THEORETICAL OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’S BASIC

TENDENCIES1

C harlotte B u h ler, Ph.D.

Los Angeles, Calif.

I. PRESEN T-DAY BIOLOGIC T H IN K IN G

ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES

1. Introductory Remarks on the Bole of Biology in this Study

Present-day theories of life’s basic tendencies move between two
extremes. One extreme is represented by those who conceive of the
individual as a whole, in that they postulate certain basic prin­
ciples which permeate man’s organic, as well as his mental exist­
ence. Kurt Goldstein, an outstanding representative of this group,
considers self-realization as the main basic tendency of the whole
individual (1). He even considers the concept of values in terms
of biologic aspects.2
The other extreme is represented by those who feel that biologic
factors in no way predetermine direction, goal, and least of all
values pursued by individuals. Although no view is actually stated
this radically, some often come close to such an extreme. They are
strongly impressed by the organizing influences that culture and
environment exercise on human behavior, and by their motivating
powers on human development.
The present author assumes a middle position between these
extremes. She is of the opinion that physical factors co-determine
motivation and behavior (3). The degree to which this takes place
is not as yet clearly established. Reference has been made (3) to
Lawrence Kubie’s (4) and also to Kardiner and Spiegel’s (5)
theoretical observations. “ We must constantly ask ourselves,”
says Kubie, “ how much of any pattern of behavior is organically
1 The following represents two condensed chapters o f the author’s book
Basic Tendencies o f Human L ife, which is in preparation. These first two
chapters are dedicated to Dr. Kurt Goldstein, in celebration o f his 80th birthday.
The author wishes to thank Drs. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Hedda Bolgar,
Kurt Goldstein, Pay and Maurice K arpf, Judd Marmor, Abraham H. Maslow,
Charles Morris, and Zelda Wolpe for the very important comments they made
with reference to these two chapters. Many points they raised will find con­
sideration in the book edition where more space will be available. The help
o f Dr. James 8. Simkin in editing this text was invaluable. .
2 Personal communication. See also his chapter “ Health as Value” in New
Knowledge in Human Values (2 ).
561
562 AM ER IC A N JO U R N A L OP PSYC H O T H E R A P Y

determined and how much of it is the result of the interaction of

these complex superimposed psychological forces” (p. 100).
In the author’s opinion, biologic maturity, as well as the gamut
of conditions which we will call “ equipment,” belong to these “ or­
ganically determining factors.” This includes endowment in the
sense of abilities3 as well as of defects,4 and it also comprises the
state of health and impairments.5
Undoubtedly there art; also biologic preferences for certain di­
rections or certain end conditions. The concept of homeostasis, for
example, refers to a “ preferred” end condition, that is, one toward
which the organism tends.
Yet, in the human being, these biologically “ preferential” end-
conditions and the physically limiting as well as enabling incipient
circumstances are undoubtedly not the only ones that determine
courses of action. They are often not the ultimately determining
influences for the values’ hierarchy of the “ paths of life” (Morris
[9]) chosen by an individual. The human being is on the whole
not steered, restricted, and safeguarded by instincts as is the ani­
mal. He can be selective, within limits; about that we can only
speculate, so fan.
In this selectivity he may even go against his own ‘ ‘ nature ’ ’ and
still believe that he is fulfilling himself.6 Different individuals,
different groups, and different cultures seem more to enhance the
pursuit of “ natural” or of instituted and chosen goals. These be­
come values or else they connote worth.
The above discussion is intended to indicate that we do not de­
rive our understanding of human goal-setting from biology. It is,
however, useful to arrive at a clear understanding of the biologic
“ gröundplan” (Brody [11]), of biologic equipment. This limits
as well as enables us to do or ndt to do certain things with ourselves.
We feel it is still an open question just what and how much this
means in terms of human life and human development.
Some people think it means very little. They seem to regard
biologic processes as a kind of raw material which cultural factors
s See Hartmann’s discussion o f their influence on motivation (6 ).
* See Bergman and Escalona’s discussion of hypersensitive children (7).
5 See the discussion of the effects of brain injuries on motivation by Gold­
stein (8) and Kardiner & Spiegel (5).
6 One of the most striking examples is the biography of Father Paul Ginhac
who confessed‘that every minute of his life he condemned himself to death, in
the name of his faith. See C. Buhler (10).
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 563

control and organize. Devereux (12) for example, while not wholly
discounting habit in the relation of biologic needs and experiences
adds the cultural as a third axis of behavior “ which organizes be­
havior through the subjective experiences of culture.”
Or they may emphasize the relative independence with which
the human mind disposes of its biologic equipment. They might
say with Sargent and Williamson (13) that just
“because sensory, motor, and intellectual development is strongly influ­
enced by heredity, it does not follow that language, perception, emotion,
skills, personality traits, and social behavior are affected by heredity to
the same degree. In fact there is good reason to believe that they are
not” (p. 4 6 /4 7 ).

On the other hand, however, we must consider the increasing

evidence and agreement among observers of newborn infants, that
besides basic functional equipment, such as Sargent and William­
son mention, certain basic tendencies are also noticeable from the
beginning which are apt to permeate the individual’s whole exist­
ence (13).
Culture and environment exercise such strong influences that
an individual’s own basic tendencies may become crippled or arti­
ficially bent in another direction. For example, when an active,
independent individual is forced into a role of passivity and de­
pendency; or a submissive, sensitive, primarily responsive person
is expected to operate in a position in which he should be resource­
ful, have initiative, and be aggressive, both will feel they are in the
wrong places with respect to their most basic tendencies.
Taking our starting point from the biologic frame of reference
for the derivation of life ’s basic tendencies is only meant to delineate
marginal conditions or the minimum equipment that an organism
needs to be able to function at all. It must be able to satisfy its
needs, it must be adaptive and creative to a degree under given
conditions, and it must keep up its internal order. All this it
needs to start with, all this it disposes of to individually varying
degrees and with this basic equipment it operates in its mastery of
and adaptation to the world in which it tries to maintain itself.
The delineation of the framework of life ’s basic tendencies seems
to us of fundamental importance for a more systematized under­
standing of the various directions into which human endeavor and
human striving branch out in different individuals as well as groups
and cultures.
564 AM ERICAN JO U R N A L OF P SY C H O T H E R A P Y

At this point we will present a brief summary of the biologic

data from which our system of basic tendencies was derived.

2. Biologic Theories of L ife’s Direction

Present-day biologic theories emphasize first of all the “ spon­
taneity” of the organism’s activity which is due to its built-in
energy. The organism’s autonomous functioning, its “ drive to
perform certain movements” is emphasized by Bertalanffy (15,
p. 119).
The course of life of a living being begins with activity origi­
nating in the organism itself. Tinbergen (16) discusses a variety
of such activities that are self-started in the organism. Lorenz
speaks of “ innate releasing mechanism” (17). “ The organism,”
as Bertalanffy says, “ is primarily an active system” (p. 119). It
is a system in which
“all parts and processes are so ordered that they guarantee the mainte­
nance, construction, restitution, and reproduction of organic systems.
This order basically distinguishes events in a living organism from reac­
tions taking place in non-living systems or in a corpse” (p. 13).

This order affects a certain physiologic state that represents a

built-in tension which activates the organism (Grinker [18]).
A second important point in Bertalanffy’s theory is the obser­
vation of the organism’s spontaneous transition to states of higher
heterogeneity and complexity. This transition appears paradoxical
in terms of conventional physical theory (second principle of ther­
modynamics, increase of entropy in the closed systems of conven­
tional physics) but is understandable if one considers an important
characteristic of living organisms, namely their being open systems.
Bertalanffy points out that his new theory necessarily arises from
the implications of the concept of the organism’s dynamic equi­
librium, a concept to which he claims everybody paid lip service
without really applying it.
“ In the transition to a steady state within an open system there may
be a decrease of entropy and a spontaneous transition to states of higher
heterogeneity and complexity” (15, p. 127).

This same view is held by Schrödinger (19) who also describes the
organism as a system which does not approach maximum entropy
and disorder and a standstill of processes in thermodynamic equi­
librium ; but as a system capable of decrease of entropy and of up­
holding its internal order.
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 565

These concepts represent a complete revision of the original

homeostasis principle which emphasized exclusively the tendency
toward equilibrium.7 It is this original homeostasis principle >vith
which psychoanalysis identified its theory of discharge of tension
as the only primary tendency. One of the first to point out the
faultiness of this one-sided basic assumption for the understanding
of the healthy life process was Goldstein (1).
In the chapter “ Homeostasis Reconsidered,” the discussants at
the Chicago Interdisciplinary Conference (18) came to the conclu­
sion that the classical concept of homeostasis has to be replaced by
one wider and more flexible than the original concept. The conclu­
sions regarding life’s basic directions as they were reached during
this conference are formulated as our next point.
3. “ Maintenance” and “ Change” as Equally Primary Tendencies
The main revision of thought lies in the recognition that homeo­
stasis, or else 'the basic tendencies of the organism, needs to be re-
dèfined so as to cover the tendency to change besides the tendency
to maintenance. Both are seen as being equally primary tendencies.
The tendency to change is seen in two forms, as a tendency to
adaptation, and as a tendency to productivity or expansion as evi­
denced primarily in growth and reproduction.
Adaptation and productivity are in a way two opposite tenden­
cies. No comparable analysis was made of the tendencies covered
under the aspect of maintenance.
From Grinker’s enlightening introduction we conclude that in
the complex system of processes involved in the organism’s mainte­
nance, we can also distinguish two categories. There are those
activities which have to do with the functional relationship with the
environment and those which have to do with the upholding of the
internal order. The first would fall under the category which psy­
chologists call need-satisfaction, which have to do with the restoring
of equilibrium and energies. The second group of processes have
to do with the internal organization and the processes within the
internal energy system. A. Rapoport speaks in this connection of
a “ multiplicity of equilibria,” among them disequilibria within the
organism.
Just how we can formulate the principles involved in these
processes in such a form that they become usable for the purpose of
7 Or one could say that the revision points to the fact that homeostasis is
only one of the goals toward which the organism tends.
566 A M ERICAN JO U R N A L OF P SY C H O T H E R A P Y

finding the right psychologic correlates, is as yet unclarified. In

the upholding of the internal order, as we will call it, there is a prin­
ciple which serves the upholding of the unit of the organism. It
has to do with the organization of the processes, with “ informa­
tion,” the feedback, that gives “ cues” for integrated and improved
action to take place.
4. Four Basic Tendencies of Life
In accordance with present-day biologic considerations, we come
thus to the conclusion that we have to postulate at least four basic
tendencies of life as necessary for the explanation of basic biologic
processes. They are: the tendency toward need satisfaction, toward
the upholding of the internal order (organization and preservation
of the individual unit), toward adaptation, and toward productivity.
While the psychologic correlates of these biologic concepts will
be discussed later, we shall now briefly consider the regulation be­
tween these partly opposite trends. Does the dynamic equilibrium
of the healthly living being consist of a balance between these four
tendencies? Perhaps so. If for a moment we anticipate a refer­
ence to the psychologic level, we might point to the fact that ex­
cessive pursuit of one or the other of these aforenamed tendencies
results in psychologic illnesses, as we know from psychiatric ex­
perience.
We hypothesize that a balance as well as an integration of these
four tendeneies are necessary for the healthy functioning of the
organism. Also, that one or the other of these tendencies seems to
be temporarily predominant in single actions and reactions, but
that at all times all four tendencies seem to be in operation.
Under unfavorable inner or outer conditions, any one of the
four tendencies may turn into its opposite. There may be a volun­
tary or involuntary tendency toward need-frustration, toward non­
adaptation, toward unproductivity, and toward internal disorder.

II. PRESEN T-DAY PSYCHOLOGIC T H IN K IN G ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC

TENDENCIES

1. The Psychoanalytic Model

The most systematically developed and most widely accepted, as
well as debated psychologic theory about basic directions has been
worked out by Freud and his followers. Most representative for
the present psychoanalytic thinking of at least the classical orienta­
tion is probably what Shakow calls “ the fundamental psychoana­
lytic model” as presented by David Rapaport (20).
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 567

In this fundamental psychoanalytic model, there is, as is well

known, only one basic tendency, that is toward need gratification or
tension reduction. If the need object is not available, there is “ dis­
charge of affect on intermediate and derivative means—objects.”
This adaptive behavior represents a secondary tendency as it in­
volves delay of or substitutive satisfactions.
This model does not do justice to that interplay of processes in
which input and output regulate each other mutually and in which
we can see— as discussed previously—primary adaptive tendencies
at work.
In the model there is no room within this system for tension-up­
holding or even tension-increasing processes as primary tendencies.
Play and creative work would, according to this system, not yield
any pleasure to the individual while they are going on, that is while
the activities put the individual under a strain. The pleasure would
come only in the relaxing phases or else there might be pleasure on
a secondary basis.
This does not seem to concur with animal behavior. It also does
not eoncur with the “ function pleasure” as K. Buhler (21) de­
scribed it in children’s continued frequently strenuous play activi­
ties and it does not concur with what we experience in the pleasure
of strenuous creative work.
Creativity cannot be called a need in the same sense as the need
for gratifications, since the building up of tension is intrinsic to it.
Hartmann, on the other hand, has already admitted that calling
creativity a secondary function causes difficulties. “ It seems
hard,” he says, “ to call nonbiological the functions of adaptation,
of synthesis, of integration, of organization” (6).
2. Franz Alexander’s Theory of Creativity
The inability of Freud’s system to do justice to creativity as a
basic factor and basic tendency was pointed out by Freud’s first
critics, Adler (22), Jung (23), and Rank (24). While diverging
from Freud completely in their definition of life’s basic tendencies,
they do not offer any substitution for Freud’s biologic system. Con­
sequently they lack the foundation which would make it possible
to understand the dynamics they describe, in terms of the under­
lying forces. This lack sets also limitations to the evaluation of
psychosomatic processes and problems.
Franz Alexander (25) recognizes that for the understanding of
growth and propagation, of play and of creative activities, a dif­
ferent principle is required than that for the understanding of
568 AM ERICAN JOURNAL· OF PSYC H O T H E R A P Y

needs. Like Herbert Spencer, Alexander considers the assumption

of the principle of surplus energy necessary to understand the spon­
taneous expenditure of energy in play and creativity, while the ex­
perience of need gratification is based on tension reduction. He as­
sumes that, besides the energy which is needed to maintain life in
equilibrium, there is surplus energy. Its amount is increased by
gradual automatization of adaptive utilitarian functions which
liberate energy. This surplus energy, Alexander continues, dis­
turbs the homeostatic equilibrium as much as deficit does and there­
fore it must be discharged.
It is first of all discharged in play of which Alexander distin­
guishes two versions, namely playful exercises and erotic play.
The latter is preparatory to biologic propagation. Creative activi­
ties, although likened to propagation—in that they also are the out­
growth of surplus energy—are considered the result of sublima­
tion. That is to say, their motivation, according to Alexander, is
secondary.
Alexander does not clarify how the gratification pleasure ob­
tained from reduction of internal tensions due to deficits or needs
differs from the pleasure obtained from release of surplus energy
which, he says, also causes internal tension. Furthermore, in pos­
tulating discharge of energy in both cases, he does not clarify how
in one case the discharge results in growth, in an expansion and
higher complexity of the system, and in the other not. It would
seem that in the case of growth and productivity surplus energy is
not just discharged, but transformed into a product that as an out­
growth of the living being’s activities amplifies the individual him­
self. Deutsch (18) holds similar views.
Alexander ’s theory comes closest to the previously discussed bio­
logical theories which try to understand growth and reproduction
as the result of built-in energies available for expansion, that is for
the building up of systems of higher complexity.
Assuming now that we have two basic tensions, one resulting
from deficit which is discharged in activity to fill the organism’s
need and one resulting from available energies being transformed
creatively, assuming that pleasure motivates both psychologically,
what distinguishes the pleasure in both cases 1

3. Karl Buhler’'s Theory of Three Types of Pleasure

K. Buhler discusses, in several theoretical studies (26), Freud’s
pleasure theory in comparison with his own theory of what he calls
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 569

the hedonalgic reaction. He distinguishes three types of pleasure

which he calls satiation pleasure, function pleasure, and pleasure
of creating. In contradiction to satiation pleasure, where gratifi­
cation comes with relaxation, he finds that there is pleasurable ten­
sion in play as well as in creating.
He defines function pleasure as the enjoyment of the activity
itself, regardless of possible effects of this activity. He sees it in
its clearest form in the young child’s play and he observes spe­
cifically that in its often strenuous and endlessly continued play
activity the child does not at all strive toward relaxation or release
of tension. Rather the tension is sustained on a level that the child
seems to enjoy. This playing child is not concerned with the fact
that while it plays, it develops skills and that much of its play
seems to “ serve” the development of knowledge and skills.
All through life, genuine play is purposeless activity enjoyed
for its own sake. But not every type of purposeless activity is en­
joyed nor does it always have the character of play. To be playful
and enjoyable, the activity must probably enable the individual to
some desirable self-expression in the sense in which Maslow uses
this concept (27).
The nervous restlessness which may be the result of either deficit
or surplus energy or else of a third, not yet mentioned situation,
namely unresolved conflict, leads to an activity that is neither ex­
pressive nor productive. Instead it is substitutive for a purposeful
activity that the individual is not able to initiate at the time.
The playful activity and its enjoyment is considered by K.
Buhler the precursor to the activity and pleasure of creating. In
creating, the individual is driven on from playful movements and
manipulations to exploring, inventing, and forming.
Early childhood is the period in which we can see how creative
forming, discovering, inventing grows out of the manipulative func­
tioning and how the one pleasure represents an outgrowth of the
other. However, with creating, tensions are increased, not only
upheld as in play.
In his definition of the pleasure of creating, K. Buhler empha­
sizes that there is pleasure in this strain while generating a product.
Secondly he mentions the ecstasy of inspiration. However, he
warns against the mistake of thinking only of the inspired concep­
tions of the great masters of art and science. He feels anybody can
have the intense delight of working in an inspired way on all sorts
of materials.
570 AM ERICAN JO U R N A L OF P SY C H O T H E R A P Y

Of course the moment we recognize that what we want to call

creativity, is not the privilege of the great alone, we may have to
push the criterion of inspiration and of conception of ideas into the
background and to concentrate more on experiences that are acces­
sible to all people who go with the joyful feeling of creativity to
their daily work. There can be enthusiasm, vigor, a joyful antici­
pation of the skill, ingenuity, competence with which they expect to
tackle some problems that lie ahead of them in the work of the com­
ing day.
There is the joy of mastery over material in creative work, the
feeling of ability to overcome difficulties, to accomplish things. In­
volved in this is probably the enjoyment of power that Adler (22)
considers a dynamic factor in achievement.
A further contributory factor to the creative urge of the creative
person is to put a new product into the world, to see this child, this
handiwork, this creation come out of himself, and to extend himself
into a manifestation of his own existence with which he is still partly
identified. The conscious or unconscious wish to “ eternalize him­
self,” to “ live on” in one’s children, to “ leave footprints” of one­
self, not to have lived “ in vain,” not to be gone completely, this
type of wish is often expressed. Both are phenomena of expansion
in space and time among one ’s fellow men and in the universe.
4. The Concept of Mastery
C. Buhler (28) shows in observational studies of young children
who handled materials like sand, clay, stones, blocks, drawing, and
painting materials first playfully, then creatively, the progression
from manipulation to mastery of the material. The child who first
enjoys scribbling or letting the sand rinse through his fingers, will
a little later draw a house and build roads and a mountain and
enjoy now not only the functioning with, but also the mastery over
the material. He sets himself a goal which involves overcoming of
difficulties and mastery of the material. “ Look what I can do”
he will cry proudly in self-admiration as well as in plea for the
adult’s praise.
Here of course ego-factors come into play, the conscious enjoy­
ment of the own power and ability. The primary factor in it is
obviously that overcoming of difficulties which represents a funda­
mental requirement in adaptive coping as well as in expansive
creating.
In this creative mastery of material—be it actual, material, be it
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 571

people, situations, or life as a whole—the energetic individual en­

joys the ability of standing and increasing tensions up to the limit
of his individual degree of tolerance and enjoys the expenditure of
his energy.
Recently a number of psychoanalytic authors became interested
in the concept of “ mastery.” Hendrick (29) suggests calling mas­
tery an instinct, in referring to psychologic observations of children
similar to those of the author. The concept of “ instinct,” how­
ever, in its recent careful defined usage (30) is applied exclusively
to very specific action patterns, such as mating, nest-building or the
like, and never to anything so general and abstract as the term
“ mastery” would imply.
Other psychoanalysts like Otto Fenichel (31), Abraham Kard-
iner (5), and Heinz Hartmann (6) use the concept within the
framework of ego-psyehology. Recently the tendency has been to
revise the original psychoanalytic model in a direction which allows
for the development of the concept of primary striving toward
mastery.
This important movement requires a more comprehensive and
thorough discussion than space permits. Generally speaking the
author’s position is that the assumption of a primary positive striv­
ing toward anything but need-satisfaction requires the type of com­
plete revision of basic theoretic principles as is proposed in the
present study. (See also C. Buhler [32]). Grinkler’s interdisci­
plinary conference (18) laid the foundation for this new model,
but did not draw" from it the necessary conclusions for a revised
psychologic theory.
5. Maslow’s Self-Actualizing People
The expenditure of energy is described by Alexander when he
speaks of “ lavish spending” of surplus energy and also by Maslow
(27) in his studies on self-actualizing people. One is particularly
impressed, in Maslow’s description of healthy personalities, with
the feeling of strength that these people have, a feeling which makes
them enjoy and look for challenges rather than avoid them. One
may say of them that they “ master life” as an overall description
of what they are doing. Maslow points out the spontaneity and
the creativeness with which these people go about their business
that needs not necessarily consist in unusual accomplishments. He
also speaks of their acceptance of themselves and of the world
around them. This may be considered an expression of the afore­
572 A M ERICAN JO U R N A L OP PSYC H O T H E R A P Y

mentioned primary adaptive tendencies. The healthy creative per­

son works as far as possible with given circumstances.
We might add here a further characteristic of creativeness, that
is the faith or belief which is imminent in the creative procedure.
While creating, a person may of course have doubts about the value
and acceptability of his production and may have fear regarding
the outcome. Yet only if belief supersedes these doubts and fears,
can the production materialize. Several related concepts to the
term “ belief” which we propose, have recently been introduced,
specifically Erikson’s concept of “ trust” (33) and French’s con­
cepts of “ hope and confidence” (34).
Summarizing our discussion of creativity we may say: In the
urge toward creativity, due to the healthy living being’s enjoyment
in expenditure of energy, of straining himself to overcome difficul­
ties, we find on the human level the tendency (1) to self-extension
into a product; (2) to eternalize oneself; (3) to enjoy power and
mastery over material. All of these are brought into action by the
belief in the purpose. In other words, while exuberance may start
the expenditure, the creative production can only be carried through
by belief.

6. French’s Concept of Integration

Completely neglected in present-day psychologic thinking con­
cerned with basic tendencies of life is the aspect of internal order,
with the one exception of Freneh’s studies on integration (34).
French starts out with the concept of a motivating pressure
toward a goal which may be an end-goal or a subsidiary goal. The
motivating pressures are then classified as needs and hopes. While
needs are characterized by tension which tend to seek discharge in
diffuse motor activity, hope of satisfaction, based on present oppor­
tunity and on memories of previous success, stimulates the integra­
tive mechanism to form a plan for realizing this hope. Hope is
then, in other words, what makes deferment of pleasure possible.
In regard to the operation of this integrative mechanism, French
introduces a number of further concepts, such as “ integrative
field,” “ integrative span,” “ integrative task,” and “ integrative
capacity. ’ ’ He finds it ‘ 1evident that the integrative task increases
roughly in proportion to the motivating pressure of the underlying
need or to the sum of the pressures of conflicting needs” (p. 57).
The integrative capacity, on the other hand, “ varies as a positive
function of one’s confidence of attaining a goal.”
 OBSERVATIONS ABOTJT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 573

Beyond this basic model, French also recognizes the possibility

of pleasurable activities (function pleasure) or even of the “ con­
fident delight in struggling with obstacles” of the person equipped
with sufficient energy to find pleasure in mastery. When these con­
ditions prevail, they diminish the integrative task.
In evaluating French’s theory as it applies to our own position,
we must first of all emphasize that, starting from the classic psy­
choanalytic model, the accent lies on conditions of need satisfaction
and of need deferment. Integrative processes are seen exclusively
as a method of coping with deferment of satisfactions.
In addition to this original model, French is willing to add the
concept of pleasurable activity. This diminishes the integrative
task. He even goes as far as to add the concept of pleasurable over­
coming of obstacles. His opinion is that this takes on the character
of play.
The concept of creative work is not introduced, but would prob­
ably be classified by French under the previously developed cate­
gories of partly pleasurable activities, partly deferment of satis­
factions.
According to our previous definition, creativity is defined as
self-extension into a product. The pleasure in creating is neither
dependent on deferral till everything is done and over with and
relaxation sets in— in fact, in creative processes this is often a
moment of depression—nor is function pleasure its essence. The
pleasure of creating has to do specifically with the production proc­
ess. It sets in with the anticipation of the product, it accompanies
the production process, and finds its climax in the final outcome of
the product. Since the process involves overcoming of difficulties
and sustained output of energy, it is not at all times pleasurable.
It is interrupted by fatigue, slackening of energy, unsolvable prob­
lems, and doubts. Despite all this, the joy and desire to create are
carried by the belief that this production is worth while. To what
degree the anticipatory imagination takes on the character of inspi­
ration and conception of ideas is incidental to the concept of crea­
tive work as it is used here. As Maslow also emphasizes, the concept
of creative work does not necessarily imply genius or talent, it points
to the way work is being done, not to the unusualness of the out­
come.
I f we examine the creative process as characterized above we
must say that the integrative task in this type of activity is only
incompletely described if seen as exclusively determined by the
574 AM ERICAN JO U R N A L OF PSYC H O T H E R A P Y

emotional motivating pressures. The integrative task implies the

mustering and disposition of energies as well as the ability to over­
come objective hindrances within and outside of the self.
Also the integrative capacity must, in view of this more com­
plex problem, be defined so that the concept includes the ability to
mobilize energies, to organize activities, and to utilize skills and
techniques. These, in addition to planning and sustaining the de­
ferment of pleasure. And while “ hope and confidence” may be
the dynamic factors that permit the deferment of pleasure, a belief
that the purpose is worth while has to be added as sustaining the
production in moments of unpleasurable hardships.
7. Appraisal and Self-Appraisal
Summarizing we may say that integration, as introduced by
French, is one of the order-upholding procedures. It is motivated
by hope in adaptive, by belief in productive, behavior.
But what brings about hope and belief? It is that the living
being’s existence through the order-upholding mechanism extends
into the future. This holding out for the future encompasses more
than the withstanding of motivating pressures through means of
hope. It entails ‘ ‘ information. ’ ’8 Information, the essential attrib­
ute of the feed-back mechanism’s functioning, is essential for all
integrative efforts. Information introduces the procedure of
appraisal. As French points out, there must always be a “ practical
grasp,” a “ sizing up” of a situation for any integrated action to
take place.
We will call this procedure “ appraisal” and we hypothesize
that this sizing up usually includes an appraisal of the situation as
well as self-appraisal of one ’s own potential and of one ’s own meas­
uring up to the circumstances. Here is one of the roots of our
value system.
In the psychology of our time appraisal and self-appraisal are
considered exclusively as socially conditioned factors which sup­
posedly originate in the acceptance which we find in others. Un­
doubtedly our social relationships contribute vitally to that security
of our position and to the prospect of our goals which we appraise.
But appraisal seems to have another root besides. It is also ap-
s French speaks here of “ insight,” a concept which is usually reserved for
processes of a deeper penetrating understanding of relationships or situations
that is absolutely necessary for integrated behavior to take place. We prefer
the concept “information” as scientifically established and applicable on all
levels.
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 575

praisal of that “ information” in which clues about the physical

factors of the inner and outer situation are assembled and this ap­
praisal relates not as much to our social position as to our own
existence.
Our brief survey shows that the four previously established ten­
dencies (need satisfaction, adaptation, creativity, upholding of the
internal order) are all represented in the present-day psychologic
thinking regarding basic tendencies of life, but that they do not
appear incorporated in one system based on a broad enough as well
as internally consistent foundation. The need for an overall inclu­
sive theory of life’s ultimate goal has led to the global concept of
self-realization.
8. The Theory of Self-Realization
The concept of self-realization has gone through many variations
from Nietzsche and Jung to Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Kurt
Goldstein, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Abraham Maslow, Carl
Rogers, and others who seem to be searching for an all-encompassing
theory of life’s ultimate goal. With again another connotation, it
appears in the context of existentialist thinking. As Rollo May
(35) points out, the existentialist goal is to experience one’s exist­
ence as real, with the purpose of becoming aware of one’s poten­
tialities and becoming able to act on the basis of them.
In spite of the widespread interest in and much writing about
self-realization, it is as yet not clear how it actually operates and
what its dynamics are. Some authors seem to feel that the motiva­
tion to self-realization lies in unconscious drives or needs. Others
seem to think of it more in terms of ego-goals.
In defining self-actualization as the goal of life, Goldstein
thinks of it as opposed to the psychoanalytic tension-discharge goal.
The concept implies first that Goldstein thinks of the healthy or­
ganism as upholding tension rather than striving to discharge it
constantly. Secondly, it implies that he thinks of the organism as a
dynamic entity whose built-in energy represents a potential to ie
actualized in time. This self-actualization is meant as an overall
all-encompassing tendency of life.
Goldstein calls it a “ drive,” while Maslow calls it a “ need.”
Both these categories seem too limited to refer to this type of all-
encompassing tendency. Self-actualization can hardly be called a
drive-in the same sense as hunger or sex, or a need as that for love
or security. The quality of the urge which may be behind actions
576 AM ER IC A N JO U R N A L OF P SY C H O T H E R A P Y

or decisions that enhance the individual’s self-actualization is cer­

tainly different from that of a simple drive or need. In fact, the
individual may sometimes have to disregard pressing needs or
drives in order to give himself a chance for self-actualization.9
Different from drives and needs, the concept of self-realization
is related to time and not only to the next moment. The concept
has the implication of the life-time, and the living in present, past,
and future as a dimension to be taken into consideration, for this
process implies continuity. In fact, it implies that life is lived as
a total unit.
Furthermore, it implies that the organism is built to last and
possibly also that the individual is to develop according to a
‘ ‘ ground-plan ’ ’ as Brody (11 ) defined it in biologic terms. It most
certainly implies a specific equipment with which the individual
operates in a given surrounding. In the concept of self-realization,
creativity becomes the essence of life and its most basic tendency.
But the biologic basis of this whole process remains as vague as its
dynamics.
The assumption of self-realization as an all-inclusive ultimate
gradient leaves many further questions open. It is not clear how
this tendency operates with different types of equipment, especially
with pathologic equipment, nor how it is related to maturation and
to development in general. Furthermore, it is unclear how self­
realization relates to need-satisfactions in a more specific sense, to
adaptation requirements, and to tendencies to productivity ; how
conflicts between these often divergent trends are resolved in the
name of self-realization or how they are not resolved. What are the
forces operative in this process ? In fact, is there a process with the
tendency toward self-realization or is this a concept under which a
number of processes are subsumed?
To me it seems that by self-realization we mean an individual’s
total development with special characteristics. The concept of de­
velopment is implied in Erich Fromm’s statement (36) that the
aim of man’s life “ is to be understood as the unfolding of his pow­
ers according to the laws of his nature” (p. 20). IJe identifies this
aim with “ all organisms’ inherent tendency to actualize their spe­
cific potentialities. ’ ’ This is a global consideration involving many
s According to a personal communication, Goldstein seems to have changed
this original theory as presented in The Organism (1 ), where the motivation
to self-realization was called a “ drive.” But he has not as yet replaced this con­
cept, as far as is known to this author.
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT l i f e ’ s BASIC TENDENCIES 577

processes. It would incorporate our basic tendencies toward need-

satisfaction and toward creativity with the necessary adaptations
to the environment and under upkeep of the internal order. But
it would mean furthermore a development of all these operations
in an optimal way toward a specific goal or result. This goal is
called the bringing out of the best potential. This then means the
materialization of a result which is thought of as a value. Self­
realization could thus be defined as a development toward the ma­
terialization of a value.
This value implies to a great extent a self-identification with
the creative processes of nature. This seems a well-founded and
convincing conceptualization to the thinking of present-time "West­
ern civilization. This is not true of many other cultures and not
even for many individuals in our culture. They have quite dif­
ferent concepts of what they want to or should do with life. The
religious person, for example, conceives of it generally as a task
related to some universal law to which life is subordinate.
However, even those who subscribe to the concept of self-realiza­
tion find that they must also add the concept of fulfillment. Fromm­
Reichmann (37), for example, speaks of self-realization as bringing
about “ fulfillment” of life. From this it appears that self-realiza­
tion in itself is not the ultimate goal, but that it is instrumental in
bringing about this ultimate goal.
9. The Concept of Fulfillment
What does the concept of fulfillment imply? First of all, it
points to a subjective experience rather than to an objective ac­
complishment. Therefore, the question as to which objective ac­
complishment, if any, could bring about this experience can be left
open. Secondly, it refers to a result rather than to a process. The
result is the satisfactory completion of the process as against its
remaining incomplete or ending in the experience of disappoint­
ment, or of failure or guilt. With this possible polarity of the re­
sult, there is an alternative, a non-fulfillment. Furthermore, this
polarity of the result indicates its relatedness to an assessment of
some type. This assessment or evaluation as we may now say, means
that human beings do not live their lives just as a process, but as a
process related to a value and subject to evaluation. In other words,
human beings live their lives as self-transcendent, as related to fac­
tors outside and beyond the process of life as such.
This factor of human life’s self-transcendence has been most
578 AM ERICAN JO U R N A L OP PSYC H O T H E R A P Y

strongly emphasized by existentialists. Rollo May (35), in discuss­

ing it, points out the following: First of all, human existence
always transcends the present moment and the present situation
and brings past and future into the immediate presence. Secondly,
reason and the use of symbols allow for the human being’s conscious
self-relatedness. This accounts thirdly for the experience of free­
dom as well as of conscience. It is a freedom which, as Kurt Gold­
stein demonstrated, is lost in certain brain-injured cases. Equipped
with this freedom, with consciousness, and conscience, man becomes
what he makes of himself, as Kierkegaard pointed out.
The postulated goal of life and the goal of psychotherapy on this
basis is then that man, having become aware of his existence as well
as of his potentialities, would find himself enabled to make of him­
self what he wanted to be. This he should do, according to Tillich
(38), in spite of living “ in the grip of doubt and meaninglessness”
which is to be accepted with ‘ ‘ the courage of despair. ’ ’
Perhaps this is what man should experience. But is it what he
actually does experience?
People the world over and at all times of history have seen ful­
fillment of life not primarily, or certainly not exclusively, in having
become what they wanted to be or what potentially they were able
to be; but nearly always also in terms of what they thought they
should have become. This “ should” has always implied more than
fulfillment of potentialities or self-realization. It implied through
the history of mankind always the fulfillment of some ‘ ‘ law. ’ ’
This law is experienced by the human mind in terms of values
in which he believes and the reasons for these beliefs he projects
more often than not into the Universe. Frequently, he says with
Einstein: “ I cannot believe that God plays dice with the world.”
He believes in his existence as participating in some generally
meaningful process. He may reason that since he is made so as to
believe in meaning that this must be part of some all-inclusive
meaningfulness outside of him.
If he does not believe in the meaningfulness of his existence in
the Universe, man still has always set up moral codes for himself
and given his life the meaning of measuring up to these values.
These have always represented the consideration of other men,
usually with secondary consideration being given to self-realization.
Only our Western culture gives it primary concern.
Fulfillment to the healthy individual with a well-rounded per­
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT L IF E ’ S BASIC TENDENCIES 579

sonality is to have had “ happiness.” That is, the fulfillment of

the most essential wishes; to have found sufficient self-realization in
successful creative accomplishments; to have helped and not been
detrimental to the welfare of others; and to have found ‘ 1peace of
mind” in the resultant internal order.
These are the characteristics of her past life to which— as a
rare example of a healthy and fulfilled life—Marie Heim-Vögtlein
referred shortly before she died. ‘ ‘ There is not the slightest thing
in my life I want different,” she said (10).
This fulfillment then may be defined in terms of the four basic
tendencies having reached their goals in good balance and inte­
gration.

SU M M A R Y

The present study represents a brief survey of present-day bio­

logic and psychologic thinking about life’s basic tendencies.
In the first part, reference is made to the revision of the
homeostasis principle as proposed by the Chicago Interdisciplinary
Conference of 1951. Their thesis that “ maintenance” as well as
“ change” are equally primary tendencies is pursued further to
the establishment of four basic tendencies of life. They are called
need-satisfaction and upholding of the internal order as sub-cate­
gories of “ maintenance,” and adaptation as well as creativity as
sub-categories of “ change.” Their pathologic opposites are need­
frustration, internal disorder, non-adaptation, and unproductivity.
In the second part, the original psychoanalytic model, Franz
Alexander’s theory of creativity, Karl Buhler’s theory of three
types of pleasure, the concept of mastery, Maslow’s self-actualizing
people, M. French’s concept of integration, the role of appraisal
and self-appraisal, the theory of self-realization, and the concept of
fulfillment including existentialist ideas about life’s self-trans­
cendence are discussed and related to the theory of the four basic
tendencies of life. Finally, fulfillment is defined in terms of the
four basic tendencies having reached their goals in good balance
and integration.

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