MATH 102 – Contemporary Mathematics

Contemporary Mathematics
PROBABILITY

Probability is the measure of certainty or uncertainty that a particular situation or event will happen. It is the ratio of the
number of favorable outcomes to the total number of all possible outcomes. Furthermore, if an event is sure to happen,
then P(E) = 1. However, if an event is impossible to happen, P(E) = 0. Hence the probability value of any event will range
from 0 to 1.

Number of favorable outcomes

P ( E )=
Total number of possible outcomes

Example:
1. A gumball machine has 18 pieces remaining (6, blue, 7 green, 5 yellow). What is the probability of getting a
green gumball?
2. What is the probability of getting a spade in a deck of cards?
3. An urn has 5 red marbles, 6 white marbles and 7 blue marbles. If a marble is drawn at random, what is the
probability of getting:
a. A red marble?
b. A white marble?
c. A blue marble?

An experiment is a process designed to perform and explore a particular fact or a certain unknown phenomena. In the
context of probability, we are dealing with the concept of random experiment.

A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes in a random experiment and it is denoted by the symbol S. A sample
point is an entry/ element from the sample space S.

An event is a collection of one or more outcomes considered within a sample space.

Fundamental Counting Principle

It states that we can find the total number of ways that two or more separate tasks can happen by multiplying the
number of ways each task can happen separately.

Example:
When a die is rolled and a coin is flipped, how many possible outcomes will you have?

If one thing can occur in m ways and a second thing can occur in n ways, and a third thing can occur in p ways, and so
on, then the sequence of the things can occur in m ×n × p × … ways.

Examples:
1. Bench sells shirts in sizes S, M, L and XL. Each size comes in five colors: green, black, violet, yellow and white.
The shirts come in short and long sleeve. How many kinds of shirts are there?
2. At a certain restaurant, a costumer has a choice of 2 salads, 4 main dishes and 3 desserts. If every meal is to
consist of a salad, a main dish and a dessert, how many choices does he have to get his meal?
3. A freshman student must take a natural science, a social science and a physical education subject. If there are 3
natural science subjects, 5 social science subjects and 4 PE subjects, in how many different ways can a student
select his subjects to be enrolled?
4. From the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, three numbers are to be formed. How many numbers are there if
repetition is allowed? not allowed?
5. Using the numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, three digit numbers are to be formed. If the numbers should be even
numbers, how many are they if repetition is allowed? not allowed?
Factorial Notation (n !)
This notation is denoted as the factorial notation and it is read as n-factorial. This is actually the product of all
positive numbers from 1 to n and it is written as follows:
n !=n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) … ( 3 ) (2 ) (1)

Evaluate the following:

1. 5 !
7!
2.
4!

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MATH 102 – Contemporary Mathematics

10! 3 !
3.
6! 4!
4. 5 !−3!
8!
5.
4!2!
COUNTING TECHNIQUES
a. PERMUTATION
It is an arrangement of things in a definite order or the ordered arrangement of distinguishable objects.

Case 1: All of the objects are considered for each different arrangement. This is represented by the operation:
n Pn = n !

(nPn is read as “the permutation of n objects taken n at a time”)

Example:
In how many ways can 6 books be placed in a shelf?

In how many ways can the letters of the word MATH be arranged?

Case 2: Not all of the objects are considered for each different arrangement. This is represented by the formula:
n!
n Pr =
( n−r ) !

(n Pr is read as “the permutation of n objects taken r at a time”)

Example:
How many different arrangements of 5 students can be made in a row of 3 desks?

In how many ways can four vacant seats be taken if there are 7 persons waiting to be seated?

Case 3: Circular Permutation ( n−1 ) !

Example:
In how many ways can 4 persons be seated around a circular table?

Case 4: Permutations with Repetitions

Example:
Find the number of permutations of the letters in each word:
1. Honor
2. Committee
3. Philippines

In how many ways can 3 Americans, 4 French, 4 Dutch and 2 Italians be seated in a row so that those of the
same nationality sit together?

b. COMBINATION
It is a selection which is made from a group of items when order is not important. The symbol for the
number of different combinations when n items are selected r at a time is nCr.

n!
n Cr =
( n−r ) ! r !

Examples:
1. Marco is planning to sell pizzas with two different toppings. The choices are sausage, ham, mushroom and
green pepper. How many combinations are possible?

2. A committee of 6 persons is to be chosen from 10 members. In how many ways can the committee be
formed?

Exercises:
1. How many different 4-person committees can be formed from a total of 8 people?

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MATH 102 – Contemporary Mathematics

2. In how many ways can the first, second and third prize winners be chosen from 15 contestants?
3. How many ways are there of scoring 80% on a 10-question true or false test?
4. In how many ways can 9 different colored beads be arranged on a bracelet?
5. There are 12 people in a room. If each of them shakes hands with each other, how many handshakes are
there?
6. How many different designs can be made from ten beads, of which two are red, three are yellow and five are
green?
7. How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the integers 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 such that:
a. Repetition is allowed?
b. Repetition is not allowed?
c. The two digit number is greater than 60?
8. In how many ways can a team of 12 basketball players be chosen from 18 players?
9. There are 10 seniors and 15 juniors in a JS Club. In how many ways may a committee made up of 2 seniors
and 3 juniors be selected?

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