CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The meaning of mechatronics has evolved since the original definition by the Yasakawa Electric

Company. In trademark application archives, Yasakawa defined mechatronics in this way: The

word, mechatronics, is made out of “mecha” from mechanism and the “tronics” from electronics.

In other words, innovations and created products will be incorporating electronics more into

mechanisms, intimately and organically, and making it difficult to tell where one closures and

alternate starts (Kyura et al, 2000). The meaning of mechatronics kept on advancing after

Yasakawa recommended the first definition. One of the cited meanings of mechatronics was

exhibited by Harashima et al (1996). In their words, mechatronics is characterized as the

synergistic joining of mechanical system, with electronics and intelligent computer control in the

configuration and assembling of modern items and procedures. The same year, another definition

was proposed by Auslander & Kempf. (1996): Mechatronics is the utilization of complex

decision making to the operation of physical frameworks. Shetty & Kolk. (1997) defined

mechatronics as: Mechatronics is a procedure utilized for the optimal of electromechanical

products.

More recently, we discover the proposal by Bolton, W. (1999): A mechatronic framework is not

only a marriage of electrical and mechanical system and is more than only a control framework;

it is a finished incorporation of every one of them. These definitions and articulations about

mechatronics are precise and useful, yet everyone all by itself neglects to catch the totality of

mechatronics. In spite of proceeding with endeavors to characterize mechatronics, to classify

mechatronics items, and to build up a standard mechatronic educational module, an accord

assessment on a widely inclusive portrayal of “what is mechatronics’ escapes us. This absence of

agreement is a sound sign. It says that the field is alive, that is an energetic subject. Indeed, even

without an unarguably conclusive portrayal of mechatronics, engineers comprehend from the

definitions given above and from their very own encounters the embodiment of the logic of

mechatronics. For some practicing engineers on the cutting edge of building configuration,

mechatronics is nothing new. Numerous engineering products of the most recent 25 years

coordinated mechanical, electrical, and computer system, yet were outlined by engineers that

were never formally prepared in mechatronics essentially. It appears that modern concurrent

engineering design practices, now formally saw as a major aspect of the mechatronics specialty,

are normal outline forms. What is apparent is that the investigation of mechatronics gives a

mechanism to researchers inspired by comprehension and clarifying the building outline

procedure to characterize, order, compose, and coordinate numerous parts of item plan into an

intelligible bundle. As the past divisions between mechanical, electrical, aerospace, chemical,

civil, and computer engineering turn out to be less obviously characterized, we ought to enjoy

the presence of mechatronics as a field of study in the scholarly world. The mechatronics

specialty gives an instructive way, that is, a guide, for engineering students examining inside the

conventional structure of most engineering schools. Mechatronics is for the most part perceived

Worldwide as a lively range of study. Undergrad and graduate projects in mechatronic designing

are currently offered in numerous colleges. Refereed diaries are being are being distributed and

committed gatherings are being composed and are by and large exceptionally gone to.

It should be understood that mechatronics is not only a convenient structure for investigative

studies by academicians; it is a lifestyle in modern engineering practice. The presentation of the

microprocessor in the early 1980s and the steadily expanding craved execution to cost proportion

changed the worldview of engineering design. The quantity of new items being produced at the

crossing point of customary orders of engineering, software engineering, and the normal sciences

is always expanding. New improvements in these conventional orders are being retained into

mechatronics plan at a regularly expanding pace. The ongoing information technology

revolution, advances in wireless communication, smart sensors design (empowered by MEMS

innovation), and embedded systems engineering guarantees that the engineering design

worldview will keep on evolving in the early twenty-first century.

2.1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF MECHATRONICS

Attempts to construct automated mechanical systems has a fascinating history. Actually, the

expression "automation" was not popularized until the 1940s when it was instituted by the Ford

Motor Company to mean a procedure in which a machine transferred a sub-assembly item

starting with one station then onto the next and afterward positioned the item precisely for

additional assembly operations. But successful development of automated mechanical systems

occurred long before them. For instance, early utilizations of automatic control systems appeared

in Greece from 300 to 1 B.C. with the improvement of float regulator mechanisms (Mayr, O.,

1970). Two essential illustrations incorporate the water clock of Ktesibios that utilized a float

regulator, and an oil lamp devised by Philon, which likewise utilized a float regulator to keep up

a steady level of fuel oil. Later, in the primary century, Heron of Alexandria distributed a book

entitled Pneumatica that depicted distinctive sorts of water-level instruments utilizing float

regulators.
In Europe and Russia, somewhere around seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, numerous

devices were invented that would in the long run add to mechatronics. Cornelis Drebbel (1572 –

1633) of Holland conceived the temperature regulator speaking to one of the main criticism

frameworks of that period. In this manner, Dennis Papin (1647 –1712) invented a pressure safety

regulator for steam boilers in 1681. Papin's pressure regulator is like a current pressure-cooker

valve. The first mechanical calculating machine was invented by Pascal in 1642 (Tomkinson &

Horne, 1996). The principal verifiable criticism framework guaranteed by Russia was produced

by Polzunov in 1765. Polzunov's water-level float regulator employs a float that rises and brings

in connection down to the water level, thereby controlling the valve that covers the water inlet in

the boiler. Further development in automation was enabled by advancements in control theory

traced back to the Watt flyball governor of 1769. The flyball governor was utilized to control the

rate of a steam motor (Dorf et al, 2000). Utilizing an estimation of the pace of the yield shaft and

using the movement of the flyball to control the valve, the measure of steam entering the motor

is controlled. As the rate of the motor expands, the metal circles on the representative contraption

rise and broaden far from the pole pivot, along these lines shutting the valve. This is a case of a

criticism control framework where the input signal and the control activation are totally coupled

in the mechanical equipment. These early fruitful mechanization improvements were

accomplished through instinct, utilization of down to earth abilities, and perseverance. The

following stride in the development of computerization required a hypothesis of programmed

control.

The precursor to the numerically controlled (NC) machines for mechanized assembling (to be

created in the 1950s and 60s at MIT) showed up in the mid-1800s with the innovation of food

forward control of weaving looms by Joseph Jacquard of France. In the late 1800s, the subject
now known as control theory was initiated by J. C. Maxwell (1964) through investigation of the

arrangement of differential equations depicting the flyball governor. Maxwell researched the

effect various system parameters had on the system performance. At about the same time,

Vyshnegradskii (1877) formulated a mathematical theory of regulators. In the 1830s, Michael

Faraday depicted the law of induction that would frame the basis of the electric motor and the

electric dynamo. Subsequently, in the late 1880s, Nikola Tesla invented the alternating-current

induction motor. The fundamental thought of controlling a mechanical system automatically was

firmly established by the end of 1800s. The evolution of automation would accelerate

significantly in the twentieth century.

2.1.2 MECHATRONIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Mechatronics integrates electromechanical systems design, modeling, simulation, analysis,

software hardware developments and co-design, intelligence, decision making, advanced control

(including self-adaptive, robust, and intelligent motion control), signal/image processing, and

virtual prototyping. The mechatronic paradigm utilizes the fundamentals of electrical,

mechanical, and computer engineering with the ultimate objective to guarantee the synergistic

combination of precision engineering, electronic control, and intelligence in the design, analysis,

and optimization of electromechanical systems. Electromechanical systems (robots, electric

drives, servomechanisms, pointing systems, assemblers) are highly nonlinear systems, and their

accurate actuation, sensing, and control are very challenging problems. Actuators and sensors

must be designed and integrated with the corresponding power electronic subsystems. The

principles of matching and compliance are general design principles, which require that the

electromechanical system architectures should be synthesized integrating all subsystems and

components. The matching conditions have to be determined and guaranteed, and

actuators – sensors – power electronics compliance must be satisfied. Electromechanical systems

must be controlled, and controllers should be designed. Robust, adaptive, and intelligent control

laws must be designed, examined, verified, and implemented. The research in control of

electromechanical systems aims to find methods for devising intelligent and motion controllers,

system architecture synthesis, deriving feedback maps, and obtaining gains. To implement these

controllers, microprocessors and DSPs with ICs (input-output devices, A/D and D/A converters,

opt couplers, transistor drivers) must be used. Other problems are to design, optimize, and verify

the analysis, control, execution, emulation, and evaluation software.

2.2 SENSORS, SIGNALS, AND SYSTEMS

A sensor is frequently characterized as a "device that receives and responds to a signal or

stimulus". This definition is expansive. In fact, it is broad to the point that it covers nearly

everything from a human eye to a trigger in a gun. The administrator alters the level of liquid in

the tank by controlling its valve. Varieties in the channel stream rate, temperature changes (these

would modify the liquid's thickness and subsequently the stream rate through the valve), and

comparative unsettling influences must be made up for by the administrator. Without control, the

tank is prone to surge, or run dry. To act suitably, the administrator must acquire convenient data

about the level of liquid in the tank. In this illustration, the data is created by the sensor, which

comprises of two fundamental parts: the sight tube on the tank and the administrator's eye, which

delivers an electric reaction in the optic nerve. The sight tube by itself is not a sensor, and in this

specific control system, the eye is not a sensor either. Only the combination of these two

segments makes a narrow- purpose sensor (detector), which is specifically delicate to the liquid

level. In the event that a sight tube is planned legitimately, it will rapidly reflect varieties in the
level, and it is said that the sensor has a quick speed reaction. On the off chance that the inward

breadth of the tube is too little for a given liquid consistency, the level in the tube may fall

behind the level in the tank. At that point, we need to consider a stage normal for such a sensor.

Sometimes, the slack might be entirely adequate, while in different cases, a superior sight tube

outline would be required. Thus, the sensor's execution must be surveyed just as a major aspect

of an information procurement framework. This world is separated into normal and human-made

articles. The common sensors, similar to those found in living life forms, for the most part react

with signs, having an electrochemical character, that is, their physical nature depends on particle

transport, as in the nerve filaments, (for example, an optic nerve in the liquid tank administrator).

In synthetic gadgets, data is additionally transmitted and handled in electrical structure, in any

case, through the vehicle of electrons. Sensors that are utilized as a part of the manufactured

frameworks must talk the same dialect as the gadgets with which they are interfaced.

This dialect is electrical in its tendency and a man-made sensor ought to be equipped for reacting

with signs where data is conveyed by relocation of electrons, as opposed to ions.1 Thus, it ought

to be conceivable to associate a sensor to an electronic framework through electrical wires

instead of through an electrochemical arrangement or a nerve fiber. Subsequently, we utilize to

some degree smaller meaning of sensors, which might be stated as a sensor is a gadget that gets a

jolt and reacts with an electrical sign.

The term stimulus is utilized all through this book and should be plainly caught on. The boost is

the amount, property, or condition that is gotten and changed over into an electrical sign. A few

writings utilize an alternate term, measure and which has the same significance, however with

the weight on quantitative normal for detecting.

The reason for a sensor is to react to some sort of an info physical property (stimulus) and to

change over it into an electrical sign that is good with electronic circuits. We may say that a

sensor is an interpreter of a by and large nonelectrical esteem into an electrical quality. When we

say "electrical," we mean a sign, which can be diverted, enhanced, and altered by electronic

gadgets. The sensor's output signal might be as voltage, current, or charge. These might be

further depicted as far as amplitude, polarity, frequency, phase, or advanced code. This

arrangement of attributes is known as the yield signal organization. Hence, a sensor has

information properties (of any kind) and electrical yield properties. Any sensor is a vitality

converter. Regardless of what you attempt to gauge, you generally manage vitality exchange

from the object of estimation to the sensor. The procedure of detecting is a specific instance of

data exchange, and any transmission of data requires transmission of vitality. Obviously, one

ought not to be befuddled by an undeniable reality that transmission of vitality can stream both

ways – it might be with a positive sign and in addition with a negative sign; that is, vitality can

stream either from an article to the sensor or from the sensor to the item. An uncommon case is

the point at which the net vitality stream is zero, which likewise conveys data about presence of

that specific case. For instance, a thermopile infrared radiation sensor will deliver a positive

voltage when the item is hotter than the sensor (infrared flux is streaming to the sensor) or the

voltage is negative when the article is cooler than the sensor (infrared flux streams from the

sensor to the item). At the point when both the sensor and the article are at the same temperature,

the flux is zero and the yield voltage is zero. This conveys a message that the temperatures are

the same.

2.3 ULTRASONIC DEFINITION

The human ear can hear sound frequency around 20HZ ~ 20KHZ, and ultrasonic is the sound

wave beyond the human ability of 20KHZ.

2.3.1 ULTRASONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE

Ultrasonic transmitter emitted an ultrasonic wave in one direction, and began timing when it

launched. Ultrasonic spread noticeable all around, and would return instantly when it

experienced obstacles in transit. Finally, the ultrasonic collector would quit timing when it got

the reflected wave. As Ultrasonic spread speed is 340m/s in the air, based on the timer record t,

we can solve the distance (s) between the impediment and transmitter, namely: s = 340t/2, which

is so-called time difference distance estimation principle the rule of ultrasonic distance

estimation utilized the definitely known air spreading speed, measuring the time from dispatch to

reflection when it experienced obstacle, and afterward compute the distance between the

transmitter and the obstacle as indicated by the time and the speed. Thus, the rule of ultrasonic

distance estimation is the same with radar. Distance measurement recipe is shown as: L = C X T

In the equation, L is the measured distance, and C is the ultrasonic spreading speed in air, also, T

represents time (T is half the time value from transmitting to receiving).

2.3.3 PHOTO INTERRUPTER

A phototransistor and an LED are packaged together to make optical sensors that can be used to

detect objects. The LED provides light that is received by the phototransistor. An interruption of

the light received by the phototransistor causes the phototransistor to change state, thus

indicating the presence of an object in the path between the LED and the phototransistor.

2.4 MICROCONTROLLERS
Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains all the components comprising a

controller. Normally this includes a CPU, RAM, some form of ROM, I/O ports, and timers.

Unlike a general-purpose computer, which also includes all of these components, a

microcontroller is designed for a very specific task which to control a particular system. As a

result, the parts can be simplified and reduced, which cuts down on production costs.

Microcontrollers are sometimes called embedded microcontrollers, which just mean that they are

part of an embedded system that is, one part of a larger device or system. Microcontroller is the

best choice to be the control system in controlling a DC motor because of its ability to store and

run unique programs. Besides, the relatively low cost of the microcontroller made it a wise

choice in implementing it in the DC motor speed and position control system. The

microcontroller’s ability is to run and store unique programs and microcontroller is very flexible

to work with. As an example, user can program a microcontroller to carry out a series of

functions based on predetermined situations (I/O-line logic) and selections. Its capability on

carrying mathematical and logical functions allows it to imitate complicated logic and electronic

circuit. Higher level microchip PIC18F family can be used to integrate large amounts of code in

a single IC. PIC microcontrollers are one of the fastest growing parts of the embedded integrated

circuit market in recent times and suitable for fast implementation controller and can be

programmed for motor control applications.

PIC microcontrollers designed by Microchip Technology are likely the best choice for beginners.

Here is why. The original name of this microcontroller is PIC micro (Peripheral Interface

Controller), but it is better known as PIC. Its ancestor, called the PIC1650, was designed in 1975

by General Instruments. It was meant for totally different purposes. Around ten years later, this

circuit was transformed into a real PIC microcontroller by adding EEPROM memory. Today,
Microchip Technology announces the manufacture of the 5 billionth sample. All PIC

microcontrollers use Harvard architecture, which means that their program memory is connected

to the CPU over more than 8 lines. Depending on the bus width, there are 12-, 14- and 16-bit

microcontrollers.

2.4.1 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) output and research modulations.

None of the MCUs in the PIC16 or PIC18 families have a digital-to-analog conversion

capability, but many PIC MCUs have a built-in module to generate pulse width modulated

(PWM) output. A PWM signal is a square-wave signal of fixed amplitude and frequency, but the

width of the on and off parts of the signal (or duty cycle) can be varied. The PWM output can be

used to conveniently drive H-bridge drives and digital amplifiers. The PWM output mode is one

of the three modes of operation of the Capture/Compare/PWM (CCP) module or enhanced CPP

(ECCP) module on the MCU. The other modes are capture and compare. In the capture mode,

the value of the particular timer associated with the CCP module is copied to a particular register

when an input event occurs on a designated CCP pin. Thus, the capture mode can be used for

timing input events. In the compare mode, an action is triggered when the value in the CCP
registers matches the value stored in the particular timer associated with the CCP module. Below

is a figure showing an illustration of a PWM signal.

Figure 2.1: Illustration of PWM signal

There are different reset operations that are available on a PIC MCU. These include power-on

reset (POR), brown-out reset (BOR), watchdog timer reset, and external MCLR reset. These are

discussed next. A POR occurs whenever the power (VDD line) is turned off and then on to the

chip. After a POR, the code on the chip starts executing at the first program memory instruction,

and some of the registers on the chip will reset to their "Reset" state. A BOR (if enabled)

produces the same result as a POR and occurs whenever the VDD voltage level falls below the

rated voltage (between 2 to 5.5 V for most chips). The BOR does not occur unless certain

registers on the chip were set to detect this condition. This feature is useful in battery-powered

applications to detect low voltage conditions. The watchdog timer reset occurs whenever the

counter associated with the watchdog timer overflows, while a MCLR Reset occurs whenever

the MCLR pin line goes to low.

Note that the PIC MCU has a special register (called PCON or power control) that can indicate

which type of reset has occurred.

2.4.2 Programming language.

The microcontroller executes the program loaded in its Flash memory. This is the executable

code comprised of seemingly meaningless sequence of zeros and ones. It is organized in 12-, 14-

or 16- bit wide words, depending on the microcontroller’s architecture. Every word is considered

by the CPU as a command being executed during the operation of the microcontroller. For
practical reasons, as it is much easier for us to deal with hexadecimal number system, the

executable code is often represented as a sequence of hexadecimal numbers called a Hex code. It

used to be written by the programmer. All instructions that the microcontroller can recognize are

together called the Instruction set. As for PIC microcontrollers the programming words of which

are comprised of 14 bits, the instruction set has 35 different instructions in total. As the process

of writing executable code was endlessly tiring, the first ‘higher’ programming language called

assembly language was created.

The truth is that it made the process of programming more complicated, but on the other hand the

process of writing program stopped being a nightmare. Instructions in assembly language are

represented in the form of meaningful abbreviations, and the process of their compiling into

executable code is left over to a special program on a PC called compiler. The main advantage of

this programming language is its simplicity, that is, each program instruction corresponds to one

memory location in the microcontroller. It enables a complete control of what is going on within

the chip, thus making this language commonly used today. However, programmers have always

needed a programming language close to the language being used in everyday life. As a result,

the higher programming languages have been created. One of them is C. The main advantage of

these languages is simplicity of program writing. It is no longer possible to know exactly how

each command executes, but it is no longer of interest anyway. In case it is, a sequence written in

assembly language can always be inserted in the program, thus enabling it.

2.4.3 Programmers

The process of transferring a compiled binary code to the MCU is called "programming" a chip.

Originally, Microchip provided the PIC Start Plus programmer, in which the user plugs the chip

to be programmed into the device. Then, through a serial line from the PC to the PICStart Plus,
the MPLAB IDE is used to transmit the binary code to the chip. Once the chip is programmed,

the chip is removed from the programmer and transferred into the target system in which it will

be used. More recently, Microchip introduced the PICkit 2 and then the PICkit 3 Microcontroller

Programmer. These are low-cost development programmers that can be conveniently used to

program many MCU chips. The figure below shows PIC kit programmer.

Figure 2.2: PIC kit 3 programmer

2.5 Theory of DC Motor

DC motors are used in closed loop control systems as control variable shown in Figure 2.1. The

DC motor controller normally control using directs operation by sending velocity command

signals to the amplifier, which drives the DC motor. An integral feedback device (resolver) or

devices (encoder and tachometer) are either incorporated within the DC motor or are remotely

mounted, often on the load itself. These provide the DC motor position and velocity feedback

that the controller compares to its programmed motion profile and uses to alter its velocity

signal. DC motors feature a motion profile, which is a set of instructions programmed into the
controller that defines the DC motor operation in terms of time, position, and velocity. The

ability of the DC motor to adjust to differences between the motion profile and feedback signals

depends greatly upon the type of controls and DC motor used. The figure below shows a DC

motor system with an encoder.

Figure2.3: Typical DC Motor System with Encoder or Resolver Feedback.

DC motor is one of the devices that have the applications where precise positioning and speed

required. The big advantage of the DC motor is it’s operated as closed loop system. This means

feedback is required from the motor, it make this system is sensitivity to disturbances and have

ability to correct these disturbances.

Advantages of using PIC over other controlling devices for controlling the DC motor are given

below:
  Speed: The execution of an instruction in PIC IC is very fast (in micro seconds) and can

be changed by changing the oscillator frequency. One instruction generally takes 0.2

microseconds.

 Compact: The PIC IC will make the hardware circuitry compact.

 RISC processor: The instruction set consist only 35 instructions.

 EPROM program memory: Program can be modified and rewritten very easily.

 Inbuilt hardware support: Since PIC IC has inbuilt programmable timers, ports and

interrupts, no extra hardware is needed.

 Powerful output pin control: Output pins can be driven to high state, using a single

instruction. The output pin can drive a load up to 25mA.

 Inbuilt I/O ports expansions: This reduces the extra IC’s which are needed for port

expansion and port can be expanded very easily.

 Integration of operational features: Power on reset and brown/out protection ensures that

the chip operates only when the supply voltage is within specification. A watchdog timer

resets PIC if the chip ever malfunctions and deviates from its normal operation.

2.6 LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY

This component is specifically manufactured to be used with microcontrollers, which means that

it cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. It is used for displaying different messages on a

miniature liquid crystal display. The model described here is for its low price and great

capabilities most frequently used in practice and it is used in this project. It is based on the

HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in two lines with 16 characters
each. It can display all the letters of alphabet, Greek letters, punctuation marks, mathematical

symbols etc. It is also possible to display symbols made up by the user. Other useful features

include automatic message shift (left and right), cursor appearance, LED backlight etc.

Figure 2.4: Example of an LCD Display

Along one side of the small printed board of the LCD display, there are pins that enable it to be

connected to the microcontroller. There are in total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 if there

is a backlight). Below is a table showing the LCD 14 marked pins and their functions:

Table 1: Functions of LCD 14 marked pins.

Function Pin Name Logic Description

Number State

Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5v

Contrast 3 Vee - 0- Vdd

Control of operating 4 RS 0 D0-D7 are interpreted as commands

 1 D0-D7 are interpreted as data

5 R/W 0 Write data (from controller to LCD)

1 Read data (from LCD to controller)

6 E 0 Access to LCD disabled Normal

1 operating Data/commands are

From 1 to 0 transferred to LCD

Data/Commands 7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB

8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3

11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6

14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

2.7 PREVIOUS WORKS

Simon et al (2014) achieved Robotic Pill dispenser rotation by attaching cylinder to the stepper

motor which is controlled by microcontroller through a micro stepper driver that provide precise

micro step rotation of stepper motor.

Ruize et al (2012) built Grill-making machine using the global position feedback capability of

the BLUX drive. The machine builder was able to close the Position loop with the load- mounted

encoder, while the velocity feedback was provided by the motor-mounted encoder and

signal processing. The two-encoder providing both position and velocity feedback. The load

mounted encoder was coupled to friction drive nip-rollers close to the cut head.

In a recent project published by (Jouaneh, 2013), The toilet paper roll is pulled between two

spring loaded rollers, one of which is driven by a geared permanent magnet brush DC motor with

an incremental encoder and a VBE user interface is programmed to specify the number of sheets

of paper to be dispensed and the speed of unwinding.

Figure 2.5: automated paper dispenser by Jouaneh

Time – pressure dispensing which is regarded as the most widely used dispensing technology

due to its low cost, simple operation, ease of maintenance and flexibility for different

applications and it was estimated that about 70% of the dispensing machines or systems currently

use the time-pressure approach, (Cong-Ping Chen, 2007). DC motors are often used in various
industrial applications where a wide range of Reponses are required to follow a predetermined

trajectory of speed or position under variable load (Faramarzi & Sabahi, 2011).

The wheel encoders provide inputs to the DE controller to control the drive speed and estimation

of the current position. The data of the wheel encoders are based on rotational data obtained by a

dynamic tire model that takes into consideration the vertical, lateral and longitudinal dynamics of

the tire (Jorgensen et al, 2015).

2.8 CONTRIBUTION

In the course of this project, the 18F4520 microcontroller is used to control the DC motor,

Ultrasonic sensor, LCD display, Buzzer and photo interrupter. The DC motor will be connected

indirectly to a roller drive which is designed to pull the tissue paper. The system will be

programmed for the user to activate the ultrasonic sensor for the DC motor to actuate thereby

dispensing metered length of paper. The LCD display will be able to display when the system is

on standby, when the tissue in the system is low and when it is dispensing. So instead of using an

LED indicator, the LCD display was used for it makes the system more user friendly and

flexible.

The buzzer serves as a sound indicator as various activities is been done on the system. The

photo Interrupter consists of a phototransistor and LED packaged together to make optical

sensors that can be used to detect objects. In this project, a LDR which serves a phototransistor

was used with an LED placed facing the surface of the LDR with a potentiometer connected to

the LED to regulate the intensity. These was put together to create a photo interrupter used to

detect whether there is tissue paper in the system or not.