, which depends on radical species formed directly
from the parent fuel [277]. When the high temperature interval is
discussed, two reactions are considered [2]:
 
H2 O2 C M ! OH C OH C M

H C O2 ! O C OH
  
TagedPThese radical-branching reactions are very important for the
high-temperature regime because the products contain more
radicals than the reactants. The first chain branching reaction
takes place at around 1000 K and it marks the moment of igni-
tion [278]. At temperatures D4 0XrisesX to more than 1200 K, the reac-
tion between D4 1Xhydrogen
X radicals and molecular oxygen no longer
forms HO, D42Xinstead
X it forms oxygen and hydroxyl radicals. The

resulting OH radicals, formed from the reactions discussed
above, rapidly consume the fuel and a rapid increase in tempera-
ture is experienced. Thus, decomposition of H2O2 and consump-
tion of fuel result in ignition [2,209]. Similar to previous
experimentD43X,X UV
Visible imaging and spectroscopic measure-
ments were performed and the chemical species involved in
PCCI combustion were detected by Mancaruso and Vaglieco
[252]. They investigated PCCI combustion in an optical engine
using 100% bio-ethanol injected in the intake manifold and min-
eral diesel injected in the cylinder. In spectroscopic experiments,
they observed that SoC of homogeneous fuel-air mixture was
mainly controlled by OH radicals generated during the interme-
diate temperature heat release. Presence of OH radicals was
observed during D4XPCCIX combustion process and the amount of OH
radicals were mainly D45Xdependant
X on HRR.
4.2. HCCI operating window
TagedPAutomotive engines need to be operated over a wide range of
operating conditions ranging from idle, low speed to high loads,
D435X X 2O2 high speeds. Unfortunately, in HCCI combustion engines, in order to
control the combustion rate and NOx emissions, engine has to be
operated on highly diluted mixtures, which are diluted D46X X either by air
or by residual gas. Therefore, HCCI engines cannot operate at equally D47X X
high mean effective pressure (MEP) as conventional engines
[37,279]. The range of operating conditions in HCCI mode is there-
fore usually constrained to a relatively small region [90,280]. The
approaches employed to achieve HCCI combustion is a determining
factor for the size and shape of this operating region [279]. The main
constraints of HCCI operating region are shown in Fig. 21.
TagedPUpper boundary of HCCI combustion region is limited by engine
D437X X test knock. When the fueling rate is increased (i.e. lower λ), HCCI D48X X com-
bustion rate also increases and intensifies, and gradually causes
unacceptable noise (due to severity of detonation) which D49X X may poten-
tially lead to engine damage, and eventually unacceptably high lev-
els of NOx emissions [3]. Another constraint to the upper boundary
of HCCI operating region is insufficient breathing. Some HCCI
engines employ NVO to trap larger quantities of hot residual gas, in
order to increase the mixture temperature in order to successfully D450X X
achieve auto-ignition [279
281]. NVO requires smaller valve lift
therefore upon increasing engine speedD,451X X the trapped mass is
reduced, leading to movement of HCCI operating regionD452X X boundary
further downwards.
to the TagedPSharp increase in CO emissionD453X X is one of the constraints for the
lower boundary of HCCI operating region [282]. When engine load
decreases, the mixture eventually becomes too lean and the gas tem-
perature during combustion becomes too low for CO oxidation reac-
tions to be completed. The resulting high CO emission significantly
reduces combustion efficiency [279]. Other main constraints at low
loads include highly delayed combustion timing, increased cyclic
variation, and eventual misfiring. This happens due to lack of ther-
mal energy available for auto-ignition of the fuel-air mixture
[279,283,284]. The demand for thermal energy for mixture's auto-
ignition increases at lower loads; however, the available thermal
energy remains low in these conditions. Lack of adequate thermal
energy for mixture's auto-ignition eventually leads to engine misfire.
At lower engine speeds, lower D45X X boundary of the HCCI operating
region has an upward trend owing to increased heat losses (Fig. 21),
thus further shrinking the HCCI operating region [279]. Lower
boundary of HCCI operating region is also sensitive to variations in
ambient temperature, which affectD45X b X oth the required thermal energy
for auto-ignition of the mixture, and the heat transfer losses. When
the ambient temperature decreases, lower operating boundary
moves up, and HCCI operating regime shrinks [279].
Fig. 21. Constraints on the range of HCCI operating conditions (Reprinted from [279]
with permission of SAGE).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPThe HCCI operating region limits largely reported in literature are
because of misfire and knocking [3,18,283
285]. The knock limit in
HCCI engines is often correlated to the RoPR. The RoPR (dP/ dumax) is
considered as an indicator of noise emanating from the engine and
the degree of violence of combustion [285]. Maximum allowable
RoPR is often acceptable in the range of 5
12 bar/ CAD, depending
on the engine speed [27,284
290]. It is therefore appropriate D456X X
express RoPR D457X X as a time derivative (in bar/ second instead of bar/
CAD) for accurately predicting knock over a wide range of engine
speeds [290,291]. Maximum allowable limit for RoPR is 4.3 MPa/ ms
[290] and 5 MPa/ ms [291]. A fundamental study of HCCI engine
knock indicated that maximum RoPR is a function of operating
parameters such as intake pressure, which makes it inappropriate
D458Xknock X criterion. Therefore, a new criterion “ringing intensity” (RI) is
recommended [292]. Knock limiting values are 2 MW/ m2 for auto-
motive engines [292], 5MW/ m2 mediumD-duty 459X X engine [293] and
6 MW/ m2 for truck engines [294].
TagedPAt low loads, fuel flow rate decreases hence the net heat release
also decreases, which leads to reduction in average combustion tem-
perature. Lower combustion temperature results in more unburned
charge, which is characterized by high CO and THC emissions and
D460X X
increased D461X X
cyclic variations. Fluctuations of IMEP is used as a measure
of cycle-to-cycle variations and is expressed as COVIMEP [3]. It has
been found that drivability problems in automobiles normally
arise when COVIMEP exceeds 10% [5]. Consequently, the lower limit
of HCCI operation could be defined as when COVIMEP exceeded 10%
[3,235,284]. HCCI is known for its low COV of IMEP compared to SI
engines however with late combustion timing, the COV of IMEP
increases rapidly. At higher engine speeds, the time window for
proper combustion phasing reduces; thereforeD462X X it is more difficult to
retard the combustion. Researchers found that there is lesser risk
of misfire when the COV is kept under 3.5% [294]. In some studies,
lower boundary of HCCI combustion is limited by partial misfire or
intermittent combustion, which produces high HC and CO emissions.
Partial misfire is often defined in terms of a minimum acceptable
level of combustion efficiency (85
90%) [217]. Intermittent combus-
tion is caused by cycle-to-cycle variations in cylinder conditions.
Marginal HCCI combustion is very sensitive to variations in tempera-
ture or composition of the engine charge, and small changes may
cause misfire in a fraction of cycles. The criterion for intermittent
combustion is considered to be acceptable in u D463X X 10
50  6 CAD [286].
TagedPSome control approaches can relax these constraints and expand
the operating D46X X D465X X
window for all types of HCCI engines [280]. Control
strategies to expand the high load boundary include boosting the
intake air pressure and retarding the combustion timing. But retard-
ing the combustion timing is constrained by cycle-Dto-cycle
tions and misfire. Control strategies to expand the low load
boundary include (a) increasing charge stratification by retarding
direct fuel injection timing, (b) throttling the intake air flow, (c)
increasing residual gas fraction, and (d) advancing the combustion
timing. However, advancing the combustion timing is constrained
by inadequate thermal energy for auto-ignition [280,295].
4.3. Heat release rate and combustion duration
TagedPIn HCCI combustion engine, auto-ignition occurs in cylinder at a
very large number of “active sites” throughout the fuel-air mixture,
which leads to higher combustion heat release. Auto-ignition pro-
cess is a result of various complex chemical, physical, and energetic
processes. HRR is a measure of how fast chemical energy of fuel is
converted into thermal energy during combustion. This directly
affects RoPR and accordingly the power produced [296]. For HCCI
combustion engines, HRR curve shape has a distinctive characteristic
form. At first, a slow build-up of heat is observed. Then a rapid
increase in heat release follows. The combustion rate then decreases
to zero in nearly the same manner as it has increased [45]. The shape
21
TagedP f HRR curve is almost symmetrical and similar to a normal distribu-
o
tion curve for high octane fuels. For HCCI engines, critical problems
are the control of ignition timing and combustion rate [7]. In HCCI
combustion, ignition is completely controlled by chemical kinetics,
and is directly affected by fuel D467X X composition and structure,
equivalence ratio, and thermodynamic state of fuel-air mixture
to [57,297
299]. The speed of chemical reactions is dependent on spe-
cies concentrations, pressure and exponentially on temperature.
Therefore, combustion D468X X rate is mainly controlled by parameters that
affect combustion temperature and species concentrations. Parame-
ters that affect the HRR are: Ti,D469X X air/ fuel equivalence ratio, inlet pres-
sure, combustion timing, amount of EGR, CR etc. [69,300,301]. Some
of these parameters are related to each other as well. One of the
main parameters to control the D470X X HCCI combustion rate is the ignition
timing i.e. when in the cycle, combustion takes place. Fig. 22 shows
HRR for a wide range of combustion timings [298].
TagedPWith early combustion phasing, the HRR is higher and as it is
phased later, hence the burn rate goes down. Lowering the TiD471X X 150 °C
to 120 °C retards the HRR by over 10 CAD and reduces the peak HRR
by almost a factor of 4 [302]. With combustion before TDC, the
temperature increases both by the chemical reactions as well as
compression due to piston motion. Thus for a given auto-ignition
temperature, onset of combustion before TDC results in faster
reactions. With the conditions having combustion phasing after
TDC, the temperature does not increase by piston motion and D472Xonly X
temperature driver would be chemical reactions. This gives a
more sensitive system. Later combustion phasing leads to a more
sensitive system, which makes HCCI combustion control rather
challenging [302].
TagedPThe heat release in HCCI combustion can be single-stage, D473X X two-
stage [299] or three stage process [303], depending on the fuel type
and operating conditions. Fig. 23 describes typical heat release for
two-stage combustion. With isooctane (ON D 100), no detectable
cool flames (pre-reactions) appear before the main combustion
(Fig. 22). When n-heptane is used, cool flames appear at 10 to 20
CAD before the main combustion starts. In some engine operating
conditions, gasoline auto-ignites in a three-stage combustion, which
can be defined as a cool flame, a pre-ignition, and a final ignition,
each represented by a heat release maximum [303].
TagedPThe heat released in cool D47X X flames increase with increased
amount of n-heptane (ON D 0) [69]. CoolD475X X flames are fuel dependent
and can only exist only at certain temperature and pressure condi-
tions. Fuels including the structure -CH2

CH2

CH2-, which allows
formation of 6-member low strain -C

C

C

O

O

H rings,
showed two-stage ignition with relatively shorter IDD.476X X IDD47X X for all fuels
46X X varia- exhibiting two-stage combustion characteristics are strongly corre-
lated with the first-stage pressure increase and the ID D478X X decreases as
Fig. 22. Effect of combustion timing on HRR [298] (Courtesy of Dr. Christensen).
22 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 23. Cylinder pressure and HRR for a fuel with octane number of 30 (Reprinted
from [69] with permission of SAE).
agedPtT he first-stage pressure increase becomes larger [299]. Auto-ignition
in HCCI combustion is a kinetically controlled process. Rate of reac-
tion determines the combustion rate, which is mainly dependent on
composition of fuel-air mixture and pressure-temperature history in
the cylinder. The charge composition and temperature are mainly
influenced by mixture homogeneity, air-fuel ratio, Ti,D479X X EGR rate, heat
transfer, CR and engine speed.
TagedPCombustion duration is a measure for rapidness of overall com-
bustion processes. Generally, combustion duration is measured in
terms of CAD, but for a given engine speed, this corresponds to
time of the order of few milliseconds. Combustion duration is often
defined as difference between the crank angle positions of 90%
and 10% heat release, which is called ‘rapid burning phase’. CAD
duration between point of ignition and 10% heat release is known
as ‘early combustion phase’ and CAD duration between 90 to 100%
heat release is known as ‘late combustion phase’.
TagedPCombustion shows a strong dependence on load in HCCI combus-
tion mode. This is due to the fact that HCCI is operated un-throttled
and the load is changed by adjusting fuel flow rate only. At very low
loads, the fuel-air mixture becomes very lean; hence too slow com-
bustion takes place. At higher loads, the fuel-air mixture becomes
richer, which results in extremely fast combustion. The combustion
rate with SI operation is however not significantly affected by the
engine load [45] (Fig. 24).
Fig. 24. Duration of main combustion (10%
90% heat releaseD)6X X for ethanol HCCI com-
bustion (Reprinted from [45] with permission of SAE).
TagedPFor homogeneous combustion, “combustion duration” is a func-
tion of several parameters. The strongest influences on combustion
duration are from λ, EGR rate, combustion timing, CR and engine
speed [300]. Turbulence has a modest influence on HCCI combustion.
Instead, λ and temperature strongly affect the combustion rate,
because homogeneous combustion is controlled mainly by the
chemical kinetics. Turbulence is of course important for the mixing
process to create a homogeneous charge. Combustion duration
increases with reduction in CR and reduced inlet temperature. Com-
bustion temperature becomes lower at lower Ti.D480X X The change in vol-
ume around TDC is more rapid at a higher CR, which results in lower
temperature, leading to longer combustion duration [69]. Table 2
shows the direction, in which the combustion duration is affected by
these parameters. Upward arrow for any parameter indicates
increase in that parameter and downward arrow indicates reduction
in that parameter.
4.4. Engine efficiency of HCCI combustion
TagedPTotal engine efficiency can be divided into several fractions in
order to identify the factors, which reduce thermal efficiency of an
engine (Fig. 25) [304]. The combustion efficiency is defined as the
relationship between heat released (QhrMEP) and normalized fuel
energy/ cycle (Fuel_MEP). The thermodynamic efficiency is then the
relationship between IMEP and QhrMEP. Gas exchange efficiency is
defined as the relationship between IMEPgross and IMEPnet. Indicated
efficiency is the relationship between IMEPnet and Fuel_MEP
[305,306]. This makes it possible to compare engines D481X X of different
sizes. To avoid the effect of variation in different engine sizes and
engine speeds, the results can be presented on per cycle basis and
can be normalized using D482X X cylinder displacement by presenting them
in terms of mean effective pressures.
TagedPHCCI engines have higher fuel conversion efficiency compared to
SI engines, which approaches the efficiency of a CI engine or some-
Table 2
Effect of different parameters on combustion duration [69, 300].
Parameter Change in parameter Combustion duration (CAD)
λ " "
EGR rate " "
Combustion timing Advanced #
CR " #
Engine speed " "
Inlet temperature " #
Fig. 25. Engine efficiency break down (Reprinted from [304] with permission of SAE).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPtimes even higher in some special circumstances. This was mainly
due to unDthrottled 483X X operation of HCCI engines, which reduces pump-
ing losses, and results in significantly higher thermal efficiency com-
pared to conventional SI engines. Higher CR is one of the most
critical requirementD48X X for attaining higher thermal efficiency of IC
engines. Relatively higher CR further increases thermal efficiency of
HCCI engines, which is not possible in conventional SI engines due
to knock limit. Significantly lower in-cylinder temperature of HCCI
engines reduces the energy loss due to heat transfer, which is
D485X X
significantly higher in case of conventional engines. Further, smoke-
less combustion enables reduction in radiative heat transfer. Multi-
point simultaneous auto-ignition of charge eliminates the existence
of flame propagation in HCCI engines, leading to relatively faster
combustion, and consequently shorter combustion duration. This
shorter combustion duration brings HCCI combustion closer to theo-
retical constant volume combustion cycles; therefore, delivering rel-
atively higher efficiency [274].
TagedPFig. 26 shows the gross indicated efficiency of aD486X X HCCI engine
operated at different equivalence ratios and inlet charge conditions.
For all operating conditions, indicated efficiency increasedD487X X with
increasing equivalence ratio due to combustion at D48X X higher in-cylinder
temperatures, which resulted in advanced combustion phasing
[307]. At lower equivalence ratios, higher inlet pressures D489X X and higher
inlet charge temperatures lead to advanced combustion phasing and
lower COVIMEP. Simultaneously, for lower equivalence ratios, higher
inlet pressure and temperature also increase the IMEP, which
improves indicated efficiency [307].
TagedPFig. 27 shows the effect of EGR on gross indicated efficiency of an
ethanol fueled HCCI engine. Indicated thermal efficiency improved D490X X
Fig. 26. Gross indicated efficiency related to equivalence ratio (Reprinted from [307]
with permission of Elsevier).
Fig. 27. Influence of EGR on gross indicated efficiency (Reprinted from [301] with
permission of SAE).
23
TagedP y EGR due to improvement in combustion efficiency. In HCCI com-
b
bustion, relatively lower in-cylinder temperature resultedD491X X in higher
CO and HC emissions. Use of EGR improvedD492X X thermal efficiency due
to recirculated unburned HC, providing another chance to burn in
the combustion chamber. Increased in-cylinder temperature due to
hot exhaust gas was D493X X another important effect of EGR, which impro-
vedD49X Xindicated efficiency [301]. This can be seen in Fig. 26 also, where
increasing inlet charge temperature resulted in higher indicated effi-
ciency due to advanced combustion phasing [307].
TagedPHCCI combustion is sensitive to combustion phasing, because it
influences combustion temperature in the cylinder. Advanced
combustion phasing leads to faster HRR, steeper pressure rise and
higher peak in-cylinder temperature, which results in increased
heat losses and less work on the piston, i.e. reduced efficiency.
However, too late combustion phasing also reduces efficiency due
to lower in-cylinder temperature and combustion efficiency.
Therefore, it is important to determine the optimum combustion
phasing by D495balancingD XX 496X X available expansion ratio, heat losses and
combustion efficiency. Optimum combustion timing varies with
load [301]. Fig. 28 shows variation of thermal efficiency as a func-
tion of combustion phasing and intake air temperature. It is
observed from the figure that highest efficiency D497was XX obtained at
low intake air temperatures, where the mass flow D498Xwas X low.
TagedPAnother important variable to understand the trend of indicated
efficiency is combustion efficiency. Combustion efficiency reflects
how well the engine is burning the fuel. Obtaining 100% combustion
efficiency is not realistically achievable in HCCI engines, however
very good combustion efficiency should be > 95%. Combustion effi-
ciency increases with increasing equivalence ratio, as well as with
higher inlet charge pressure and temperature (Fig. 29) [307]. This is
Fig. 28. Variation in thermal efficiency with intake air temperature and combustion
phasing (Reprinted from [304] with permission of SAE).
Fig. 29. Combustion efficiency w.r.t. equivalence ratio (Reprinted from [307] with
permission of Elsevier).
24 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 30. Combustion efficiency and emissions vs. ’ for isooctane at 1200 rpm
(Reprinted from [308] with permission of Elsevier).
TagedPbecause increaseD49X X in these three factors leads to an increase in the in-
cylinder temperature and consequently in the burnD50X X rates. Addition-
ally, CA50 is advanced with higher in-cylinder temperatures, and a
more complete fuel oxidation is possible before the piston expansion
causes temperatures to fall to a level, which are too low for oxidation
to complete [307]. Lower combustion efficiency also increases HC
and CO emissions. In HCCI combustion engines, power output is con-
trolled by the fueling rate. Therefore, as engine load is reduced,
either the mixture must D502X X D503X X
be made leaner or dilution by the EGR must
be increased. Fig. 30 shows a curve of emissions and combustion effi-
ciency for HCCI engine as a function of ’ for fully premixed operation
with no EGR at constant combustion timing at TDC.
TagedPIt can be observed from Fig. 30 that for moderate loads, ’ > 0.2,
CO and HC emissions are low and combustion efficiency is high.
However, as ’ is reduced below 0.2, CO emission rise dramatically,
and the combustion efficiency falls. HC emissions also increase, but
to a lesser extent [308]. Although high CO and HC emissions at low D504X X
loads could potentially be controlled by employing an oxidation cat-
alyst, low combustion efficiency remains a serious concern. One
solution for improving D50X X combustion efficiency would be to throttle
the engine and operate at a higher ’, but this would results in lowerD-506X X
cycle efficiency due to increased throttling losses [308]. In contrast,
charge stratification offers potential D507X X for overcoming this problem
without any efficiency penalty [308].
4.5. High load limit and knocking characteristics
TagedPKnowing a viable operating window is critical for engine design
and particularly for design of control strategies. For feasibility of
Fig. 31. (a) Experimental in-cylinder pressure traces and (b) MPRR at various fueling rates (Reprinted from [308] with permission of Elsevier).
H TagedP CCI combustion for D508X X vehicle applications, it must be able to operate
over a wide range of speed and load conditions. The combustion pro-
cess in HCCI engines is quite D509X X similar to that during knocking episode
in a SI engine, wherein heat is released by auto-ignition in a pre-
mixed fuel/ air mixture. However, knocking is undesirable, uncon-
trolled, and only a fraction of the charge auto-ignites in a SI engine,
whereas in a HCCI engine, whole charge auto-ignites simulta-
neously. The high load operation of HCCI engine is therefore,
typically limited by an excessive RoPR during combustion and con-
sequent engine knocking.
TagedPThis phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 31, which shows a series of
cylinder-pressure curves for various fueling rates in a HCCI engine,
with CA50 held constant at TDC [308]. The maximum pressure rise
rate (MPRR) increases substantially as fueling is progressively
increased to ’ D 0.3. Eventually, the pressure rise rate becomes so
rapid that it excites an acoustic resonance in the combustion cham-
ber causing the engine to knock. This creates a distinct ripple in the
pressure trace, [308]. To explain knocking, Yelvington and Green
[309] proposed that a localisedD510X X high pressure can arise in HCCI
engine cylinder from very fast combustion in a given parcel of fuel/
air mixture, and these local over-pressures lead to resonant pressure
waves. For slow enough combustion rates in a fuel/ air parcel, the
parcel will expand and maintain its pressure nearly equal to that of
the rest of the gas in the cylinder. As the combustion rate increases,
D501X X the rate at which the parcel must expand in order to remain in pres-
sure equilibrium becomes very fast. When the required expansion
rate exceeds the speed of sound, a localised excessive D51X X pressure zone
D512X X
develops, which leads to knocking combustion [309]. A similar
description was also proposed by Andreae et al. [290].
TagedPIn a HCCI combustion engine, RoPR is used to define knock limit
and is related to combustion noise generated in the engine. RoPR is
often calculated from the measured pressure signal, which may have
signal noise and it gets amplified when derivative is calculated.
Fig. 32 shows the variation of standard deviation in the RoPR signal
(No filter and filtered) using different number of cycles as a function
of crank angle position. Fig. 32 shows that standard deviation in
RoPR is also dependent on the crank angle position and it increases
rapidly during combustion. It can also be observed from this figure
that the value of standard deviation decreases and the maximum
and minimum envelope of the curve come closer with increasDing 513X X
number of cycles used for calculating mean cycles. After smoothen-
ing using Savitzky
Golay filter, this maximum value reduced. D514X X
Fig. 33 shows the variation of (s max - s min)max using varying D51X X number
of cycles for D516X X averaging pressure rise rate under D517X X different engine
operating conditions. It can be observed from the Fig. 33 that maxi-
mum of (s max - s min) decreases rapidly with increase in number of
averaged cycles and by using different filters, which remove high
frequency noise. It can also be noticed from Fig. D518X X 33 that there exists
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 25

Fig. 32. Standard deviation of the averaged cycles of calculated RoPR (at 1200 rpm and λ D 2.1) with crank angle position for varying
D7X X number of cycles used for averaging
(Reprinted from [311] with permission of Elsevier).

TagedPan optimal number of cycles, beyond D519X X which, averaging additional TagedPSeveral researchers have noticed that HCCI combustion pressure
cycles does D520X X not lower (s max - s min)max. Therefore, it is necessary traces exhibit pressure oscillations in the combustion chamber but
to apply correct D521X X digital signal processing method for calculation of there is no consensus on the origin or nature of knocking in HCCI
RoPR in order to determine high load limit of HCCI combustion engines [315
317]. At high loads, HCCI engine pressure traces often
engines [310]. exhibit large acoustic oscillations with amplitudes as large as several
TagedPIf knocking occurs over a long period of time, it brings some bars. Oakley et al. [217] considered HCCI engine to be knocking,
D52X X
undesirable effects [310,312
314] such as breakage of piston rings, when the amplitude of acoustic oscillations exceeded 0.5 bar in 10%
cylinder head erosion, piston crown and top land erosion, piston or more engine cycles. The most elementary noise criteria used to
melting, increased air pollution, reduction in engine efficiency, con- limit the allowable operating regimes for HCCI engine was to specify
siderable rise in specific fuel consumption (SFC), and possibility of a limit on the maximum rate of cylinder pressure rise. Although set-
structural damage to the engine upon D523X X long-term operation, noise ting a limit on the maximum RoPR is a useful metric, it does not
etc. appear to be a uniformly appropriate criterion [292]. Knocking

Fig. 33. Variation of the maximum difference between maximum and minimum envelope of the standard deviation with different number of average cycles for RoPR under vary-
ing load/ speed conditions of the engine (Reprinted from [311] with permission of Elsevier).
26 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

TagedPanalysis in SI engines based on cylinder pressure can be performed TagedPFor developing

D529X X HCCI engines, it is necessary to understand rela-
quantitatively, using methods depending on following parameters tionship between MPRR D530X X D531X X
with engine operating conditions and fuel
[318]: (a) evaluation of a single pressure value, (b) pressure deriva- parameters. Theoretical modeling of thermal explosions clearly
tives, (c) frequency domain manipulations, and (d) heat release anal- shows that the MPRR and HRR increase as ’ increases, and as
ysis. A new method that can represent the knock intensity of HCCI the mixture becomes richer [321]. ExperimentD532X X and modeling
combustion, independent of engine speed is needed because of dif- D53Xinvestigations
X of HCCI engines also confirm the same [217,316]. The
ferent nature of HCCI combustion engines therefore, a new parame- maximum HRR is expected to be higher if it occurs when the com-
ter, ringing intensity (RI) was introduced [292]. The RI indicates the bustion chamber volume is decreasing and viceD-versa. 534X X Hence it
wave energy of pressure oscillations in the combustion chamber due depends on CA50. It is also expected to depend on the pressure and
to knocking [292]. RI D524X X was defined using the following equationD:52X X temperature in the engine, which in turn depends on the inlet pres-
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi    2 sure (Pin) and temperature (Tin) [47].
g RTmax dP
RI D b TagedPIn Fig. 35, MPRR has been plotted against Pmax. There are three
2g Pmax dt max branches corresponding to the three inlet pressures used and in
TagedPHere (dP/ dt)max is the maximum pressure rise rate; each branch, MPRR increases with Pmax. MPRR is expected to depend
Pmax is the peak in-cylinder pressure; on ’, Pin, CA50, and S [47]. From multiple linear regressions, best-fit
Tmax is the maximum of mass averaged in-cylinder temperature line is given by;
(calculated by ideal gas law); MPRR D 36:7½’ C 2:86½Pin ¡0:344½CA50 ¡0:053½S¡8:45
g is the ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv);
R is the gas constant, for biogas air mixture; and Where MPRR is expressed in bar/degree; Pin in bar; S is fuel sensitiv-
b is a scaling parameter, which relates the amplitude of pressure ity expressed as (RON¡MON); and CA50 in CAD [47].
pulsations to the maximum pressure rise rateD526X X and is determined TagedPMPRR increases with increasing equivalence ratio ’ and inlet
from the experimental data. pressure Pin and decreases with increasing CA50 and S, if these
TagedPSeveral criterions for HCCI engines were D527X X used by different parameters are varied individually, while keeping other parameters
researchers to define the knocking combustion (Table 3). constant. Thus the fuel effect comes in through both CA50D53X X and S,
TagedPThe RI, considered together with IMEP is more useful for the anal- with the sensitive fuels giving lower MPRR, while keeping all other
ysis of engine knock characteristics compared to the audible knock parameters constant. To understand the factors contributing to
sounds [319]. The RI with respect to the crank angle degrees at 50% MPRR, Wildman et al. [322] and Scaringe et al. [323] used a simple
mass fraction burned (MFB) (CA50) of gasoline-DME and LPG-DME thermodynamic model and MRRR equationD:536X X
 
HCCI engines is shown in Fig. 34. This figure shows that the combus- mf LHV
D528X X MPRR D ðg ¡1Þ
tion timing is another major factor responsible for increased RI. The V ðuÞt reaction max
combustion phase control is required to retard the CA50 and to
Here V is volume and t is Reaction time scale.
reduce the RI at high RI operating conditions.
TagedPFig. 36 supports the validity of thermodynamic model for MPRR.
Thus MPRR equation may be used to interpret the relationship of
Table 3
Different in-cylinder pressure based methods for characterization of
MPRR and combustion parameters. Wildman et al. [322] also
knocking in HCCI engines. D537Xreported
X that at the same NIMEP, dilution by EGR was found to be
effective in lowering MPRR. Dilution by air however increased the
Knocking Criteria Limits
MPRR.
MPRR (dP/du)max 2 bar/ CAD @3000 rpm [90] TagedPWhile HCCI itself is similar to knock in a SI engine, the process of
6
8 bar/ CAD@1500 rpm [288] knock in HCCI engines is thought to be caused by a different source.
6
8 bar/ CAD @2000 rpm [27]
Cylinder pressure oscillations are initiated by strong D538X X pressure gra-
10 bar/ CAD @1500 rpm [235]
12 bar/ CAD @ 1000 rpm [289] dients which are formed when the combustion proceeds unevenly
MPRR (dP/dt)max 5 MPa/ ms [290] in the chamber. The noise from the engine is caused by large ampli-
Ringing Intensity (RI) 2 MW/ m2 [292] tude resonance patterns in the chamber, when reflections of power-
5 MW/ m2 [319] ful pressure waves transfer energy to the cylinder liner. The energy
6 MW/ m2 [294]
Pressure Oscillations 0.5 bar oscillations; 10% of cycles [320]
is transmitted through the engine structure and a small fraction is
Wavelet Packet Transform Wavelet coefficients [42] dissipated as noise, while the rest is dissipated as heat to the struc-
ture. Coupling of pressure waves and reaction kinetics is a common

Fig. 34. RI of HCCI combustion w.r.t. CA50D8X X at 1000 rpm (Reprinted from [319] with Fig. 35. Variation of MPRR as function of PmaxD9X X(Reprinted from [47] with permission
permission of ACS). of SAGE).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 36. Correlation plot of MPRR to engine combustion parameters (Reprinted from
[322] with permission of SAE).
TagedPcause for amplification of pressure waves in the combustion cham-
ber [323]. Pedersen and Schramm [324] showed that there are at
least three possible mechanisms, which are responsible for creating
pressure waves in the chamber. These are (i) local explosions, (ii)
pressure wave amplification and (iii) detonations.
TagedPThe relationship between audible knock and in-cylinder gas
oscillations was developed by Draper [325]. When the cylinder
clearance height is small compared to the bore, the oscillation fre-
quencies are given by ‘drum’ modes (Fig. 37). For right circular cylin-
drical geometry, the resonant frequencies are calculated by the
following equation [326];
" pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#
rm;n g RT
fm;n D
pB
Here B is the bore of engine, T is temperature, R is universal gas con-
stant and m and n represents circumferential & radial mode of vibra-
tions.
TagedPIt has been observed that the frequency of these acoustic oscilla-
tions agrees well with the calculated frequency for the major acous-
tic resonant mode of the engine cylinder [316]. Vressner et al. [317]
found that most of the oscillationD539X Xenergy was in the first mode. Sev-
eral researchers tried to reduce the intensity of HCCI combustion
knocking using turbocharging, trapped residuals, EGR, water injec-
tion etc. Turbocharging has been widely accepted as a means of
extending high load limit of HCCI operating region. When boost air
is supplied to the engine, it operates with a higher charge density
and allows the work output to be increased while maintaining the
level of dilution or sometimes increasing it. Higher dilution level
helps in slowing down HCCI combustion rate [326,327]. EGR and
trapped residuals or their combination is used to reduce the severity
of knock. EGR acts as a low temperature diluent thus lowering the
mixture temperature in the combustion chamber. The level of
trapped residuals depends on valve timing hence the amount of
trapped residuals could be changed on a cycle-by-cycle basis despite
higher timescale for varying EGR D540X X level. Investigations conducted on
Fig. 37. Different mode shapes with accompanying mode factors for a cylindrical chamber (Reprinted from [317] with permission of SAE).
27
TagedP multi-cylinder engine at different load and speed conditions with
a
EGR and trapped residual gas revealed that EGR is the reason for
delayed ignition, prolonged combustion and extended knock limits
[288]. In another study, it was D541X X D542X X
found that EGR together with variable
boost and fuel chemistry could be effectively used to foster a D543X X strong
low-temperature heat release consistently [328].
TagedPAnother strategy attempted to reduce the knock intensity is
called “residual-effected" HCCI combustion, in which combustion is
initiated by exhaust re-induction from the previous engine cycle.
Re-induction is achieved using a fully flexible electro-hydraulic
variable-valve actuation system by late exhaust valve closing (EVC)
and late intake valve opening (IVO) strategies without throttling
the intake or exhaust, and without preheating the intake charge.
Using late EVC, exhaust gas from the engine is drawn back into
the combustion chamber during the induction process and this leads
to cooler burnt gases, when they are outside the cylinder. This strat-
egy is an effective meansD54X X to reduce charge temperature compared
to a residual gas trapping strategy via NVO with some success
[329,330].
TagedPControlling the stratification of the mixture is another viable way
to control the RoPR using direct injection to develop mild stratifica-
tion in the charge so as to reduce the pressure rise rate at high
loads [331]. However, with direct injection strategy, COVIMEP, NOx
emissions, and indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) are higher
compared to port fuel injection strategy [332].
4.6. Cycle-to-cycle variations
TagedPCycle-to-cycle variations have been shown to correlate well with
engine torque variations, thus directly affecting vehicle's drivability
[296]. These are a result of changes in charge D547X X composition, tempera-
ture and charge formation process. In addition to cycle-to-cycle var-
iations in multi-cylinder engines, cylinder-to-cylinder variations
also occur due to non-uniformD548X X fuel-air mixture distribution among
cylinders and temperature gradients within the physical engine
geometry, resulting in different heat transfer patterns. Therefore, it
is important to minimize cyclic variations during D549X X the design phase
itself for smoother engine operation and optimized performance in
terms of emissions and efficiency.
TagedPUnlike the SI and CI engines, there is no direct combustion timing
control in HCCI D50X X engines. In the HCCI combustion engines, ignition
timing is sensitive to air-fuel D51X X equivalence ratio, Ti,D52X X CR, residual gases,
cylinder wall temperature, and chemical D53X X kinetics of fuel/ air mixture.
Unstable engine operation was D54X X observed due to temperature sensi-
tive nature of HCCI combustion process. At high engine loads, due to
higher temperature of residual gas and cylinder walls, early and fast
combustion leads to pressure oscillations, and consequently,D5X X knock-
ing combustion may damage engine components. At light loads,
lower initial in-cylinder temperature and lean fuel/ air mixture often
results in cyclic variations such as misfire and partial combustion,
which may lead to high CO and UHC emissions [227].
TagedPCycle-to-cycle variations in the combustion process has long
been a topic of concern to researchers because it adversely affects
engine performance, producing losses in power and efficiency
28 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

TagedPas well as increasing noise [296]. Mechanism and control of TagedPreleased in each cycle. The combustion in current cycle was signifi-
cycle-to-cycle variations in SI engines has been thoroughly investi- D574X X
cantly affected by the extent of completeness of combustion in the
gated for D56X X several decades [333
337], however D57X X only some studies previous cycle. The cyclic variations of the HCCI engine correlated
D58X X
recently investigated cycle-to-cycle variations in HCCI engines well with combustion phasing and the combustion stability deterio-
[48,50,338
347]. Traditionally, the COV in IMEP (COVIMEP) is rated significantly for retarded combustion. Study also showed that
employed to describe engine performance stability [348]. IMEP is a advancing the combustion phasing helped stabilize HCCI combus-
crucial indicator of engine's performance characterizing engine load tion with the exception of knocking conditions. Li et al. [348] investi-
range, especially for HCCI operation, due to limited load range. In gated the cycle-to-cycle variations of CAI combustion using NVO
HCCI combustion, there is lower D59X X risk of misfire, when the COV is strategy. They found that excess air had a significant effect on cycle-
kept under 3.5% [294]. COVPmax is used to indicate combustion sta- to-cycle variations. High engine speed led to high levels of turbu-
bility and noise [342]. Some researchers working on cyclic D560X X variations lence, which was beneficial for charge formation and encouraged
in CAI combustionD561X X focused on variations D562X X in the maximum cylinder stable combustion.
pressure amongst successful cycles. As a result, the cyclic variations TagedPShahbakhti et al. [50] identified four potential sources of cyclic
in CAI are shown to be lower and smoother than SI combustion. variations in HCCI enginesD:57X X
However, it has been pointed out that low cyclic variations in CAI
engines lead to low cyclic variations in torque output as well. Several TagedP(i) Temperature inhomogeneity & thermal stratification,
factors influencing HCCI combustion and the extent of cycle-to-cycle agedP(T ii)TagedP Mixture composition inhomogeneity,
variations have been identified. These include fluctuations in param- (iii)TagedP Fluctuations in the charge AFR (Air-Fuel Ratio), and
eters and factors such as (i) intake air temperature and pressure, (ii) (iv) Fluctuations of diluentsD.576X X
intake air/ fuel ratio or fuel flow rate, (iii) coolant and lubrication oil
temperatures, (iv) presence D563X X of diluents i.e. external or internal EGR, TagedPTemperature inhomogeneity and thermal stratification in the
(v) thermal and mixture composition stratification as a result of mix- chamber is generated because of inadequate mixing of residual gasD57X X
ture in-homogeneity, (vi) intensity of intake charge motion and bulk with fresh charge and heat transfer from D578X X cylinder liner, head, piston
turbulence, (vii) completeness of combustion in the preceding cycle, and valves [350]. Cyclic variations in residual gas temperature and
and (viii) fuel-air mixing and homogeneous mixture formation strat- wall temperature also resultD579X XinD580X Xcyclic variations in different combus-
egies [345]. To control HCCI cyclic variations, several different actu- tion parameters in HCCI engines [351,352]. Studies indicate that
ation strategies can be employed, which affect combustion timings temperature inhomogeneity has larger influence on HCCI cyclic var-
such as intake air preheating, VCR, exhaust re-induction, exhaust re- iations in comparison to composition inhomogeneity [50,171]. HCCI
compression, multi-fuel, and multiple injection strategies. These engines often use port fuel injection (PFI) for homogeneous charge
actuation strategies are described in detail in a previous study [349]. preparation. PFI engines can have significant variations in airD-fuel 581X X
TagedPXingcai et al. [339,340] investigated the combustion stabilityD564X X ratio due to incomplete vaporization of liquid fuel droplets (espe-
and cycle-to-cycle variations of HCCI combustion using n-heptane, cially at low loads/ lean operating conditions) and cyclic variations
PRF20D,56X X PRF40, PRF50 and PRF60. The study showed that with in gas exchange process [353]. These variations cause variations in
increasing octane number of test fuels, COVs of all combustion and richness/ leanness of fuelD-air 582X X mixture as well as variations in specific
performance parameters increased significantly and distribution of heat of charge, which leads toD583X X differences in charge temperature
combustion parameters was more concentrated around mean values [354].
for higher cetane number fuels. Persson et al. [338] performed a pre- TagedPCumulative percentages of occurrence for COV of IMEP, and stan-
liminary study on cylinder-to-cylinder D56X X and cycle
to-cycle variations dard deviation of SOC plotted against their COV and standard devia-
of CAI combustion with trapped residual gas. Koopmans et al. [48] tion values for wide D584X X ranges of SOC are shown in Fig. 38. It can be
investigated the cycle-to-cycle variations in a cam-less gasoline observed that the cyclic variations in SOC for the engine operating
fueled compression ignition engine. This study showed a strong cor- conditions with SOC occurring just after TDC are lower comparedD D58X X 586X X to
relation between the combustion phasing and gas temperature in engine operating conditions having late SOC. A similar trend was D587X X
the beginning of compression D567X X stroke however no correlation was also noticed for COVIMEP, where the percentage of engine D58X X operating
found between the residual gas temperature at the end of expansion conditions with higher cyclic variations increaseD589X X as the SOC retards
stroke and the combustion phasing of the next cycle. Maurya and after TDC. SOC between the 0
5 CAD providedD590X X most stable HCCI
Agarwal [344,347] investigated cycle-to-cycle variations in HCCI combustion in terms of variations in IMEP for this engine.
combustion of methanol, ethanol and gasoline fueled engine using TagedPShahbakhti et al. [50] listed several factors affecting HCCI com-
port injection strategies for mixture formation. HCCI engine operat- bustion. These were D591X X attributed to higher cyclic variations because of
ing limits were D568X X investigated for 19 different gasoline like fuels retarded ignition timingD592X X after TDC. First, for retarded combustion
(octane number > 60) and octane index was defined to characterize phasing after TDC, cooling due to combustion chamber volume
high load (knock limit) and low load (high cyclic variation) limits increases (because of piston movement towards BDC with high
[52]. This study also demonstrated D569X X that only narrow range of com- expansion rate), which reduces the temperature rise due D593X X to combus-
bustion phasing around TDC leDd 570X X to acceptable cycle-to-cycle varia- tion [355]. Second, a thermally D594X X stratified charge formation takes
tions. Shi et al. [346] investigated combustion stability of mineral place due to retardedD59X X combustion because of higher heat transfer
diesel fueled HCCI and effects of engine load, speed and valve over- [293]. Third, HCCI near D596X X TDC exhibits lower sensitivity to charge tem-
lap. Another study showed that HCCI operating conditions were lim- perature fluctuations [356], and cyclic variations in the core temper-
ited by degree of stratification of inlet charge (composition and ature have higher influence on the late combustion phasing
temperature) for D571X X HCCI combustion of n-pentane and n-heptane conditions [293]. Fourth, combustion efficiency and thermal effi-
[342]. This study also showed that cyclic variations were lower near ciency were D597X X lower for retarded ignition timings [352,356] D598X X due to rel-
high load limit and higher CRs. Late cycle auto ignition study in HCCI atively incomplete combustion because of lower peak combustion
engine showed that cyclic variations in IMEP increased rapidly after chamber temperature [293]. Additionally, pressure rise rate and
particular combustion phasing or late limit. Li et al. [345] examined peak pressures were D59X X lower for retarded combustion phasing due to
the cycle-to-cycle variations of a HCCI engine operated using n-hep- lower temperature and higher combustion D60X X chamber expansion rate
tane over a range of intake air temperature, CRs and equivalence [356]. The work output was D601X X also lower because of energy release
ratios, EGR rate and intake pressures. They found that cyclic D572X X varia- due to combustion halfway D602X X down the expansion stroke with poten-
tions in HCCI D573X X engine were mainly due to variations in total energy tial misfiring D603X X and partial combustion [293].
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 38. Cumulative percentage of occurrence at different SOC intervals forD10X (X a) STD of SoC, (b) COV of IMEP (Reprinted from [50] with permission of SAGE).
TagedPD604X X
HCCI combustion phasing is not fully characterized by SoC as dif-
ferent combustion durations can have the same SoC. Combustion
duration also influences the IMEP of the combustion cycle. The
cumulative percentage of occurrence for COV of burn duration (BD)
versus COVBD for different values of BD is shown in Fig. 39. It can be
observed from the figure that faster HCCI leads D605X X to smaller cyclic var-
iations in BD.
TagedPFig. 40 shows the variations of COVIMEP and COVPmax with engine
speed for n-heptane as test fuel in HCCI combustion. It is observed
that cyclic variations increased with increasing engine speed. Engine
Fig. 39. Cumulative percentage of occurrence for COV of burn duration (BD) for differ-
ent BD values (Reprinted from [50] with permission of SAGE).
Fig. 40. Variations of COVPmaxD1X X and COVIMEPD12X X versus engine speed (Reprinted from
[345] with permission of NRC Publications).
29
TagedPspeed affects the time available for chemical reactions to occur. This
could be very important for test fuels that exhibit NTC combustion
[357]. As shown in Fig. 40, unstable combustion was observed at
high engine speeds due to reduced D60X X residence time for chemical reac-
tions, which retards combustion phasing as reported earlier [357].
TagedPHCCI cyclic variations dependD607X X on the variation dynamics of the
charge and the physics occurring inside the combustion chamberD.608X X
Shahbakhti et al. [50] observed three types of patterns: normal, peri-
odic, and weak/ misfired in HCCI combustion parameters. To have
HCCI combustion with low cyclic variations, periodic and misfired
oscillation patterns should be prevented and the magnitude of varia-
tions in the normal pattern should be maintained low. The popula-
tion of consecutive ignitions for a constant operating point can be
used to form a probability distribution for CA50 ensemble. The nor-
mal probability plot is a graphical tool to assess whether or not a
data set follows a pattern of a normal distribution [358]. A normal
probability plot depicts the shape and pattern of deviation from the
normal distribution. Fig. 41 shows the normal probability plot of
HCCI combustion phasing with different engine operating conditions
having misfire and knock. Experimental data points are plotted
against a theoretical normal distribution and if data is normally dis-
tributed, it forms an approximately straight line. Deviations from a
normal distribution are indicative of deterministic components in
the data. This suggests more deterministic patterns in the data at
misfire limit compared to that of the knock limit in Fig. 41.
TagedPA return map can be used to observe the structures inherent in a
time series [161]. Return maps provide a tool to check the probable
interaction between each cycle parameter with its next consecutive
cycle. For a random timeD609X X series, consecutive cycles are uncorrelated
and the return map shows an unstructured cloud of data points
gathered around a fixed point. With deterministic coupling between
points, the return map shows more structures such as dispersed
data points about a diagonal line [359,360]. A general inherent rela-
tionship of combustion phasing between the current cycle and the
next cycle is shown in Fig. 42. This return map clearly shows a deter-
ministic dependency on the previous cycles.
TagedPInterpretation of return maps is often complicated by the fact
that skewed distributions may produce dispersed data points, even
in the absence of correlations. A widely applicable solution to these
problems is to construct return maps of quantile values of combus-
tion timing instead of CA50D610X Xtiming. Fig. 42 shows the return map and
corresponding quantile return map for CA50D61X X at different air-fuel
ratios. It is observed from Fig. 43 that for leaner mixtures, the data
points are distributed in the whole plot space. As mixture strength
increases, the points are distributed with uneven density distribu-
tion in areas of higher and lower densityD612X X points. This indicates an
increase in deterministic behavior as mixture becomes richer.
30 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 41. Normal probability plot of combustion phasing (CA50)D13X X (a) for misfire limit and (b) for knock limit with base operating conditions of PRF0, N D 1000 rpm, ’ D 0.33,
EGR D 0%, PmD14X XD 132 kPa (Reprinted from [358] with permission of ASME).
Fig. 42. CA50D15X X return map for HCCI combustion (engine speed D 1000 rpm;
TmanD16X XD 440C; PmanD17X X D 94.5 kPa; λ D 2.34) (Reprinted from [359] with permission of
ASME).
TagedPThe observation of determinism in cycle-to-cycle variations may
have important diagnostic implications since cyclic variations in the
D613X X
engines is not a random process. The presence of dynamical struc-
tures in combustion parameters makes it possible to use new data
Fig. 43. Return maps and quantile return maps of CA50D18X fX or different λ at 1500 rpm with lag of one cycle (Reprinted from [361] with permission of SAE).
TagedP nalysis tools from non-linear dynamics and chaos theory to reveal
a
more information about engine behavior than what was previously
possible with conventional statistical techniques [361]. Specifically,
more important conclusions can be derived about the effect of vari-
ous engine parameters on cycle-to-cycle variations due to presence
of deterministic behavior. The presence of determinism implies that
intelligent control of the system could be a potential approach to
extend the limits of engine operation significantly. If a controller can
take advantage of deterministic nature of variations and non-linear-
ity of the system, small changes in control inputs such as fuel or
intake air temperature can push the system back to stable operating
point [362]. The non-linearity of the combustion system and lack of
a precise, compact model that satisfactorily describes the dynamic
behavior makes neural-network based controllers a promising
approach. These non-conventional methods are not much used in
analysis of cyclic variations of HCCI combustion and can have
D614Xpotential
X to give better understanding of HCCI combustion dynam-
ics. Recently Ghazimirsaied and Koch [363] used chaos theory (sym-
bol-statistics predictive approach) for controlling cyclic combustion
timing variations in a HCCI engine. They found that near the misfire
limit, the return map of u Pmax consisted of multiple regions, indicat-
ing non-constant nonlinear combustion timing. Non-random pat-
terns of cyclic variations in ignition timing (u Pmax) under specific
operating conditions emerged in symbol sequence analysis as large
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPpeaks in the symbol-sequence histogram and indicated a coupling
between consecutive cycles. Maurya and Agarwal used symbol
sequence statistics method to analyze the deterministic patterns in
CA50D615X tX iming in HCCI combustion engines [361].
TagedPFig. 44 shows the symbol sequence histograms of CA50 for differ-
ent λ using octal partition and sequence length 3. The thick red line
indicates the frequency for the random Gaussian data points. Fre-
quency above this line indicates determinism in the data points. The
symbol sequence numbers having higher frequency indicatedD61X X that
these patterns were D617X X repeated more number of times in experimental
data points. It is observed from the figures that the frequency of
sequence number increases more above the red line as mixture
become richer (lower λ) for each engine speed. This indicates
D618X X
inherent deterministic structure as mixtures becomes richer. It can
also be noticed from Fig. 44 that at higher engine speeds, the
Fig. 44. Symbol sequence histograms of CA50D19X fX or different λ at (a) 1200 rpm and (b) 1500 rpm using octal partition and sequence length 3 (Reprinted from [361] with permission
of SAE).
31
fTagedP requency of sequence numbers increases with increasingD619X X engine
D620X X
speed, suggesting that deterministic pattern increases with increas-
ing engine speed. In summary, chaotic methods (return maps and
symbol sequence statistics) are very useful tools for understanding
nonlinear cyclic combustion dynamics in HCCI engines.
5. Emission characteristics
TagedPMain motivation for investigation of LTC concept is its potential
to significant reduce emissions compared to conventional SI or CI
combustion. Biggest benefit of LTC compared to CI includes simulta-
neous reduction of NOx and PM. CI engine normally has a trade-off
between particulate and NOx emissions. If the engine operates in
D621X X
conditions with higher peak in-cylinder temperature, the oxidiza-
tion of soot would be good but the production of thermal NOx will
32 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPalso increase. On the other hand, if the engine operates at lower tem-
perature, NOx can be suppressed but PM would be high due to lower
oxidation of soot.
TagedPFig. 45 shows this trade-off along with the emission norms in EU
and US. Clearly CI engines must use exhaust gas after-treatment for
NOx and/ or PM. In CI engines, NOx is formed in hot zones with close
to stoichiometric air/ fuelD62X Xratios and soot is formed in fuel-rich spray
core zone. In Fig. 45, the normal emission level from a LTC engine
has been displayed. NOx is normally less than 1/500 of the CI engine
levels and no PM is generated in LTC engines [302].
5.1. Regulated gaseous emissions
TagedP5.1.1. Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC)
TagedPDespite several benefits offered by HCCI combustion and other
LTC systems, high levels of CO and HC emissions are observed, par-
ticularly at low or D623X X part-load conditions. Cheng D624X X
zedD625X X the following six significant mechanisms behind formation of
UHC in SI engines: combustion chamber crevices, lube oil absorp-
tion/ desorption, deposits on combustion chamber walls, flame
quenching at D62X X the
D627X X combustion chamber walls and in the bulk, exhaust
valve leakage, and incomplete combustion. UHC emissions take
place from HCCI combustion engines because a fraction of fuel
escapes primary combustion process due D628X X
(partial burning and misfiring), flame quenching at the entrance of
crevice volume and near the combustion chamber walls, and absorp-
tion and desorption of fuel vapors inD629X Xlubricating oil layers present onD630X X
the cylinder walls. The crevices between the cylinder walls and the
piston (small D631X X volumes with narrow entrances) are the primary
source of unburned HCDs, 632X X and the largest of these crevice volumes is
in the piston ring pack crevice [365]. Trapping of fuel in the combus-
tion chamber crevice volumes (e.g. piston top land, valve sheets,
threads around piston etc.) are one of the major sources of UHC
emissions in PFI D63X X engines. Fuel trapping in crevices in DI
D635X X
is more severe where early DI D63X X strategies are adopted since the in-
cylinder pressures are relatively lower and there is significant time
available for fuel spray dispersion towards the cylinder liner wall
[366]. The importance of piston top land geometry (Fig. 46a) was
investigated by experiments and modeling for a flat ‘pancake’ piston
geometry [367,368]. Fig. 46b shows the variations in the volume
fraction of HC with λ for different top land widths, when the engine
was operated at 700 and 1400 rpm. Increasing the top land width
D20X X
Fig. 45. The NOx-PM D21X X a standard diesel engine, emission regulations and LTC engine emissions (Green) [302] (Courtesy of Dr. Johansson).
trade-off in
fTagedP rom 0.26 mm to 1.3 mm or wider, resulted in a reduction of HC
at lower engine speeds and for mixtures richer than λ»2.8. At
1400 rpm, a top land width larger than 1.3 mm was required to
obtain the same results. By opening up the top land to 2.8 mm, HC
was reduced by > 50% in some cases [367].
TagedPFig. 47 shows the geometrical distribution of charge that burns to
completion, the charge that reacts partially and the charge that does
not react at all. In the 0.26 mm top land width case (Fig. 47a), the
charge trapped in the top land does not take part in combustion at
all. With a top land width of 2.1 mm, the consumption of top land
charge is very sensitive to λ. At λ D 4.5, only partial oxidation of
top land charge occurs. The wall quenching phenomenon is very
sensitive to λ and the wall temperature. Fig. 47 shows that wall
quenching is obvious at λ D 4.5.
TagedPAnother potential mechanism for HC D637X formation
X is through
bulk quenching. Bulk quenching occurs as a result of incomplete
et al. [364] summari- fuel oxidation D638X in X regions, where the local equivalence ratio is
either too fuel-lean or too fuel-rich or alternatively in exces-
sively low temperature zone within the combustion chamber
[366]. The temperature in-homogeneities can be induced by
heat transfer between the in-cylinder charge and combustion
chamber wall or by natural thermal in-homogeneities as a result
of mixing within bulk gases. A clear correlation exists between
to incomplete combustion the maximum cycle temperature and measured engine out HC
emissions [366].
TagedPFig. 48 shows the variation of HC emissions with different
parameters. This shows that increasing D639XTX i and equivalence ratio
leadD640X X to lower HC emissions, because both parameters increase
overall reactivity of fuel-air mixture. It appears that the influence
of the D641XTX i seems to be D642Xmore X significant at lower equivalence
ratios, probably because of the incomplete combustion at lower
equivalence ratios. More importantly, higher equivalence ratio
increases the specific heat capacity of the mixture, which leads
D634X X engines to lesser sensitivity of the D643XTX i. D64XHigher X equivalence ratio mixture
causes more rapid pressure rise during auto-ignition process,
resulting in higher temperatures, which promote ignition henceD645X X
more fuel quantity is burned. The hydrocarbon reduction at
higher equivalence ratios may also result from late hydrocarbon
oxidation during the expansion stroke, in addition to the higher
overall temperatures caused by greater heat release at higher
temperatures [369]. The emission of hydrocarbons decreased
when the CR was increased.
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 33

Fig. 46. (a). Sketch of the topland geometry. h is top land height and w is top land width. (hRC D 3 mm) (Reprinted from [367] with paermission of SAE). (b). Dependence of λ on HC
for different top land widths at 700 and 1400 rpm (Reprinted from [367] with paermission of SAE).

TagedPThe reduction in HC emissions, particularly ‘in-cylinder’ is impor- sTagedP urface and piston crown. It is worth noting here that the normal
tant since post-combustion oxidation D64X X of these species is even D647X X more surface temperature of the combustion chamber walls is close to
difficult due to lower EGT in D648X X HCCI combustion. All sources,
D649X X except light-off temperature (250
300 °C) D654X X for common catalyst materials
partial burning and misfiring, are close to the combustion chamber [369]. Zeng and Xie [365] proposed a novel approach to reduce UHCD65X X
walls. Therefore D650X X D651X X
UHCs can be reduced at their sources of production emissions at their sources of production using in-cylinder catalysts
D652X X
simply by using catalytic coatings on the cylinder D653X X head, piston on the surface of the combustion chamber walls in a HCCI engine.

Fig. 47. Geometrical distribution of burned, partially burned and unburned mass for different crevice volumes at TDC (Reprinted from [368] with paermission of SAE).
34 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

Fig. 48. Iso-emissions for hydrocarbons as a function of inlet temperature, equivalence ratio, fuel composition and CR for n-heptane. The fig. at the bottom-right is with 60 vol. %
n-heptane and 40 vol. % isooctane (Reprinted from [369] with permission of Elsevier).

TagedPOther way to reduce HC emissions is D65X X to minimize the crevice volume
D657X X
in the cylinder. Another way to reduce total HC emissions from a
HCCI engine is to use EGR [370]. The volume fraction of UHCs D658X X
not show any obvious dependence on EGR. The flow of exhaust gas
is reduced as the amount of EGR is increased [301]. Therefore, the
specific emissions of UHCsD659X X decrease with increasing EGR, as seen
Fig. 49. With 50% EGR, the specific HC is reduced by approximately
50%. This study usedD61X X higher T D62X X i as EGR percentage increasedD63X X in order
to keep the same combustion phasing.
TagedPSince HCCI engine is always operated with excess air, an oxidiz-
ing catalyst can be used for reducing HC emissions in-Dsitu. 64X X One prob-
lem though is that the EGT is rather low due to ultra-lean operation
and fast combustion in combination with a high CR. Research on low
temperature catalysts for HCCI engine systems are in progress [371].
Fig. 50 shows reduction of HC with four different coatings as a func-
tion of EGT. With an EGT of 350 °C, the HC reduction observed wasD65X X
TagedP round 90%. Platinum nitrate (PtNO3) proved to deliver the best
a
low temperature in-cylinder HC reduction characteristics among all
does catalysts evaluated [298].
TagedP5.1.2. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
D60X X in TagedPAmong the most desirable benefits of LTC engine, ultra-low
D67X X NOx
emission characteristics is the most important one. Formation of
NOx is very sensitive to peak in-cylinder combustion temperature.
For temperatures above 1800 K, NOx formation rate increases rapidly
[372]. In the LTC engines, combustion occurs through slow chemical
oxidation. Therefore, maximum temperature attained in the cylinder
is determined by the energy content of the fuel injected in that cycle.
LTC engine has much lower maximum temperatures compared toD68X X
Otto and diesel engines, where the maximum temperature is close
to stoichiometric adiabatic flame temperature. Therefore, LTC engine
is capable of performing at much lower NOx-levels D69X X than other

Fig. 49. Specific HC emissions for isooctane in HCCI combustion mode (Reprinted Fig. 50. Reduction in THC with oxidizing catalyst vs. EGT [298] (Courtesy of Dr.
from [301] with permission of SAE). Christensen).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 35

TagedPconventional IC engines [373]. NO formation during combustion of
D670X X not contain nitrogen, is through three main reaction
fuels that do
mechanisms namely thermal, prompt, and N2O-intermediate
[374
377]. There is growing evidence of a fourth reaction mecha-
nism of NOx formation involving NNH species [378
380]. The ther-
mal mechanism is based on the extended Zeldovich mechanism
[381,382]. The three main reactions are;
O C N2 $ NO C N;
N C O2 $ NO C O;
N C OH $ NO C H;
TagedPThe thermal NO reactions are highly dependent on tempera-
ture, residence time, and atomic oxygen concentration [383,384].
This mechanism has very strong temperature dependence
because of the high activation energy requirement of the first
reaction and the need forD671X X dissociation of O2. The first reaction is
usually accepted as being the rate-determining step due to its
high activation energy requirement [374]. The extended Zeldo-
vich mechanism describes the formation of NO in the post-flame
gases of fuel-lean and slightly fuel-rich mixtures (’ < 1.2) [385].
In standard diesel combustion conditions, it is often assumed
that nearly all NOx is formed via Zeldovich mechanism
[373,386
389]. In LTC conditions such as in HCCI engine, theo-
retical chemical kinetics analysis showed that the “prompt” and
“via N2O” formation mechanisms were not negligible anymore
[389,390].
TagedPFennimore described the phenomenon of "prompt NO" [391]. It is
called prompt because it was initiated by rapid production of NO in a
flame front, in a fuelD-rich 672X X mixture. The prompt NO formation in
hydrocarbon-air mixtures is initiated by the reactions of hydrocar-
bon radicals with molecular nitrogen to form atomic nitrogen and
species containing nitrogen elements, which are finally converted to
NO via some reaction sequence. The main reactions proposed to
describe the processes in hydrocarbon flames are [392]
N2 C CHx ⬄HCN C N C . . . ;
tTagedP o be present in the exhaust of HCCI engines [373]. It is accepted that
N2O is normally formed at relatively low combustion temperatures.
N2O emissions are very low (< 0.5 ppm) for normal HCCI combustion
and increase when incomplete combustion occurs [393].
TagedPThe NOx emitted from IC engines mainly consists of NO and NO2.
NOx emissions from HCCI combustion primarily compriseD673X X of NO2
under both, normal and knocking conditions. D674X X The contribution of NO
to total NOx is relatively small. In comparison, NO is the main NOx
component, when incomplete combustion occurs [393]. Fig. 51
shows the NO formation as a function of maximum temperature, cal-
culated from cylinder pressure trace. Different cylinder gas tempera-
ture is obtained using different air-fuel ratio. The NOx trend shows
almost exponential dependence on maximum mean gas tempera-
ture and very low emission levels were measured with ethanol. The
amount of NOx produced is dependent on fuel D675X X type to some degree.
Fuels with high ignition temperatures (high octane number) require
a higher CR and/ or higher T D67X X i to ignite. Higher ignition temperature
leads to higher combustion temperature, further leading to higher
D67X X x formation.
NO
TagedPFig. 52 shows how the amount NOx produced is affected by fuel's
octane number, CR and Ti.D678X X NOx emissions increase with increased
fuel octane number since a higher temperature is required for auto-
ignition of higher octane fuel.
TagedPFig. 52 shows dependence of NOx emissions on EGR. Overall NOx
levels are low, and further decrease with increasing EGR. This
D679X X
reduction depends on slower combustion rate and retarded D680X X

N2 C C2 ⬄2CN;

N C OH⬄NO C H

TagedPThis mechanism may also play an important role in the initial

stage of HCCI combustion. Some prompt NO may also be formed
after HCCI combustion is completed, when hydrocarbons emitted Fig. 51. NOxD2X Xas a function maximum temperature evaluated from cylinder pressure-
from the crevice region mix with combustion products, which are trace (Reprinted from [45] with permission of SAE).
not hot enough to oxidize the hydrocarbons completely but can initi-
ate NO formation reactions involving hydrocarbon radicals [393].
TagedPMalte and Prade proposed another pathway, by which, atomic
oxygen and molecular nitrogen can produce NO via intermediate
formation of N2O through a "recombination reaction” [383,385].
O C N2 C M $ N2 O C M

TagedPHere M is called a collision partner and represents all the mole-

cules present. The N2O then reacts with atomic oxygen and atomic
hydrogen to produce NO.
N2 O C H $ NO C NH

N2 O C O $ 2NO

TagedPNO formation via the nitrous oxide pathway is more complicated

than thermal NO. It was demonstrated that this mechanism plays an
important role in NO production under extremely lean and LTC pro-
cesses, such as in the lean operation of SI engines and gas turbines
[393]. For moderate NOx levels (in the range of 10 ppm), N2O reac- Fig. 52. Specific NOxD23X eX missions vs. CRD24X iX n a HCCI engine (Reprinted from [69] with per-
tions play an important role in NOx formation. N2O is also most likely mission of SAE).
36 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 53. NOxD25X e
X missions from
D26X X stable HCCI combustion at different intake air tempera-
tures (Reprinted from [235] with permission of Elsevier).
TagedPcombustion phasing, which leads to lower peak pressure, hence
lower maximum in-cylinder temperature [69].
TagedPFig. 53 shows NOx emissions from ethanol HCCI combustion at
different T 682X X as a function of λ [235]. It is
D681X X i in the range of 120
150D°C
observed that NOxD683X X emissions of HCCI combustion are very low for
lean fuel/ air mixture and LTC. For all stable operation points, NOxD684X X
emissions are lower than 10 ppm. Under normal HCCI operation,
NOx emissions are a function of fuel flow rate and combustion phas-
ing. The NOx emissions are independent of D685X X the approach employed
to obtain desired combustion phasing [393].
TagedP5.1.3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
TagedPD68X X 687X iX s one of the major emissionD68X fX rom IC engines. Emission of CO is
COD
generally an indication of incomplete oxidation of fuel i.e. lower air/
fuel ratio. In general, incomplete combustion occurs because the
combustion temperatures are too low. The CO-to-CO2 reactions are
especially sensitive to the combustion temperature. For operation at
1200 rpm with combustion phasing at TDC using isooctane as fuel, a
minimum required peak temperature of the order of 1500 K was
identified [145]. In LTC engine, CO is dependent on λ and on inlet air
preheating. Close to rich limit for LTC and with early combustion
phasing, very little CO is generated in the engine. But close to lean
limit, high amount of CO may be generated [26,45].
TagedPFig. 54 shows the experimentally measured fraction of supplied
fuel carbon that ends up as CO in the exhaust together with T D689X X iD690XD691X XX as a
function of supplied fuel/ air equivalence ratio (’) for two fuels: iso-
octane (2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) and PRF80. At high equivalence
ratios, conversion of CO into CO2 is very effective for both fuels since
the combustion temperatures are high. Only a few percent of fuel
Fig. 54. Experimentally measured exhaust CO and intake temperatures required
for 50% cumulative heat release at TDC as a function of fuel/ air equivalence ratio for
iso-octane and PRF80 (Reprinted from [394] with permission of Elsevier).
cTagedP arbon are left as CO in the exhaust gases and this is mainly attrib-
uted to late and incomplete oxidation of fuel trapped in crevices
[394].
TagedPThDree
692X X most important pathways of CO oxidation reactions are
shown below along with fraction of total CO2 produced by each of
them [394].
CO C OH ! CO2 C H ð78% of total CO2 Þ
CO C HO2 ! CO2 C OH ð7:2% of total CO2 Þ
CO C O2 ! CO2 C O ð1:5% of total CO2 Þ
TagedPCO oxidation is dominated by the first reaction. The OH level
drops off quickly with decreasing combustion temperature. There-
fore, below a certain temperature, the OH level becomes so low that
the CO oxidation does not proceed towards completion. Combustion
phasing influences CO emissionD705X X [394]. Advancing the combustion
timing reduces the CO produced, as combustion temperature
increases and there is more time available for in-cylinder oxidation.
CO emissions can be easily reduced by using oxidation D706X X catalysts.
TagedPFig. 55 shows reduction in CO emission by using different
D70Xoxidation
X catalysts. Oxidation of CO by an oxidation catalyst is less
dependent on the EGT compared to HC [298]. The CO emission was
also found to be influenced by fluid
wall interactions, mixing of
hot and cold air-fuel droplets, and cylinder wall temperature.
708X X
InDhomogeneities introduced due to aforementioned factors affect
the formation of CO [395].
5.2. Unregulated emissions
TagedPMajor pollutants
D709X X reported in LTC studies for different engine
operating conditions and combustion chamber configurations are
regulated emissions however the formation mechanisms, sources
and harmful effects of unregulated emissions has not been fully
explored and understood in scientific studies. PAHsDD710X X 71X X are potentially
carcinogenic, while oxygenated hydrocarbons (OHC) such as alde-
hydes or ketones act as ozone precursors therefore they are D712X X required
to be investigated more seriously [396]. Several researchers have
performed experimental and numerical studies to investigate unreg-
ulated emissions from HCCI combustion engines. Dec and Sjoberg
[174] performed single zone model analysis atD713X X low engine loads for D714X X
different intake temperatures, engine speeds and CRs. They reported
higher CO emission from HCCI combustion due to relatively lower
combustion efficiency along with relatively higher emissions of oxy-
genated hydrocarbons. Dec et al. [397] performed detailed analysis
of exhaust samples for different air/ isooctane mixtures at a fixed CR
of 14. At each engine operating condition, exhaust samples were col-
lected and analyzed by GC-FID for C1 and C2 hydrocarbon species
D27X X
Fig. 55. Reduction in CO emission by different oxidation catalysts [298] (Courtesy of
Dr. Christensen).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPand by GC
MS for all other species except formaldehyde and acetal-
dehyde. Results showed a large number of HCDs715X X and OHC species in
the exhaust samples. These species were generated due to break-
down of iso-octane. Merritt et al. [398] studied unregulated emis-
sions from a diesel engine operating in different LTC modes. The
engine-out emissions of carbonyl compounds were found to be sig-
nificantly higher inD716X X mineral diesel fueled PCCI-lean conditions com-
pared to CI combustion, while PCCI-rich conditions produced lower
carbonyl emissions compared to CI combustion. They also reported
that PAH compounds were higher D71X X in case of PCCI-lean combustion
however PCCI-rich combustion resulted in lower PAH emissions,
which were comparable to CI combustion. Kaiser et al. [399]
measured detailed emissions from D718X X surrogate gasoline, in a DI-HCCI
engine. They reported that in LTC, combustion process changed
from high temperature combustion to intermediate temperature
combustion, which increased concentration of intermediate organic
D719X X
pollutant species such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, benzene, etc.
Cosmin et al. [400] investigated emission characteristics of a HCCI
engine using 4 different PRFsD D720X X ,721X X from pure heptane (PRF0) to PRF50,
where the number represents the percentage of iso-octane in the n-
heptane/ iso-octane blendD72X X (Fig. 56). They reported partial oxidation
due to retarded and incomplete combustion as the main reason
for unregulated emission formation. They identified more than 150
pollutant species, which included alkanes, D723X X alkenes, carbonyl com-
pounds and alkynes mainly. Both alkenes and carbonyls decreased
quickly with increasing CR until CR» 12, and continued decreasing
slowly to their minimum values at the maximum CR (16).
TagedPLi et al. [401] investigated unregulated emissions from a DI diesel
engine with ultra-high EGR LTC using Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy. In the experimentD,724X X oxidation catalysts were
found effective in reducing some unregulated toxic emissions
including aldehydes and some unsaturated hydrocarbons. However,
aromatics and methane generated from ultra-high EGR LTC were not
affected significantly. Catalysts of higher oxidation potential reduced
methane and aromatics to some extent but these emissions were
still quite high due to LTC operation using ultra-high EGR. Ogawa
and Li [402] investigated the effect of EGR on unregulated emissions.
They reported that volatile organic compounds (VOC) and lowD725X X
molecular weight hydrocarbons increased with increasing EGR. Natti
et al. [403] studied the effect of different operating parameters such
as swirl ratios, FIP, SoI timings and EGR on unregulated emissions
D726X X
from a HSDI diesel engine operating in LTC mode. They reported that
LTC resulted in higher concentrationD72X X of VOCs and PAHs. This trend
was further verified by Bohac et al. [404]. Ogawa et al. [402] sug-
gested that these unregulated species can be significantly reduced
D28X X different primary reference fuels [400] (Courtesy of Dr. Cosmin).
Fig. 56. Compression ratio influence on alkanes, alkenes, and carbonyls emissions for
37
TagedP y DOCs however aromaticD728X X compounds generated from ultra-high
b
EGR combustion were very difficult to control by DOCs, particularly
under fuel-rich conditions. Yan et al. [405] investigated unregulated
emission characteristics of a methanol and DME fueled single cylin-
der diesel HCCI engine. They used gas chromatography (GC) to
D729X X
investigate unregulated emission species such as formaldehyde,
acetaldehyde, methanol and methyl formate from the test engine.
They found that all unregulated emissions increased with increasing
injected quantity of methanol. They also reported that DME/ metha-
D730X X
nol fueled engine emitted higher formaldehyde emissions compared
to mineral diesel.
5.3. Particulate emissions
TagedPEnvironmental protection agencies are becoming increasingly
concerned about D731X X PM emissions from IC engine because their health
and environmental effects are now fully known. PM emissions,
especially small sized particles emitted from IC engines have great
impact on urban air quality and human health. Studies have
D732Xshown
X the correlation between human health and PM emissions
[406]. Mineral dDiesel 73X X D734X X highly agglomer-
exhaust particles consist of
ated solid carbonaceous materials and ash, volatile organic carbon
and sulfur compounds mainly. Solid carbon is formed during com-
bustion in locally rich regions and much of it is subsequently oxi-
dized. The residue is exhausted in the form of solid agglomerates. A
tiny fraction of fuel and evaporated lubricating oil escape oxidation
and appears as volatile or soluble organic compoundD735X X in the exhaust
[407]. The soluble organic fraction (SOF) contains poly-cyclic aro-
matic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur [408].
TagedPFig. 57 shows a D736X X typical schematic representation of diesel partic-
ulateD.73X X The composition of exhaust particles depends upon where
and how they are collected on the filter paper or sampled. During
sampling process, exhaust D738X X is diluted and cooled. The processes
of nucleation, condensation, and adsorption transforms volatile
materials in to solid and liquid PM.
TagedPTemperature is quite high in the exhaust tailpipe therefore
most volatile species remainD739X X in gaseous phase. During sampling of
exhaust gas, dilution and cooling processes determine relative D740X X
amount of organic species, which are adsorbed or condensed onto
existing particles or nucleate to form new particles [407]. Particle
size influences the environmental impact in several ways e.g. it
influences residence time of particulate D741X X in the atmosphere [410],
optical properties of the particulate [411], particle surface area avail-
able for adsorption [412], its ability to participate in atmospheric
chemistry [407], and its health impacts [413]. The optical properties
38 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
Fig. 57. Schematic representation of diesel particles and vapor phase compounds
(Reprinted from [409] with permission of SAE).
TagedPof PM influence atmospheric visibility and are responsible for
soiling of buildings. These properties depend on particle size distri-
bution, shape, and composition [411]. Particles interact with light by
absorbing/ scattering it. For diesel exhaust particulateD,742X X absorption is
much stronger than scattering and is relatively independent of parti-
cle size for visible light. The absorption is primarily due to carbon
content of the particulate. Light scattering is strongly dependent on
particulate size and shape and is typically maximum for particulate
a few tenths of a micron in diameter. The scattering is mainly due to
particles in the accumulation mode size range.
TagedPUltrafine particles (DpD74X <
X 100 nm) and nano-particles scatter light
very weakly [407]. Generally, particulate from IC engines can be cat-
egorized into three distinct types according to their sizes: nucleation
mode (< 50 nm), accumulation mode (50
1000 nm) and coarse
mode (> 1000 nm) [407], as shown in Fig. 58. The concentration
of particles in any size range is proportional to the area under
the corresponding curve (Fig. 58) in that range. There are
D745Xother X definitions also available in literature, which differD D746X X
the size range, such as nucleation mode (< 100 nm), accumulation
mode (100
900 nm) and coarse mode (> 900 nm) [414]. The nuclei
mode typically contains 1
20% particle D748X X mass and more than 90%
D749Xparticle X numbers. The coarse mode contains 5
20% particle D750X X
Most particle mass exists in the accumulation mode inD751X X 0.1
0.3 mm
diameter range particles [407]. Diesel particulate emissions are
influenced by dilution and parameters such as dilution air
Fig. 58. Typical particle size distribution from combustion engines (Reprinted from [407] with permission of Elsevier).
TagedPtemperature, dilution ratio, residence time, and relative humidity,
which are extremely important for creation of nano-particles
(DDp752X X < 50 nm) [415]. PM emissions in accumulation mode have been
shown to be independent of dilution conditions.
TagedPHCCI combustion concept is known for its potential for very low
NOx and particulate emissions, which are usually close to negligible.
However recent investigations have shown that although the total
mass of PM is indeed negligible, significant numbers of particles
remain in the size below D753X X 100 nm mobility diameter [416
419]. This
size range is well within the measurement capabilities of modern
nano-particle size measurement instruments, which are also suit-
able for studies of HCCI particulateD.754X X Kaiser et al. investigated PM
emissions from gasoline fueled HCCI engine and used an early direct
injection strategy at various fuel injection timings [282]. A scanning
mobility particle sizer (SMPS) was used for PM measurements in
this study. HCCI combustion was achieved with intake temperatures
ranging from 150- 200 °C at a CR of 15.2D.75X X Particle size distributions
are presented for three different HCCI operating conditions (air/
fuelD756X D X 34, 47, and 98) at a constant engine speed (1100 rpm)
(Fig. 58). At two of the HCCI conditions (air/ fuelD75X D X 34), accumulation
mode particle number concentrations were higher than that of DISI
operation and the mode itself was at a larger mobility diameter. The
presence of large accumulation mode particles was explained by the
existence of at least some degree of diffusion burning. The HCCI con-
D743X X dition with air/ fuelD758X D X 98 showed far lower accumulation mode par-
ticles than either HCCI or D759X X DISI combustionD.760X X However, an order of
magnitude increase in nucleation mode particle number concentra-
tions at this condition was observed compared to other test condi-
tions. Lower in-cylinder temperature with extremely lean operation
prevents full oxidation of the boundary layer and crevice bound
hydrocarbons, thereby increasing the concentration of hydrocarbon
precursors to enable higher nucleation.
TagedPPrice et al. [416] investigated
D761X X PM emissions from a gasoline
fueled HCCI engine using DI-HCCI fueling strategy and a multiple
electrometer based differential mobility particle sizer. Tests were
conducted by varying valve timings and Ti.D762X X All test conditions with
74X X in different valve timing combinations showed a nucleation mode,
which had a significantly higher particle concentration than the
accumulation mode. Misztal et al. [417] conducted more detailed
study of HCCI particle size distribution using DI-HCCI system by
mass. injecting unleaded gasoline directly into the cylinder employing
NVO, in order to capture the residuals. The main focus of this
work was to explain the consequences of intake air heating on PM
emissions in a HCCI engine. This study suggested that by preheating
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPthe inlet air, PM emissions from HCCI engines can be reduced. The
effect was mainly due to higher in-cylinder temperature during
compression stroke, leading to improved fuel evaporation. Since
evaporation and wall wetting phenomenon are unique to DI fueling
strategies, therefore this trend may not be characteristic D763X X
engines. Another investigation by Misztal et al. examined the role of
injection timing on D765X X PM formation in the same engine [418].
TagedPFig. 59 shows the effect of injection timing on particle size-num-
ber distribution in a HCCI engine operated at 2500 rpm. The DI mode
of fuel delivery led to discovery of high sensitivity of PM formation
to the injection timings. Injection timings were reported in terms of
EoI and were varied from 250° BTDC to 350° BTDC of the compres-
sion stroke. The most advanced SoI timings generally showed the
highest PM mass and number emissions even though mixing times
were the longest. The authors attributed this to wall wetting effects
from impingement of most fuel on the piston surface. They also
noticed that PM emissions were very closely coupled to mixture
homogeneity for this type of HCCI engine.
TagedPFranklin investigated the effect of different HCCI control strate-
gies on particle emissions [419]. Findings of this study strongly sug-
gested that although essentially free of accumulation mode (soot)
particles, nucleation mode particles are present in insignificant mass
and numbers in the exhaust of a fully premixed HCCI engine. Precur-
sors to these particles primarily originate from more volatile species
D76X X the lubricating oil. Abundance
of D76X X of volatile precursors and lack of
adsorption and condensation sites creates ideal conditions for
homogeneous nucleation [419].
TagedPEffect of intake air pressure on particle sizeD-number 768X X
D769X X
was studied by Desantes et al. [105]. They investigated the effect of
engine parameters such as intake air oxygen content, intake air pres-
sure etc. on the engine out emissions. They observed that a slight
increase in intake air pressure causes a significant reduction
HC, PM mass and number emissions. PM emissions decreased due to
better oxidation of particulate in late D71X X combustion phase and also due
D72X X
to lesser fuel deposition in D73X X the piston bowl. Maurya and Agarwal
[420] reported the effect of port fuel injection timings and relative
fuel/ air ratio on the particulate emissions from a methanol fueled
HCCI engine. Effect of SoI timings on particulate emissions at differ-
ent intake air temperature for constant fuel quantity injected
(25 mg/ cycle) is shown in Fig. 60 [420]. It is found that at each intake
air condition, SoI in IVO conditions (5 and 70 CAD) have higher peak
particle concentration compared D74X X to SoI in IVC condition. Also, the
difference between peak particle concentration in SoI at IVO open
and IVC is lower at higher Ti.D75X X It can be noticed that peak concentra-
tion of particles increased with increasing intake air temperature
up to 170 °C and further increasing TiD76X X does not increase peak
Fig. 59. Particulate size distribution at different fuel injection timing at 2500 rpm
(Reprinted from [418] with permission of SAGE).
39
cTagedP oncentration of particles. Authors also investigated the effect of SoI
on particulateD D7X X 78X X as a function of different fueling
D79X X rate at constant T D780X X i
(Fig. 61). It is found that peak concentration of particles increased
with increasing fuel quantity/ cycle. For each fueling condition, SoI
D764X X HCCI
to all in IVO conditions (5 and 70 CAD) have higher peak particle concen-
tration as compared to SoI in IVC conditions due to higher fuel-air
mixture homogeneity in IVC timing. It is also noticed that on increas-
ing the fuel quantity, particle D781X X number concentration peak shifts
towards higher mobility diameterD.782X X
TagedPAll these discussions suggest that in HCCI engines, significant
number of particles remain in the size ranges below 100 nm mobility
diameterD783X X and cannot be neglected. Therefore, further research is
needed to characterize PM formation in HCCI engines using D784X X different
control strategies and fuels.
TagedPAgarwal et al. [421] performed mineral diesel fueled HCCI experi-
ments and investigated particulate emission characteristics at differ-
ent λ D785X X D786X X and EGR rates. They observed that most diesel HCCI particles
were ultra-fine particles. They found that particle number concen-
tration increased with increasing EGR rate. They also suggested that
increasing EGR and λ resulted in formation D78X X of higher numbers of
accumulation mode particles, which were mainly due to higher
BSOF of the PM. According to Kittleson [407], carbonaceous agglom-
erates comprised most particulate mass from diesel engines
however this D78X X could be significantly reduced by employing HCCI
technology. They suggested that about 10% (w/ w) PM D789X X mass wasD790X X
inorganic, which included trace metals and ash. In another study car-
ried out by Agarwal et al. [422], gasoline fueled HCCI combustion
distribution was investigated. They reported that PM emissions from HCCI
engine largely depend on EGR rate, λ and T D791X X i.D792X X In the experimentD,793X X they
observed that total particle number concentration increased with
increasing TiD794X X however it reduced for leaner mixture conditions
D70X X in CO, (Fig. 62). Toxic substance carrying capacity of PM decreased with
increasing Ti, however it increased at higher λ.
6. Combustion control strategies for LTC operating window
expansion
TagedPStable and efficient operation of LTC engines need precisely con-
trolled combustion timings. One of the main challenges in LTC
engine is combustion control since the onset of combustion depends
on in-cylinder temperature, pressure, and fuel-air mixing inside the
combustion chamber and there is no direct actuator to start the
combustion. When the combustion control is not fast enough, too
advanced or too retarded combustion can take place in the engine.
Too advanced combustion can yield unacceptable RoPR or unaccept-
able peak cylinder pressure, causing excessive noise, which may
potentially damage the engine. Additionally, NOx emissions from the
engine tends to increase with ignition advance [352]. Another driver
to have an effective closed-loop combustion control is the fact that
late combustion timing leads to incomplete combustion and increas-
ing emissions of CO and HC. The worst case of ‘too late combustion’
is a complete misfire, which if repeated, can cause engine to stall.
Another possibility is that the engine enters a vicious circle with one
misfiring cycle followed by a cycle with very strong combustion due
to fuel-rich residuals, followed by another misfire and so on [423].
Thus, proper D795X X choice of combustion timing at each operating point is
crucial for LTC engines. A further complication is that the LTC igni-
tion process is very sensitive and frequently comes to the brink of
instability. In fact, some LTC operating points are inherently unsta-
ble. This means that it is impossible to map an LTC engine reliably.
Therefore, closed loop combustion control is necessary to guarantee
correct combustion timing [423].
TagedPLTC engines specially the ones operating in HCCI mode do not
have a direct actuator for combustion timing. Therefore, feedback is
required to control the combustion timing of the engine. The com-
bustion timing can be defined based on several different criterionsD796X X
40 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
29X X
Fig. 60. Particle sizeD-number
distribution at 1500 rpm with varying SoI for different T
TagedPsuch as position of 10 or 50% heat release, point of peak pressure or
peak pressure rise rate etc. [424]. For closed-loop control of combus-
tion timing, it is necessary to measure the combustion timing. There
are several sensors used for combustion phase sensing. The most
commonly used method for combustion phasing determination is by
using heat release analysis of cylinder pressure data. In a laboratory
environment, piezoelectric pressure transducers are generally used
for in-cylinder pressure measurementD.79X X However, due to higher cost
and shorter life time of piezoelectric pressure transducers, they are
not used in production grade engines. However, several lowD-cost 798X X
piezo transducers exist for pressure sensing [425,426]. The accuracy
of these low cost sensors is probably sufficient for feedback control
of HCCI combustion phasing [427]. Optical pressure transducers are
also used for combustion timing determination [423]. One of the
most promising technologies in combustion phasing is inexpensive
ion current sensors, which use electronic D79X X conductive properties in
the reaction zone [428
430]. The drawback with ion current sensing
is that it gives only local information, but if the charge is homoge-
neous, a local measurement is sufficient. The ion current signal is
dependent on fuel D80X X properties and engine operating conditions [427].
Another means to obtain the combustion timing is to use knock sen-
sors or microphones on the engine block [431,432].
TagedPSeveral means to actuate the combustion phasing in HCCI engine
control have been suggested by researchers such as dual fuel,
D30X X i (Reprinted from [420] with permission of SAE).
TagedP ariable valve actuation (VVA), VCR and thermal management
v
[433,434]. They all fulfill the requirement of fast actuation, which is
needed to control the combustion phasing, however all methods
have their own benefits and drawbacks. Kawano et al. [435] investi-
gated various strategies using control parameters such as injection
timing, injection pressure, internal/ external EGR, boost pressure,
and VVT to control ignition timings of diesel HCCI engines. In the
experimentD,801X X it was found that combination of these strategies can
control the ignition near TDC at each operating condition. In addi-
tion, low smoke and NOxD802X X emissions were realized without a drastic
increase in THC and CO emissions. These results show the possibility
of diesel HCCI operation at wide load ranges. Following sub-sections
describe different control strategies and their status in HCCI engines.
6.1. Dual-fuel control strategy
TagedPIn dualD-fuel
804X X type controls, two fuels with different auto-ignition
properties are used. The system will have a main fuel with a high
octane number and a secondary fuel with low octane number [71].
Different auto-ignition properties of dual fuel system was used to
control the combustion phasing in LTC as blending two fuels in dif-
ferent proportions change auto D805X X ignition properties. Use of commer-
cial fuels or mixtures of single-component fuels and commercial
fuels and PRFs hasD806X X been investigated in several studies [436].
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 41

31X X
Fig. 61. Particle sizeD-number distribution at 1500 rpm for varying SoI for different fuel injection quantities (Reprinted from [420] with permission of SAE).

TagedPExamples of these fuels considered include mixtures of ethanol and

n-heptane [437]; mixtures of n-heptane and mineral diesel [438];
mixtures of gasoline and mineral diesel [439,440] and mixtures of
gasoline and natural gas [441]. All these studies reported some posi-
tive results and varying levels of feasibility. For better understanding
of the dualD-fuel 807X X mode operation of CI engines, Mancaruso and
Vaglieco [252] performed PCCI experimentD80X Xusing ethanol and diesel.
In the experimentD,809X X ethanol was injected in the intake manifold how-
ever mineral diesel was injected directly into the cylinder. The
experimentD810X X were performed at different CRs
D81X X and they reported that
HCCI combustion governing parameter as OH radicals were signifi-
cantly controlled by the CRD.812X X

6.2. Variable valve timing (VVT) and variable compression ratio (VCR)
strategy

TagedPFor LTC control, there are two major methodologies namely

residual gas control and effective CR control, which were also inves-
tigated [423]. VVA provides a very fast means of affecting the breath-
Fig. 62. Total particulate concentration for varying λ and Ti in gasoline HCCI engine ing of the engine. VVA can be used to control the initial charge
(Reprinted from [422] with permission of Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research)]. temperature by retaining residual gas or rebreathing hot exhaust
42 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPgas through the exhaust valve. Another way to control the charge
temperature is by advancing or retarding the IVC timingD.813X X This
reduces the effective CR of the engine. Use of VVA for control of HCCI
engine is of growing interest and researchers are exploring it using
both modeling and experiments [442
444].
TagedPMatthews et al. [445] developed a controller for a single cylinder
engine with electromagnetic VVT control (also known as CAI opera-
tion). Under open-loop operation within CAI D814X X regime, the results indi-
cated that the engine response was bipolar in nature: (a) the engine
either responded quasi-statically to the open-loop control, or (b) the
CAI combustion failed. Based on these results, a load following con-
troller with a table-look-up feed-forward component and a feed-
back component based on the cumulative difference between the
targeted and measured output was developed. Jia et al. [102] investi-
gated potential D815X X of high-load expansion of PCCI combustion by using
late IVC. They performed the experimentD816X X using high EGR rate,
boosted intake pressure and optimized injection timing. They
observed that retarded IVC timing resulted in lower NOxD817X X and soot
emissions with low fuel consumption D81Xcompared X to normal IVC
timing.
TagedPVCR can also
D819X X be used to control combustion phasing by increas-
ing the CR and charge D820X X temperature after the compression. VCR can
be achieved by several different methods. Lack of control over indi-
vidual cylinder, which is necessary to obtain good combustion phas-
ing control is the main drawback of VCR system. Cost and
complexity of VCR systems are the other major obstacles for its
application in HCCI engines [427].
6.3. EGR strategy
TagedPEGR is essential to achieve simultaneous low soot and NOxD823X Xemis-
sions from LTC engine without prohibitively high fuel consumption
penalties due to poor combustion phasing. Tuning the EGR D824X X rate is
the most commonly used technique to adjust in-cylinder tempera-
ture, which controls SoC. Initially, Thring [66] achieved HCCI com-
bustion by varying the TiD825X X and EGR fraction over a wide range of
equivalence ratios. High heat capacity constituents of EGR are CO2,
water, nitrogen, oxygen, CO, PM, HC, NOxD826X X and other intermediate
species of combustion reactions that controlD827X X the HCCI combustion
[446
448]. These constituents show following four effects on com-
bustion and emissions. First is the preheating effect, in which, the
inlet charge temperature increased when the hot EGR was mixed
with air/ fuel mixture. Second is the dilution effect, where the intro-
duction of EGR led to substantial reduction in D82X X the oxygen concentra-
tion. Third is the heat capacity effect, in which total heat capacity of
mixture of EGR, air, and fuel would be higher owing to higher heat
capacity of CO2 and water vapor. This would lead to a reduction of
D829X X
charge temperature at the end of the compression stroke. Final is
the chemical effect, where unburnt combustion products in EGR
would take part in chemical reactions. HC, CO, CO2, NO, H2O, etc.
present in the EGR take part in the chemical reactions, leading D830X X to a
moderate effect on the reaction rates. Integrating all these effects,
SoC during HCCI combustion and combustion duration of overall
HCCI-DI combustion can be controlled by regulating EGR quantity.
Therefore, EGR makes it possible to suppress the excessively
advanced SoC by low temperature reactions in the HCCI phase. This
excessively advanced and rapid combustion causes knocking, which
limits the operating range of HCCI combustion. EGR can be classified
as internal EGR and external EGR [449]. The internal EGR rate can be
obtained by changing valve overlap period and external EGR rate
can be adjusted by the combined effect of the exhaust back-pressure
valve and EGR valve. For high-octane fuels such as gasoline, NVO D831X X is
recognized as one of the possible implementation strategy forD832X X HCCI
combustion. The effect of TiD83X v X ia NVO is insignificant, when the engine
runs well inside the HCCI operating range [450]. Cooled external EGR
cTagedP an reduce the mixture temperature in the compression stroke
D834Xhence X it delays the SoC of high cetane fuels such as biodiesel. D835X X
TagedPHigh EGR levels reduce combustion temperatures and result in
pyrolysis of fuel, which forms soot precursors. Aceves and Flowers
[451] reported that low temperature diesel combustion exhibits low
soot precursors at low EGR, but it increased rapidly as EGR rate
D836Xincreased. X After reaching a maximum, they decreased rapidly to
near zero as the charge mixture approached stoichiometryD.837X X It was
also found that reducing the rate of mixing and increasing the mix-
ture temperature tends to increase the equivalence ratio at the point
of ignition, which considerably increases soot D83X X precursor production.
Although EGR gases are cooled prior to reaching the inlet manifold,
intake air temperature rises with EGR fraction as cooler fresh air is
displaced. When developing the MK regime, Kimura et al. [452]
reported a reduction in intake gas temperature from 117 °C to 67 °C,
which decreased soot emissions by 90% and NOxD839X X emissions by 30%.
Ishikawa et al. [453] investigated the effect of heat exchanger effi-
ciency of an EGR cooler on combustion by improving cooler heat
rejection from 2.8 kW to 7.3 kW. The temperature in the intake man-
ifold decreased from 110 °C to 36 °C, increasing the charge density
and oxygen concentration. This resulted in a reduction of soot emis-
sionD840X d X ue to minimizedD841X equivalence D842X X ratio zone however HC emissions
D843X X
increased slightly. Limiting flame temperatures with high EGR D84X X rates
contained NOxD845X X formation. D846X X Overall, faster reaction rates due to
increased oxygen availability were deemed to be offset by slower
reaction rates due to cooler temperatures and increased thermal
capacity, leading to no overall change in heat release or NOx.D847X X
TagedPKanda et al. [202] conducted experiment on PCCI engine with
high EGR (54%) for retarding the combustion phasing towards TDC
that resulted in improved IMEP. Boyarski and Reitz [454] used high
EGR (upto 68%) in the other PCCI combustion system and found it
highly effective as a controlling parameter for the SoC. They reported
that high EGR can also be used to control the RoPR by altering the
SoC. Therefore, for early injection PCCI combustion concept, EGR
should be coupled with other techniques such asD84X Xmodification of the
fuel properties or lending approach. For the late injection like MK
combustion system, EGR is basically used as a means of controlling
emissions of NOxD849X Xwith typical value of approximately 40% [454,455].
Idicheria and Pickett [456] performed experimentD850X X in constant vol-
ume vessels and showedD851X X that EGR leDdD 852X X 853X X to early development of cool
flames after fuel injection. An increase in EGR causedD854X X the premixed-
burn IDD,85X X which was D856X X inversely proportional to the ambient oxygen
concentration and lowered the peak of HRR. The timing of soot
formation was D857X X strongly affected by EGR and the time delay for D85X X soot
formation from ignition increased D859X X with increasing EGR.
TagedPShi et al. [450] performed HCCI experimentD860X X using internal EGR.
VVT was implemented to change the quantity and temperature of
internal EGR (Fig. 63). The quantity of cooled external EGR was
adjusted by the back-pressure valve and the EGR valve, and EGR
temperature was controlled by the cooler in the EGR pipe. Early clos-
ing of exhaust valve and late opening of inlet valve can change the
quantity of in-cylinder exhaust gas. When the NVO was D861X X increased,
both, the start of LTR and HTR advanced, D862X X the combustion duration
decreased and the maximum HRR increased. It happenedD863X X due to
trapping of high-temperature residual gas with increasing NVO
D864X X
which resultedD865X X in higher in-cylinder temperature. The combustion
rate of HCCI engine is very sensitive to the temperature and it D86X X
increased with increasing temperature.
TagedPLarge NVO can reduce smoke emission from HCCI combustion,
but does not help in expanding the high load limit at the same time,
thus increasingD867X X NOxD86X X emissions. In contrast, small NVO can reduce
NOxD869X X emissions but does not reduce smoke emission. Jacobs et al.
[457] achieved lower equivalence ratio (lean) and higher equiva-
lence ratio (richer) LTC in order to control NOxD870X X and PM emissions
simultaneously. Lean PCCI combustion was achieved by employing
high EGR rates, higher fuel injection pressures and the timing of
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56 43

D32X X
Fig. 63. Effect of internal EGR on HCCI emission D3X X
and control (Reprinted from [450] with permission of Elsevier).

TagedPinjection was set close to TDC. This strategy reduced NOxD871X X and PM 6.4. Fuel additives strategy
emissions because soot particles were unable to evolve D872X X in low tem-
perature conditions. However, lower temperatures hindered the use TagedPFuel composition has little influence on the reaction rate and
of after- treatment devices such as DOC. Rich PCCI combustion reaction duration once reactions have been initiated; however, it
helped in reduction of PM and NOxD873X X and was D874X X also useful in D875X X regenera- defines the auto-ignition temperature hence D89X X can control the SoC in D90X X
tion of lean NOxD876X X trap. Idicheria and Pickett [458] examined soot for- HCCI engines. Fuel additives mainly affect the LTR, which in turn
mation in PCCI combustion under very high EGR rates. They found affects the start of main reaction. Main fuel parameters influencing
that increasing ambient temperature resulted in higher D87X X soot forma- the physical delay part of ignition delay (ID) are the density, heating
tion in presence of high EGR compared to no EGR case. Based on this value and latent heat of vaporization. The chemical delay part of ID
observation, they concluded that EGR cooling is beneficial for soot is influenced by the auto ignition and distillation properties of the
formation and mitigation. Further, EGR D87X X provided longer residence fuel. An increase of fuel density, volatilization difficulties and higher
time for soot nuclei to grow henceD879X lX ead to higher soot formation. latent heat of vaporization (due to decreasing air/ fuel mixture tem-
TagedPEffect of high equivalence ratio, high EGR and mixing time on perature), all result in a delayed combustion start/ ignition. Common
heavy-Dduty 80X X diesel engine exhaust emissions was D81X X studied by Hardy ways to classify fuels is according to the ease of auto-ignition, which
et al. [203]. They reported that high equivalence ratios obtained by is defined as CN or D901X X resistance to auto ignition, which is defined as D902X X
employing high EGR proved successful in bringing down PM and ON [216]. A high cetane number represents less resistance to auto-
NOxD82X Xemissions. EGR stratification is a novel technique demonstrated ignition, which includes straight chain paraffins (iso-cetane defines
by Andre
et al. [459], which can be used for controlling rapid HRR CN D 100). A high octane number represents the resistance against
and combustion noise in LTC engines thus extending the operating auto-ignition, which includes branched chain paraffins (iso-octane
range of PCCI combustion engines. The exhaust gas was made to defines ON D 100). Gasoline has a high octane number therefore D903X X it
enter the combustion chamber via a helical port and the intake of has little or no low temperature reactions and combustion initiation
fresh air was through a D83X X tangential port. Thus, a delay in combustion takes place at around 950 K [211]. Mineral dDiesel 904X X like fuels show sig-
in the stratified case was caused by the stratified exhaust gas present nificant low temperature reaction and have initiation temperatures
near the TDC. This exhaust gas was D84X X present in the fuel-rich zone and in the range of 750 K [9].
causedD85X X delay in combustion thus a better control over combustion TagedPStarck et al. [223] carried out experimentD905X X in quest of impact of
phasing was achieved. Even though this technique offers benefitD86X X of fuel properties on HCCI combustion and found lower CN D906X X fuels to D907X X be
combustion control, it still needs to be explored in greater detailD87X X better HCCI fuels. They performed LTC experiment in a single cylin-
before its practical implementation because of its dependence D8X X on der engine (CR D 15), which was operated using D908X X NADI concept. They
various fuel injection parameters. The charge dilution using either optimized EGR and fuel injection timings to control HCCI D90X X combus-
EGR or non-reacting species such as CO2 and N2 in order to achieve tion. They concluded D910X X that a lower CN D91X X fuel and an optimum combus-
LTC was D89X X also extensively analyzed. Kook et al. [460] and Kanda et al. tion speed can improve HCCI D912X X combustion range D913X X because lower
[202] carried out experimentD890X Xusing various dilution rates in order to combustion speed results in more time available D914X X for charge homoge-
attain PCCI combustion. They observed a direct correlation of NOxD891X X nization, resulting D915X X D916X X
in superior HCCI combustion. Tanaka et al. [299]
and soot luminosity with adiabatic flame temperature and reported used a rapid compression machine (RCM) to study the effects of fuel
that adiabatic flame temperature decreasedD892X X withD893X X addition of EGR. structure and additives on HCCI D917X X combustion of pure hydrocarbon
The high oxidation rates at higher peak temperature leads to reduc- fuels and mixtures. They reported that fuels with saturated com-
tion in CO emissionD.894X X HoweverD895X X researchers also pointed out at the pounds lead to twoD918X-stage X combustion and those with unsaturated
need to control dilution ratios because the maximum fuel conver- compounds leadD91X X to singleD-stage 920X X combustion. Higher octane number
sion efficiency was obtained at moderate charge dilution levels. results in higher ID D921X X and a lower burn-Drates 92X X [216]. Aceves et al. [14]
Over-dilution leads to poor trade-off between work conversion effi- performed a numerical evaluation of fuels and additives for HCCI
ciency and combustion efficiency, thusD896X X reducing the fuel conversion combustion. They selected a long list of HCCI fuels and determined
efficiency. Another advantage of charge dilution is increased IDD,897X X suitable operating conditions such as CR, equivalence ratio and
which improves IMEP and COV. intake air temperatureD923X X for optimum performance of a heavy-duty
44 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56

TagedPengine. They also tested a large number of additives experimentally b TagedP e achieved by single injection strategy but they experienced issues D957X X
and prepared a ranking of potential D924X X additives. In the experimentD,925X X such as very high RoPR. However, in case of split injection strategy, a
they found that small amountD926X X(a few parts per million) of secondary small quantity of pilot injection helpedD958X X in suppressing higher RoPR.
fuels (additives) may have considerable effect on HCCI combustion D95XEarly X pilot injection resulted in a significant improvement in thermal
and may play a significant role in controlling HCCI combustion. efficiency and reduction in engine noise and emissions by optimiz-
Mack et al. [231] investigated the influence of additive “di-tertiary ing SoI timings and EGR rate. The later dealt mainly with effect of
butyl peroxide” (DTBP) on HCCI combustion using engine experi- pilot injection on engine noise and performance. Engine noise remai-
mentD927X Xand numerical modeling. Small quantity of DTBP was added to nedD960X o
X ne of the major factors governing combustion and performance
D928X X
100% ethanol and ethanol blended with DEE to perform engine characteristics. They reported a reduction in BMEP with an increase
experimentD92X X at different fuel injection timings and engine loads. in pilot quantity above 40%%. Further, relatively higher engine noise
Addition of DTBP to the test fuel advances combustion timing in was observed for almost all early single injection timings mainly due
each condition. Numerical model analysis was also carried out to to very high RoPR. Inclusion D961X X of pilot injection proved to be very
validate the experimental results. Although additives advanced com- D962X X
effective in suppressing the noise but it also led to reduction in
bustion timings for both 100% D930X X ethanol and DEE-D D931X X 932X X
ethanol mixtures, BMEP. Neely et al. [465] investigated the effect of number of pilot
D93X X
the additives resulted in more advanced D934X X D935X X
timing D936X X case of DEE-
in injections (up to 3) to achieve PCCI combustion in order to reduce
D937X X
ethanol mixtures. This confirms the thermal and kinetic influences of D938X X NOxD963X X in light-duty and heavyD-duty 964X X D965X X
vehicles. They reported that an
the addition of DTBPD.93X X early single pilot injection was effective for approximately 14% NOxD96X X
reduction but it was at the expense of higher CO and BSFC. CO D967X X and
6.5. Split injection and spray targeting strategy BSFC penalty significantly reduced along with NOxD968X X by employing
multiple pilot injections at lighter load. This was mainly due to supe-
TagedPThe problem of uncontrolled combustion in PCCI engine can be rior fuel-air mixing, which improved D96X X D970X X
due to increasing number of
tackled by using split injection strategy and by optimizing the spray pilot injections. For heavy-Dduty 971X X vehicles, multiple pilot injections
targeting location in the piston bowl. Kook et al. [461] used the split proved to be less effective D972X X in reducing NOxD973X X comparedD D974 X 975X X to single pilot
injection in order to promote low temperature ignition and to get injections. In addition, multiple pilot injections also led to higher HC
better control of combustion. A major quantity of fuel was injected and CO emissions.
early in the compression stroke (100° BTDC) D940X X D941X X
to obtain premixed
charge and a pilot quantity was injected near TDC to control the SoC. 6.6. Closed loop control strategy
This resulted in better combustion characteristics, precise control of
SoC and higher BMEP. Results clearly showed that NOxD942X X emissions TagedPVarious combustion feedback and control strategies have been
from PCCI combustion were D943X X much lower than D94X X CI combustion how- discussed earlier and many of them have been used in experimental D976X X
ever advanced pilot injection (from 100° BTDC to 150° BTDC) studies. DualD-fuel 97X X control was the first published method for close-
showed further reduction in NOxD945X (X Fig. 64). loop HCCI control [71]. In this investigation, a six-cylinder heavyD-978X X
TagedPLee and Reitz [462] investigated the effects of spray targetting duty engine was equipped with two port fuel injection systems that
locations in the piston bowl on soot and CO emissionsD.946X X They allowed individual in-cylinder injection of two different fuels. Gain
D947X X
concluded that soot and CO could D948X X be minimized when spray was tar- scheduled cylinder-individual controllers with proportional, integral
getted at the piston edge i.e. near the squish area. This was due to and derivative (PID) action were used for combustion phasing con-
the formation of enhanced pre-mixed air, which leDdD 94X X 950X X to better com- trol of the HCCI engine.
bustion. For narrow cone angle injectors, soot formation was found TagedPFig. 65 shows the response to a step change in the combustion
to be the D951X X lowest, when the spray was targetted at the bottom of the phasing reference. The controllers responded to the reference
piston bowl, mainly due to longest travel distance of the spray drop- change by gradually increasing the octane rating of the injected fuel,
lets. They also inferred that NOxD952X X formation was independent of the i.e. by increasing the amount of iso-octane and decreasing the
spray targetting location. The effect of split injection strategy on amount of n-heptane. Thus the fuel became more resistant to auto-
emission formation in PCCI diesel engine was investigated by Horibe ignition, hence retarding the combustion [423]. Maurya and Agarwal
et al. [463]. This D953X X aspect was further investigated D954X X by Torregrosa et al. [466] also conducted experimental investigations of closeD-loop 97X X
[464]. In the former case, researchers realized that higher thermal control of HCCI engine using dualD-fuel 980X X (methanol and n-heptane)
efficiency and lower NOxD95X Xemissions at D956X X moderate load conditions can

Fig. 64. Effect of fuel injection timing on smoke opacity and HC, CO, NOxD34X X emissions Fig. 65. Response to a step change in the combustion timing reference (Reprinted
(Reprinted from [461] with permission of SAE). from [423] with permission of Woodhead Publishing Limited).
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPinjection by D981X X PID control. They found that the controller requiredD982X Xdif-
ferent gain setting for different range of combustion phasing and
fuel energy injected per cycle. Therefore, advanced controllers such
as adaptive controller and model based predictive control may be
more effective in controlling combustion phasing in wide range of
operating conditions.
TagedPFig. 66 shows the response to a positive step change followed by
a negative step change in combustion timing reference and subse-
quently a positive step change followed by a negative step change in
the load. The control method employed was D983X X model predictive con-
trol (MPC), which was D984X X essentially online optimization of the control
inputs in order to achieve the lowest possible combustion timing
error over a specified time horizon [423]. Researchers D985X X used VVA sys-
tem in the HCCI engine and CA50%D D986X X 987X X (based on cylinder pressure) was
used as a feedback signalD.98X X
TagedPStrandh et al. [467] carried out control of individual cylinder's
combustion phasing by using variable IVC timingD98X.X Three control
methods were evaluated; MPC, LQG and PID. All three controllers
were found capable to gain control, and it was found that if only
one controller was to be used, MPC controller would be the best.
The emerging trend of HCCI control algorithms is more towards
model-based control.
6.7. Dual mode operation strategy
TagedPDevelopment of a LTC engine for full load operation is a longD-91X X
term objective however in the short-term to medium-term, dual
mode combustion system seems most practical for implementation
of LTC in contemporary D92X X IC engines. Dual combustion system com-
bines the conventional CI/ SI combustion mode and LTC mode. Major
hurdle of the dual combustion system is the cost and complexity
associated with the development of an engine control system, which
can adjust engine in a suitable combustion mode of operation based
D93X X
on prevailing engine operating conditions.
TagedPMany researchers suggested that during combustion mode
switching between LTC and SI combustion, the engine can be oper-
ated at throttled and stoichiometric conditions, where high cyclic
variability was observed. Larimore et al. [468] performed
D94X X
experimentD 95X X to analyze and model the engine behavior at high cyclic
variability conditions with NVO. They described a cycle-resolved
analysis method that enabled characterization of cycle-to-cycle var-
iations at mode switching conditions. In their study, they character-
ized the dynamic pattern by cycle-resolved combustion efficiency.
Etheridge et al. [469] used a stochastic reactor model (SRM) to
Fig. 66. Model predictive control of CA50D35X Xusing IVC (Reprinted from [467] with per-
mission of SAE).
45
sTagedP imulate transition D96X X from SI mode to HCCI mode in a four cylinder in-
line four-stroke naturally aspirated DISI engine using cam profile
switching. Mode switching was achieved by varying the cam profiles
and cam phasing, which resulted in a NVO, opened the throttle,
advanced the spark timing, reduced the fuel mass injected and acti-
vated a pilot injection for pre-conditioning of the combustion cham-
ber. In the experimentD,97X X they found spark timing in the first HCCI
cycle as an important parameter, which affected the stability of the
mode transition from SI to HCCI. Koopmans et al. [38] investigated
the HCCI/ SI combustion mode transition in a five-cylinder heavyD-98X X
duty engine using VVT system. They observed significantly different
engine combustion characteristics during mode transition and
suggested the optimization of control strategies for better results.
Santoso et al. [39] achieved the gasoline SI/ HCCI combustion mode
transition in a single cylinder engine with an electromagnetic VVT
system. They did not observeD9X X significant D10X X differences in net IMEP,
when the spark ignition was maintained during the whole transition
process coupled with optimized D10X X control strategies. Hyvo € nen et al.
[470] also investigated the effects of spark ignition on the gasoline
SI/ HCCI combustion mode transition in a multi-cylinder VCR HCCI
engine. The SI/ HCCI combustion mode transition was achieved
through adjusting the CR and Ti.D102X X They concluded that the CR and T D103X X i
could be reduced with spark assistance for the same combustion
phasing. Milovanovic et al. [471] performed mode transition experi-
mentD104X X using trapped exhaust gas for transitions from SI to HCCI to SI
combustion mode, at different engine loads and speeds. They used
Lotus AVT system for simulating the exhaust gas trapping and mode
transition of the CAMPRO engine equipped with a cam profile
switching (CPS) mechanism and cam profile switching phase system
(CPSP system) [471]. In the experimentD,105X X they did not find D106X X any change
in engine drivDability, 107X X D108X X
combustion and emissions during mode transi-
tion from SI to HCCI however they noticed a considerable change in
D109X X
engine torque output and THC emissions. This was mainly due to
unsynchronized valve profile changes, throttle response and unad-
justed fueling rates, which resulted in inferior combustion.
TagedPYaPing et al. [472] achieved HCCI combustion in a modified single
cylinder engine by using a self-developed fast thermal management
system (FTMS). They emphasized on the impossibility of completion
of mode transition between CI and HCCI within one operating cycle
at any engine operating condition. They carried out experimentD10X X to
investigate the effects of spark ignition on the transition smoothness
however they did not achieve satisfactory results. Therefore, they
concluded that the engine speed and BMEP fluctuations during the
mode transition cannot be eradicated only by spark ignition and sug-
gested the combination of other control strategies for optimization
of engine performance during mode transition. Daw et al. [161]
investigated the effect of spark timing on HCCI-SI transition charac-
teristics. ExperimentD10X X were performed for transition between SI
propagating-flame combustion and spark assisted HCCI combustion
in a gasoline engine. They found a high degree of deterministic cou-
pling between successive combustion events. They described the
transition between SI and HCCI as a sequence of bifurcations in a
low-dimensional dynamic map. In anotherD,102X X Daw et al. [341] charac-
terized the cyclic heat release variability in transition D103X X from SI to
HCCI in a gasoline engine using a double Wiebe function. Kitamura
et al. [473] formulated a self-ignition timing simulation model to
develop a control algorithm for HCCI engine. This control algorithm
has EGT compensatoniD104X X feature and the fuel wall-wetting compensa-
tionD105X a X lgorithm resulted in mode switching without a torque shock.
TagedPMode switching from CI to HCCI is slightly more complex com-
pared to SI-HCCI mode switching. In HCCI-CI operating mode, fuel-
air mixture should be premixed prior to SoC. This can be achieved in D106X X
two ways. In first, fuel can be injected into the intake port so that a
premixed charge D107X X can be supplied to the cylinder. In D108X X the other, fuel is
injected into the cylinder early in the compression stroke [186,474].
Ying et al. [475] carried out the experimentD109X X using gaseous fuels to
46 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPform a premixed homogeneous charge in the intake port. They
achieved HCCI combustion by supplying D102partially XX homogeneous
mixture of DME and air in engine cylinder by supplying air in the
intake port and DI of fuel by supplying pressurised DME into cyl-
inder using conventional CI fuel injection equipment during the
compression stroke. In the experimentD102,X X pilot quantity of DME was
found to be one of main variables affecting D102XPCCI-DI X combustion.
Wang [476] developed a non-linear control system for smooth
mode transition between LTC and CI combustion. This system
combined the transient response D1023from XX variable nozzle turbo-
charger (VNT) and EGR for achieving faster mode transition. Fang
et al. [477] investigated the influence of injection parameters on
the mode transition between CI and HCCI combustion modes. The
experimentD1024X X were performed under eight different operating condi-
tions consisting of different FIP's, SoI timings, and fuel quantities
(first and second injection) to investigate the combustion charac-
teristics. They observed transition from HCCI to CI with increasing
first injection fuel quantity and retarding SoI timing. Fang et al.
[478] found the variation in FIP as the main control parameter for
mode switching between CI to HCCI and viceD1025X-versa. X For smooth
transition from CI to HCCI, FIP should be changed as fast as possi-
ble in synchronization with EGR and SoI timings. Similarly, for
HCCI to CI mode switching, FIP should be low and sufficient fresh
air should be supplied using VNT control. Busch and Assanis [479]
developed a HCCI-CI mode transition system and reported delay
in charging system and EGR regulation, which resulted in some
cycles with high HC emissions and low IMEP. Burton et al. [480]
performed mode switching experimentD1026X X and focused on emission
characteristics during mode transition from CI to HCCI. In the
experimentD1027,X X they observed a peak in HC emissions during PCCI to
CI mode transition. This peak D1028was XX due to high EGR and relatively
leaner fuel-air mixture used D1029Xin X PCCI combustion. However, CI to
PCCI mode transition showed a NOxD103X X peak due to relatively higher
in-cylinder temperature during CI combustion. They concluded
that air-D103induction
XX system played a critical role in mode transition
from CI to HCCI and vice-versa. In further research carried out by
Kim et al. [481], shortening of response time was achieved by
reducing the length of EGR line. They also reported that smooth
transition from PCCI to CI required relatively higher/ lower fuel
quantity D1032compared XX to both PCCI and CI combustion modes indi-
vidually. This factor was further analyzed by Shi et al. [482] and
they reported that during D103mode XX transition from CI to HCCI, engine
efficiency suffered due to slightly higher fuel consumption. Higher
fuel consumption during mode transition may be attributed to
pressure oscillations. Banerjee and Rutland [483] tried cam-less
valve-train system for EGR regulation in order to achieve mode
transition between CI and HCCI.
TagedPIn several studies, a different approach of fueling strategy was
followed for mode transition between CI and HCCI combustion. To
D1034X X
gain superior control of RoPR, Han et al. [484] used multiple fuel
injections during transition D1035X X from CI to HCCI mode and suggested to
increase the fuel quantity D1036X X injected during early transitional cycles.
Asad et al. [485] developed a mode-switching algorithm for transi-
tion from single injection LTC to multiple-injection LTC based on in-
cylinder pressure. They use IMEP closed-loop control to achieveD1037X X
desired smoothness. A pre-defined sequence triggered by an IMEP
threshold was implemented to enable the switching between these
two LTC modes. Rohani et al. [486] conducted the experimentD1038X X in a
single cylinder heavy-Dduty 1039X X diesel engine and studied the effects of
injection strategy on mode transition emission characteristics. They
proposed a strategy based on gradual mode switching, in which they
took few engine cycles as the transition period during which, injec-
tion timing and injected fuel quantity were shifted. Using this tech-
nique, they observed 41% reduction in HC emissions compared to
the case with simple abrupt shift in injection timing and injected
fuel quantity.
TagedPCanova et al. [487] investigated CI-HCCI combustion mode
switching based on external mixture formation. They improved the
smoothness during mode transition by installing an atomizer in the
intake air system for making homogeneous fuel-air mixture. Ouyang
et al. [488] proposed a hysteresis combustion mode determination
method to avoid combustion mode fluctuations due to variations inD104X X
engine speed or engine load in a small range. This strategy was based
on fuel injection parameters and EGR control, which directly con-
trolled the fuel-air mixture quality and resulted in appropriate com-
bustion according to engine operating conditionD.104X X Deng et al. [489]
studied fuel compensation strategy to improve smoothness of IMEP
in mode switching process. Based on the optimum fuel compensa-
tion strategy, EGR control strategy wasD1042X X further studied to improve
smoothness of combustion phasing during mode switching process.
6.8. Other strategies
TagedPMany other control strategies
D104X X have been attempted for HCCI con-
trol such as physical model based control, experimentally derived
model based control, and manually tuned controllers [488]. Several
researchers have used physical model based controllers for HCCI
combustion control. Closed loop combustion control of HCCI engine
using PID controllers and model based controllers are described
using an active valve train (AVT), and hydraulic valve timing system
[489]. The development of a physical model for non-linear control of
HCCI was done [474]. Researchers used a simplified non-linear feed-
back controller to regulate CA50 during load transients. Control was
done by modifying the lift of the secondary exhaust valve opening in
order to control internal EGR. Shaver et al. [490] developed a multi-
ple input multiple output (MIMO) controller, which was used to
decouple the control of combustion timingD1045X X and peak cylinder pres-
sure. Kulzer et al. [491] developed both data driven and physics
based models that were used to design controllers to track load,
while regulating the pressure rise and CA50.
TagedPSeveral investigators also used empirically-derived model based
controllers. Use of system identification to design model based con-
D1046X X
trollers and implementation of these controllers on various engine
test setups was also attempted [492
494]. Pfeiffer et al. [495] used a
model based Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian (LQG) controller, which was
developed using system identification techniqueD.1047X X The model based
LQG controller was shown to perform slightly better than the manu-
ally tuned PID controller. FTM was used in yet another study to con-
trol CA50 timing [19]. In this study, control was gained D1048X X using a
manually tuned PID loop. The time constant was found to be 8
engine cycles, which was noted as being relatively slow. Bengtsson
et al. [496,497] examined potential future HCCI control strategies.
They suggested that more detailed physical model based controllers
D1049Xare
X required. It was also indicated that cycle-to-cycle control of
trapped residuals would be extremely beneficial for HCCI control.
7. Path forward for LTC technology
TagedPRecent research activities related to LTC have significantly influ-
enced development of different combustion control mechanisms
and operating strategies for a practical LTC engine. However, before
commercial production of HCCI engines for heavy-duty and light-
duty applications, tremendous R&D effort is required in the follow-
ing directions:
TagedP(i) Development of control methods for maintaining ignition tim-
ings at higher engine loads and speeds is the first major chal-
lenge, which needs to be resolved. Optimization of ignition
timing is far more important for LTC engines as compared to
conventional engines because LTC engines have no direct control
over ignition timingD.105X X Researchers have developed different con-
trollers such as MIMO, LQG etc. in order to control ignition D105X X
 A.K. Agarwal et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 61 (2017) 1
56
TagedPtimingD1052X X for implementing LTC technology in both CI as well as in
SI engines. However, these techniques need to be further
D1053Xevolved
X in order to reduce their complexity D1054X X and easier adapt-
ability in production grade engines.
TagedP(ii) Methodology development to slow down the HRR in LTC engines
at high loads is the next challenge, which needs to be resolved,
TagedP in order to prevent excessive noise and possible engine damage.
(iii) Development of emission control systems and control strategies
to overcome the challenges of maintaining acceptable level of
emissions, particularly at low loads. At low and moderate loads,
LTC engines emitD105X v X ery low NOx;D1056X X consequently, no emissions con-
trol is required to reduce NOx.D1057X X However, as the operating range
is extended to high loads, NOxD1058X Xemissions become excessive, and
the combustion rates becomeD1059X X too rapid. Literature also revealed
that LTC especially in SI engines emits large amount of unregu-
lated pollutant species, which can be controlled by using suit-
able after-treatment devices. Therefore, research is required to
develop lowD-cost106X X catalysts to control these emissions emanating
TagedP from LTC engines.
(iv) Development of feedback and closed-loop control of the fuel and
air systems is essential in order to keep the combustion opti-
mized over the entire speed and load range of the engine in a
production vehicle. Control mechanisms, sensors, and appropri-
ate control algorithms are the key enabling factors for develop-
ing a practical LTC engine. Under closed-loop control, the engine
management system controls engine parametersD106X X such as fuel
flow rate and EGR, in response to the inputs from various sen-
sors. Some advanced control techniques such as FTM, MPC, etc.
need to be further explored in order to reduce the response time
and to improve input/ output control.
TagedP(v) Research is needed for the development of intake and exhaust
manifold design for multi-cylinder engines in order to overcome
the challenge of maintaining strict uniformity of the inlet and
exhaust flows to/ fromD1062X X each cylinder, in order to ensure smooth
engine operation. In multi-cylinder engines, manifold wave
dynamics can cause small differences in the amount of hot resid-
uals remaining and the amount of fresh charge delivered to each D1063X X
cylinderD.1064X X In conventional SI or CIDI engines, these small differen-
ces between cylinders do not significantly impact the combus-
tion. However, LTC engines are very sensitive to small changes
in compressed-charge compositionD1065X X and temperature. These
small differences can lead to significantly high cylinder-to-cylin-
der variations. Effect of intake and exhaust manifold design is
significantly dependent on LTC technique because in-cylinder
mixture preparation techniques such as PCCI, PPC, etc. are
more sensitive to in-cylinder D106X X conditions however other LTC
techniques such as HCCI, RCCI, etc. are less sensitive to in-cylin-
TagedP der conditions.
(vi) DualD-mode 1067X X engines seem to be a potential solution for adapta-
tion of LTC in production grade engines rather quickly. R&D
efforts are needed to investigate the dual-Dmode 1068X X concept to a
wider range of operation and to develop strategies to smoothly
transition between LTC and SI or CIDI combustion. Many
researchers reported that mode transition from SI to HCCI
resulted in slightly inferior engine performance. However D1069X X a sim-
ple mode transition from HCCI to SI resulted in increased D107X X emis-
sions. Therefore strategies need to be developed to control
mode transition with satisfactory engine performance and mini-
mum NOxD107X X and smoke emission spikes. This can be achieved by
changing valve profile, throttle response and by adjusted fueling
rate and spark timing according to engine load. To make prog-
ress towards practical D1072X X applications of LTC in CI engines, two
approaches are necessary. First is the provision of combustion
robustness and second is the combustion mode transition to
conventional combustion at high loads. Combustion robustness
can be achieved using advanced flexible fuel injection system,
47
TagedP hich optimizes fuel injection parameters. This type of fuel
w
injection system varies fuel injection parameters such as FIP,
SoPI, SoMI, number of pilot injections etc. according to engine
speed and load conditions. At lower engine loads, engine can be
operated in LTC mode using single pilot injection at higher FIP.
However, at medium engine loads, engine can be operated in
LTC mode using two or more pilot injections. With further
increase in engine load, combustion can be switched from LTC
to conventional CI combustion, where engine can be operated at
lower FIP using single main injection.
8. Conclusions
TagedPLTC is a combustion concept, which has evolved over decades in
response to the need for improved thermal efficienciesD1073X X of gasoline-
fueled engines and ultra-low NOxD1074X X and soot emissions of diesel-
fueled engines. Although remarkable progress has been made in LTC
technology, large-scale production of LTC engines for commercial
applications has encountered several difficulties. Limited operating
range, requirement D1075X X of closed loop control on SoC, and D1076X X higher HC and
CO emissions are the main obstacles faced by LTC technology's adap-
tation commercially. Several techniques have been developed for
lowD-load 107X X applications of LTC technology in heavy-duty engines how-
ever full load application, even in light-duty engines has not been
demonstrated till now. To control the SoC, some advanced concepts
such as spark assisted LTC and laser assisted LTC have also been
investigated, in which combustion events aDre 1078X X precisely controlled
using a spark plug or laser. Different derivatives of LTC such as PCCI,
PCI, PPCCI, HECC etc. were thoroughly investigated and suitability of
each derivative was defined for a particular operating range. These
derivatives of LTC can be achieved by varying engine operating and
control parameters. Fuel flexibility is another D1079X X important feature of
LTC. Fuel properties significantly affect chemical kinetics, which has
a dominating role in LTC. Based on engine design, operating condi-
tions and control strategies, different fuels such as biodiesels, alco-
hols, DME, DEE, biogas, hydrogen, CNG, kerosene etc. were
demonstrated for LTC. In LTC, auto-ignition was controlled by modi-
fications of the fuel properties in order to make it more chemically
reactive by adding an ignition promoter or inhibitor. Using this con-
cept, researchers developed a novel LTC approach namely RCCI com-
bustion, in which LTC was controlled by two different fuels having
different chemical kinetics.
TagedPIn all derivatives of LTC, combustion control is the most critical
issue, which may D108X X be resolved using various techniques such as dualD-108X X
fuel injection, VCR, VVT, EGR, etc. However, these techniques have
their own merits and challengesD.1082X X Based on research D1083X X directions, sev-
eral researchers proposed use of dual-mode combustion system,
which seems to be an effective solution for commercializing LTC
technology in near to medium term. In this approach, conventional
combustion systems (SI or CI) are D1084X X combined with LTC however the
cost of the vehicle and system complexity remain D1085X X key issues, which
prevent its commercialization as of now. Therefore, for long-term
development of LTC systems, flexible fuel injection system, EGR con-
trol for better chargeD1086X X preparation, D1087X X as well as high boost to extend
higher load limits, are some of the key factors, which need to investi-
gated and then only a commercially viable LTC engine can be devel-
oped and made available.
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