WORLD WAR II

IN THE AIR
KUHOFJS
V-
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010

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WORLD W^AR II

IN THE AIR
EUROPE]
WORLD WAR II
IN THE AIR
EUROPE
E3DITEE) BY
Major James F. Sunderman, U. S. A. F.

Bramhall House • New York

 ©MCMLXiii, by Franklin Watts, Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 62-7419
Printed in the United States of America

This edition published by Bramha'l House,

a division oj Clarkson N. Poller, Inc.,
by arrangement with Franklin Walts, Inc.
(A)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The selections in this book are used by permission and special ar-
rangements with the proprietors of their respective copyrights who are
listed below. The editor's and publisher's thanks to all who made this
collection possible.
The editor and publisher have made every effort to trace the owner-
ship of material contained herein. It is their belief that the necessary
all

permissions from publishers, authors, and authorized agents have been

obtained in all cases. In the event of any questions arising as to the use
of any material, the editor and publisher express regret for any error
unconsciously made and will be pleased to make the necessary correction
in future editions of this book.

Putnam and Co., Ltd., for "Twilight in
Norway: The RAF At Bay" by Peter Wyke-
ham. This selection is from the book fighter
COMMAND by Peter Wykeham. Copyright i960
by the author. Reprinted by permission of
the publishers.
Little, Brown & Company "Dunkirk:
for
Victory within Deliverance" by Alexander
McKee. This selection is from the book
STRIKE FROM THE SKY by Alexander McKee.
Copyright © i960 by the author. Reprinted
by permission of the publishers.
Johnson. This selection is from the book
wing leader by Group Capt. J. E. Johnson,
RAF. Copyright by Chatto 8c Windus 1956;
by Ballantine Books 1957. Reprinted by per-
mission.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. for
"Dawn Attack on Russia" by Heinz Knoke.
This selection is from the book i flew for
THE FiJHRER by Hciuz Knoke. Translated by
John Ewing. Copyright 1953, 1954 by Heinz
Knoke. Reprinted by permission of the pub-
lishers.

E. P. Dutton &: Co. for "War Over Britain"
by Ivor Halstead. This selection is from the
book WINGS OF VICTORY by Ivor Halstead.
Copyright 1941 by the publishers. Reprinted
by permission of the publishers.
Simon and Schuster, Inc. for "Rule Books
Are Paper" by Ernest K. Gann. This selec-
tion is from the book fate is the hunter by
Ernest K. Gann. Copyright 1961 by the au-
thor. Reprinted by permission.

Reynal and Hitchcock, Inc. for "Of Death E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc. for "Bluie West
in the Sky" by Richard Hillary. This selec- Eight: Arctic Saga" by Bernt Balchen. This
tion is from the book falling through space selection is from the book come north with
by Richard Hillary. Copyright 1942 by Rey- ME by Bernt Balchen. Copyright 1958 by
nal and Hitchcock. Reprinted by permission the publishers. Reprinted by permission.
of Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Murra,y Green for "Counterattack Europe:
Chatto & Windus, Ltd. and Ballantine The First 18 Months" by Murray Green.
Books, Inc. for "Fighting Talk: Tactics of Written especially for this volume by the
Aerial Warfare" by Group Captain author.
J. E.

IV
 Random House, Inc. for "Ranger Over
France" by Pierre Clostermann. This selec-
tion is from the book the big show by Pierre
Clostermann. Copyright 1951 by Random
House, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
Coward-McCann, Inc. for "Sevastopol —
Ring of Death" by Werner Baumbach. This
selection is from the book the life and death
OF THE LUFTWAFFE by Wemer Baumbach.
Copyright 1949 by the author. Reprinted by
permission.
Air Force Magazine for "191 Days of Desert
War" by Maj. Arthur Gordon. This
isfrom the September 1945 issue.
by permission.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. for "Mid-
night Raid on Tobruk" by Capt. Rowan T.
Thomas. This selection is from the book
BORN IN BATTLE by Capt. Rowan T. Thomas.
Copyright 1944 by the publishers and re-
printed by their permission.
Willis Kingsley Wing for "Fifteen
Above Hell" by Gordon This selec-
Gaskill.
tion was first published in the February 1942
issue of American Magazine. Copyright 1942
by The Crowell-Collier Publishing Co. Re-
printed by permission of Willis Kingsley
Wing.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
"Miracle at Sunset" by Ernie Pyle. This
lection from the book here is your war
is
by Pyle. Copyright 1943 by Lester
Ernie
Cowan. Reprinted by permission of the pub-
lishers.
Air Force Magazine for "Have 'Chute,
Can't Jump!" by Lt. H. M. Locker. Reprint-
ed by permission.
Duell, Sloan and Pearce, an
Meredith Press, for "The Palm Sunday Mas-
sacre" and "Three Boobies To Cairo" by
Maj. Richard Thruelsen and Lt. Elliott Ar-
nold. These selections are from the book medi-
terranean SWEEP by Maj. Richard Thruel-
sen and Lt. Elliott Arnold. Copyright 1944
by Duell, Sloan and Pearce, Inc. Reprinted
by permission.
Dennis McClendon, for "Ladbroke at Syra-
cuse" by Maj. Dennis E. McClendon, US.AF.
This selection was written especially for this
volume by the author.
Duell, Sloan and Pearce, an affiliate of
Meredith Press, for "Working on the Rail-
roads" by Maj. Richard Thruelsen and Lt.
Elliott Arnold. This selection is from the
book MEDITERRANEAN SWEEP by Maj. Richard
Thruelsen and Lt. Elliott Arnold. Copyright
1944 by Duell, Sloan and Pearce, Inc. Re-
printed by permission.
Martin Caidin and Ballantine Books, Inc.
selection
Reprinted
for "The Night Hamburg Died" by Martin
Caidin. This selection is from the book the
NIGHT HAMBURG DIED by Martin Caidin. Copy-
right i960 by the author and reprinted by his
permission.
Argosy Magazine and Kenton D. McFar-
land,'USAF, for "Ploesti: Hell at Fifty Feet"
by Maj. Kenton D. McFarland, USAF, as
told to Arturo F. Gonzales. This selection
appeared in the February i960 issue. Re-
Feet
printed by permission.
Beirne Lay, Jr. for "I Saw Regensburg
Destroyed" by Lt. Col. Beirne Lay, Jr. This
selection appeared in The Saturday Evening
Post, 1943. Reprinted by permission of the
author.
Inc. for Chatto k Windus, Ltd. and Ballantine
se- Books, Inc. for "Hun in the Sun" by Group
Capt. J. E. Johnson. This selection is from
the book wing leader by Group Capt. J. E.
Johnson, RAF. Copyright by Chatto &: Win-
dus 1956; by Ballantine Books 1957. Re-
printed by permission.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. for
"Schweinfurt Skies: Where Brave Men Met"
by Heinz Knoke. This selection is from the
affiliate of book I flew for the fuhrer by Heinz
Knoke. Translated by John Ewing. Copy-
right 1953, 1954 by Heinz Knoke. Reprinted
by permission of the publishers.
Air Force Magazine for "Big Week: Begin-
ning of the End" by Maj. Arthur Gordon.
This selection is from the May 1944 issue.
Reprinted by permission.
 Grover C. Hall. Jr. for "First Fighter to
Big B" by Grover C. Hall, Jr. This selection
is from the book looo destroyed by Grover
C. Hall, Jr. Copyright 1946 by the author
and reprinted by his permission.
W. W. Norton k Co. for "Abortion" by
Bert Stiles. This selection is from the book
SERENADE TO THE BIG BIRD by Bert StilcS.
Copyright 1947 by Mrs. Bert W. Stiles. Re-
printed by permission of the publishers.
authors for "The .\mazing Michael
The
Gladych" by Robert S. Johnson and Martin
Caidin. This selection is from the book
thunderbolt! by Robert S. Johnson with
Martin Caidin. Copyright 1958 by the au-
thors. Reprinted by permission of the authors.
Air Force Magazine for "Scandinavian
Carpetbagger" by Capt. Eric Friedheim.
This selection is from the August 1945 issue.
Reprinted by permission.
Air Force Magazine for "Air Power in the
Invasion" from the July 1944 issue. Reprint-
ed by permission.
Air Force Magazine for "Pacing the At-
tack" by Maj. Arthur Gordon. This selection
is from the September 1944 issue. Reprinted
by permission.
Air Force Magazine for "Patton's Air Cav-
alry" by S/Sgt. Mark Murphy. This selection
is from the November 1944 issue. Reprinted
by permission.
Air Force Magazine for "Special Delivery
to No Man's Land" by 1st. Lt. Joseph D.
Guess. This selection is from the January
1945 issue. Reprinted by permission.
Random House, Inc. for "Last Encounter
Editor's and publisher's grateful thanks are due the United
Force and the National Archives
graphs included in this volume.
with the Luftwaffe" by John T. Godfrey.
This selection is from the book the look of
EAGLES by John T. Godfrey. Copyright 1958
by the publishers. Reprinted by permission.
Chatto & Windus, Ltd. and Ballantine
Books, Inc. for "Dogsbody" by Group Capt.
J.
E. Johnson. This selection is from the
book WING LEADER by Group Capt. J. E.
Johnson, RAF. Copyright by Chatto &
Windus 1956; by Ballantine Books 1957. Re-
printed by permission.
Air Force Magazine for "Striking Oil" by
.AirForce Overseas Correspondents. Reprint-
ed by permission.
Random House, Inc. for "Walter Nowotny"
by Pierre Clostermann. This selection is
from the book the big show by Pierre Clos-
termann. Copyright 1951 by Random House,
Inc. Reprinted by permission.
Ballantine Books, Inc. for "The Closing
Ring" by Hans Ulrich Rudel. This selection
is from the book stuka pilot by Hans Ulrich
Rudel. Reprinted by permission of Ballan-
tine Books, Inc.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. for
"ME-262 Jet Fighter: The Luftwaffe's Last
Stand" by Adolph Galland. This selection is
from the book the first and the last by
.\dolf Galland. Translated from the German
by Mervyn Savill. Copyright 1954 by Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Reprinted by
permission of the publishers.
Joseph Warner .Angell for "Guided Mis-
silesCould Have Won" by Joseph Warner
Angell. This selection was first published in
the December 1951 and January 1952 issues
of Atlantic Monthly. Reprinted by permis-
sion of the author.
States Air
who generously supplied the photo-
VI
 Prologue
Arthur Gordon

When the Nazis surrendered uncon- For the laughing gods, however, the
ditionally at one minute past midnight irony must have been the sharper for
on May 9, 1945, the gods who love the narrowness of the margin of fail-

irony must have laughed. The nation ure. More than once, even after Ameri-
that had first counted on airpower to can strength was thrown into the
bridge the perilous gap between its balance, the Germans nearly won the
aspirations and its capabilities, then air war. Given a little more foresight,

used the air in revolutionary ways to they might have created a single-engine

conquer a continent — there was this fighter force that would have halted
nation, shorn of its air strength by our air invasion of Europe. Given a

superior airpower, its cities beaten little more time, a little more luck,
they might have brought their V-weap-
into dust and ashes, its industry crip-
ons and their jet planes to a point
pled and driven underground, its ar-
where they could have forced a stale-
mies rendered powerless to halt the
mate. But as one of their airmen re-
march of the invaders.
marked bitterly after his capture, their
The Germans themselves were more
timing was consistently bad, their
than willing to admit that airpower
critical decisions on how to apply their
had boomeranged on them with ter-
strength were usually made too soon
rible impact. In the weeks after VE
or too late.
Day one top Nazi general after another
This was most unfortunate for the
added his voice to the almost unani-
Germans. It is the application of
mous chorus: "We failed primarily
power, not power itself, that decides
because your airpower robbed our
battles. Thinking, not sheer mass of
skies of protective wings, our armies planes or tanks or guns, is what wins
of mobility, our tanks of oil and our wars. In the air, where there were few
factories of raw materials." This from precedents to follow, few textbooks to
the men who had counted on air weap- study, the side with the best brains
ons to lead them to world domina- was bound to win.
tion. Irony indeed. It did.

Vll
 Contents

Prologue: by Arthur Gordon vii

PART ONE: GLORY IN DEFEAT: THE NAZI ONSLAUGHT

Introduction 3
Twilight In Norway. The RAF at Bay 21
PETER WYKEHAM
Dunkirk: Victory Within Deliverance 27
ALEXANDER MC KEE
War Over Britain 30
IVOR HALSTEAD

Of Death in the Sky 37

RICHARD HILLARY
Fighting Talk: Tactics of Aerial Warfare 38
GROUP CAPT. J. E. JOHNSON, RAF
Dawn Attack on Russia 47
SR. LT. HEINZ KNOKE, LUFTWAFFE

PART TWO: STRIKEBACK OVER EUROPE:

BUILDUP AND SHAKEDOWN

Introduction 52
The Rule Books Are Paper 61
ERNEST K. GANN
Bluie West Eight: Arctic Saga 72
BERNT BALCHEN
Counterattack Europe: The First 18 Months 80
DR. MURRAY GREEN
Ranger Over France 91
PIERRE CLOSTERMANN
Sevastopol — Ring of Death 96
WERNER BAUMBACH, LUFTWAFFE

PART THREE: NORTH AFRICA: THE DESERT WAR

Introduction 100
191 Days of Desert War 107
MAJ. ARTHUR GORDON
Midnight Raid on Tobruk ^ ^3

CAPT.ROWAN T. THOMAS
Fifteen Feet A bove Hell 118
GORDON GASKILL
Miracle at Sunset 1 23

ERNIE PYLE
Have 'Chute, Can't Jump! 127
LT. H. M. LOCKER
The Palm Sunday Massacre 1 3

MA J. RICHARD THRUELSEN AND LT. ELLIOTT ARNOLD

Three Boobies to Cairo 137
MAJ. RICHARD THRUELSEN, A.C. AND LT. ELLIOTT ARNOLD, A.C.

PART FOUR: AIR ASSAULT FROM THE SOUTH

Introduction
Ladbroke at Syracuse
MAJ. DENNIS E. MCCLENDON, USAF ^49

Working on the Railroads

MAJ. RICHARD THRUELSEN AND LT. ELLIOTT ARNOLD ^""

PART FIVE: THE STRATEGIC AIR OFFENSIVE:

A FLAMING YEAR

Introduction 170
The Night Hamburg Died 189
MARTIN CAIDIN
Ploesti: Hell at Fifty Feet 1
89
MAJ. KENTON D. MC FARLAND, USAF, AS TOI.D TO
ARTURO F. GONZALES JR.
/ Saw Regensburg Destroyed 202
LT. COL. BEIRNE LAY, JR.
Hun in the Sun 214
GROUP CAPT. J. E. JOHNSON^ R.A.F.

Schweinfurt Skies: Where Brave Men Met 2 1

SR. LT. HEINZ KNOKE, LUFTWAFFE

"Big Week": Beginning of the End 220
MAJ. ARTHUR GORDON
First Fighter to Big "B" 226
GROVER C. HALL, JR.
Aboition 230
BERT STILES
The Amazing Michael Gladych 233
ROBERT S. JOHNSON WITH MARTIN CAIDIN
Scandinavian Carpetbagger 238
CAPT. ERIC FRIEDHEIM
Air Preparation for "Operation Overlord" 243
MAJ. JAMES F. SUNDERMAN

PART SIX: D-DAY TO V-E DAY

Introduction 251
Air Power in the Invasion 260
FROM "air force" MAGAZINE

Invasion Alert 264

Pacing the Attack 265
MAJ. ARTHUR GORDON
Pat ton's Air Cavalry 270
S/SGT. MARK MURPHY
Special Delivery to No Man's Land 276
1ST LT. JOSEPH D. GUESS
Last Encounter with the Luftwaffe 279
JOHN T. GODFREY
Dogsbody 284
GROUP CAPT. J. E. JOHNSON, RAF
Striking Oil 285
AIR FORCE OVERSEAS CORRESPONDENTS

Walter Nowotny 291

PIERRE CLOS7ERMANN
The Closing Ring 293
HANS ULRICH RUDEL, LUFTWAFFE
ME-262 Jet Fighter: The Luftwaffe's Last Stand 297
ADOLF GALLAND
Guided Missiles Could Have Won 306
JOSEPH WARNER ANGELL
Appendix: Operational Aircraft of the Allied Forces — 320
European Theater of Operations
Appendix: Operational Aircraft of the Axis Forces — 330
European Theater of Operations
Index 336
 PART ONE

GLORY IN DEFEAT:
THE NAZI ONSLAUGHT
September, 1939-
Deceixiber, 1941

The time will come, when thou shall lift thine eyes
To watch a long-drawn battle in the skies,
While aged peasants, too amazed for words,
Stare at the flying fleets of wondrous birds.
England, so long the mistress of the sea,
Where winds and waves confess her sovereignty,
Her ancient triumphs yet on high shall bear,
And reign, the sovereign of the conquered air.

Translated from GRAN's Luna Hahitahilis (1737)

Clouds of smoke rise as German bombers fly over the outskirts of Warsaw. The Luftwaffe, with 3,750
first-line combat aircraft, met no opposition from the Polish Air Force, which had only 500 planes,
many of them obsolete.
 Introduction

The greatest war in all of history the skies that had no comparison in

struck like lightning at dawn on Sep- history.

tember 1, 1939, when the 3rd, 4th, 8th, So was World W^ar II born, with a
loth and 14th Armies of Nazi Germany Nazi blitz from the air that portended
poured across the German-Polish bor- the shape of things to come. As it had
ders. Swiftly and without warning for- begun, so would the war be fought
mations of modern combat fighters, through the long years ahead and so
bombers, and dive bombers streamed would it be ended, with a measure of
out of the skies to strike the 450-plane aerial destruction upon the perpetra-
Polish Air Force on its airfields at tors that even the madman Hitler
Cracow, Grodno, Kattowitz, Lwow, could not have concocted in his wild-

Lublin, Lida and a dozen other places. est tantrums.

Spearheading the rolling columns of The German invasion of Poland in-
Nazi armor and infantry were nearly voked a string of national
alliances

1600 aircraft of the Luftwaffe's Air
Fleets and IV. Within two days the
I September 3, 1940, France and Eng-
Polish Air Force had been wiped out.
Protected by complete air superi-
the German Panzer
ority,
moved forward behind a
horrendous destruction from the air
and swept through the archaic Polish
which spread the war like grassfire. On
land declared war on Germany, honor-
ing their defense pact with the Polish
Divisions government. Thus in three days the
screen of war had become world-wide, for now
involved were all the possessions, colo-
nies, dependencies, territories, and do-

horse cavalry with precision and skill.
Dive bombers took out transporta-
tion facilities, demolished bridges, rail-
road stations and communications,
immobilizing and paralyzing Polish
ground forces. The JU-87D "Stuka"
dive bomber, star of the campaign with
its terror-making siren, left
towns, hamlets, and farms in rubble
minions of two great world powers.
At the outset, on September 1, 1939,
German overall air strength stood at
3750 first line combat aircraft with
between 500 and 1000 in reserve. Main
types in the Luftwaffe were the Messer-
schmitt ME-109 and ME-iio fighters;
cities, Junkers JU-87; "Stuka" dive bomb-
ers; Heinkel HE-111, Domier DO-17,

and death. It and bombed ref-

strafed and JU-88 heavy bombers; and JU-52
ugee-cluttered highways and in general transports. By the spring of 1940, Luft-
brought to the land of Poland a de- waffe first line operational aircraft

gree of frightfulness and horror from numbered well over 4500. In addition

3
the Luftwaffe possessed nearly 6000 beest biplanes. At overseas stations
training craft. throughout the world RAF aircraft
In contrast the French Air Force totaled only 435 fighters and bombers.
comprised some 1540 planes, of which Following the quick conquest of
314 were based in French North Af- Poland and throughout the winter of
rica. The majority were no match for 1939-40, the German Luftwaffe re-

the modern, high performance Luft- paired the minor losses it suffered in
waffe equipment. French fighters num- its first blitz campaign through Poland
bered 700 of various types: Morane (approximately 275 aircraft were de-
Sauliner 406s, Hawk 75AS, Block MB stroyed) and it made preparations for
151s and 152s, Dewoitine D. 520s and the spring 1940 offensive. Little air
the twin engine Potez 631s. Among activity took place during this period
the 260 French bombers were Leo except reconnaissance on both sides,
451s, Armot 351s and 354s, Douglas occasional Luftwaffe bombing of Brit-
DB-ys and Martin 167s. An additional ish and rare encounters over
ports,
180 reconnaissance and 400 close sup- France with British and French air
port fighter bombers completed the patrols. The three great European
French Air Arm. No one type played powers, in a declared state of war,
a distinguishing role in the entire war. spent the dull cold months preparing
For the British the figures were high- what air, sea, and land forces they had
er and the equipment somewhat bet- for action when the spring thaws set
ter. Total Royal Air Force inventory in. Dubbed the winter of the "Phony
was 1911 aircraft of which 500 were War," it was a period of the most hec-
the eight-gun Hurricane Is, and 13 tic preparations, especially for Britain
squadrons of Gloster Gladiator biplane and France. Their air forces were
fighters which were obsolescent but cu- largely obsolescent and their aircraft
riously effective at first. RAF Bomber industry and air training programs
Command had 480 first line bombers were geared to small peacetime sched-
with ten squadrons in Fairey Battles ules. British aircraft production could
and 23 Squadrons with Bristol Blen- not exceed 700 planes per month while
heim IVs, Vickers Wellington Is and the French was pitifully small. In des-
lis, Armstrong Whitworth Whitley peration they turned to the United
Ills and IVs and Handley Page Hamp- States and by the close of 1939 the two
dens. The 1 7 1 Reconnaissance aircraft countries had ordered 2500 American
in RAF Coastal Command included combat aircraft. Before spring of 1940
units of Avro Ansons, Lockheed Hud- their orders to American industry had
sons, Short Sunderland flying boats risen to 8200 combat planes of the
and a limited number of the com- latest and most modern design, in-
pletely obsolete SaroLondons, Super- cluding P-39S, P-40S, A-20S, B-26S,
marine Stranraers, and Vickers Vilde- B-25S, B-17S, and C-47S. Arrangements
 Th 'T-'i

:*;•
'^S \

-< ^ ?i-
# ^''»;
'*'-«.

-v',~wi^rf'

•t

The French Air Force with a limited number of first-line fighter aircraft was no match for the Luft-
waffe. Here a group of German soldiers examines a burned French airplane.

B(;-"

During the "Phony War" the Royal Air Force used its forward positions in France to perform ex-
tremely valuable photo reconnaissance flights over all of Germany. This RAF crew is being briefed
for a "recce" mission over a German airfield.
were also hastily made with British 24 hours that small country had fallen.
Dominions overseas — Australia, New On the same morning 500 Luftwaffe
Zealand, and Canada — for a high pri- transports (mostly JU-52 tri-motors),
ority joint aircrew training on a mass supported by 500 combat fighters and
scale. bombers descended on Norway. Large
But time ran out for all this prep- formations of transports ffew over key
aration to do any immediate good. airfields and cities disgorging para-
On April 9, 1940 the German blitz- troopers on Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim,
krieg struck again. This time Hitler's Stavanger, and Narvik. Trojan-horse
airand ground legions rolled out of merchant ships, tied up in Norwegian
Western Germany across little Den- harbors, opened their hatches and
mark without opposition and within belched combat ready troops. Within

Tri-motored Junkers 52s carrying 17 German paratroopers each, disgorged them over Norwegian
cities and in a matter of hours Norway was in German hands.
 m>Al
i«^

Two pretty skiers watch a German pilot and ground crew ready a bomb load on a Stuka JU-87
bomber at an airfield in occupied Norway.

hours every airfield, harbor, and key Western Germany. By early May the
military headquarters in the country Luftwaffe there numbered 3500 com-
was in German hands. Overhead the bat aircraft and 500 transports.
fighters and bombers of the Luftwaffe The expected blow fell in the early
patrolled the coastlines in tight aerial morning hours of May 10. Swarms of
blockade. By the evening of the gth German transports (475 total) un-
the well-planned maneuver had suc- loaded parachutists onto airfields and
ceeded and the government lay in the strategic points Holland. At the
in
hands of the Norwegian Nazi puppet. 'Same time dive-bombing tech-
the
Major Vidkun Quisling, who had col- niques so effective in Poland were re-
laborated in advance with the Nazis. peated. Dutch highways, railroads,
There was little doubt that Hitler bridges, and military fortifications were
would next turn his powerful Wehr- swiftly attacked and destroyed. The air
macht (armed forces) loose on the rest assault was followed up by highly
of Western Europe. All but a few mobile armor and infantry divisions
combat elements of Luftflotten (air which linked up with the parachutists.
fleet) V in Norway were quickly trans- On May 14, the open city of Rotterdam
ferred to Luftflotten II and III in was bombed mercilessly with over
30,ooo civilian casualties. Five days the battered RAF gained temporary
later it was all over. The small Dutch air superiority over their beleaguered
Air Force was wiped out and the army forces at Dunkirk and between May
Without pausing the Nazi
obliterated. 26 and June 5 nearly 340,000 English
juggernaut rolled on into neutral and French troops were evacuated to
Belgium. England in one of the most incredible
The Luftwaffe was now at peak operations of the war.
effectiveness. Nearly 3000 German Following the Dunkirk deliverance
bombers and fighters ranged over the German Wehrmacht turned to-
Belgium and France attacking the ward France proper. The Luftwaffe,
French Air Force and the RAF on 70 unopposed in the skies, swept down on
airfields. The 600 French and British the French troops throwing the de-
fighters stationed there were no match moralized armies into panic and con-
for the overpowering Luftwaffe and fusion. On June 3, the Luftwaffe struck
although they did take a heavy toll of Paris in the first air attack on that
German fighters and bombers, their magnificent city. This strike was fol-

losses were frightening. 195 precious lowed by a massive attack on the

Hurricane fighters were destroyed, ground by 100 German divisions with
nearly one-fourth of all RAF fighter more than 2000 tanks. From positions
strength. What was left moved farther in Belgium, German armies struck
south into France or returned to Eng- south at four places, outflanking the
land to continue the fight from British famed Maginot Line with a speed that
bases. RAF bombers suffered equally precluded any counterattack by the
staggering losses. Diversionary RAF French. Amid and con-
hysteria, panic,
strikes on industrial targets deep in fusion the French fled in headlong re-
Germany did not take the heat off the treat. Overhead the young Luftwaffe

Luftwaffe's front line attack. By May pilots had a field day strafing and
21, Allied airpower in France was al- bombing roads cluttered with soldiers
most non-existent. In ten days the and the citizenry of the coimtry flee-
German ground forces broke through ing for their lives on foot, in autos, on
Belgium to the English Channel, cut- bicycles, and in animal drawn carts.

ting off the 400,000 man British Expe- "The carnage \vd.s beyond descrip-
ditionary Force (BEE) from the main tion," wrote a newsman observer.
French armies and the RAF and There was precious little French or
French air squadrons supporting them. British airpower left to counter the
When the Belgian forces surrendered slaughter.
to the Germans the gallant BEE was On June 10, with the Nazi armies a
pinned against the Channel at Dun- few miles outside Paris, the Italians
kirk, facing extermination. stabbed France in the back. Elements
Operating now from English bases, of Mussolini's 400,000-man Fascist

8
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The Luftwaffe sets oil tanks ablaze at Le Havre, France.

i^itiiiWt

"%
•^:>i?L^ take them
Long lines of British troops wait on the beaches at Dunkirk, France, for the boats that will
to England.
Army poured across the Alps and of Western Europe, all that is, except
through the Riviera into Southern England. Only the tiny island re-
France. Bomber squadrons of his mained outside his grasp and the
4000-plane air force, unopposed in the Fuehrer himself stood on the lonely
air, struck viciously at undefended Cap Gris Nez staring across the nar-
French cities and ports. Caught be- row English Channel.
tween the giant pincers of two armies "There are no more islands," he
and two air forces, the French Govern- raved. "The English Channel is noth-
ment fled Paris. Four days later, on ing but a river." Loudly he predicted
June 14, the Germans entered the he would dictate peace from London
ghost-like city — triumphant, cocky. before the end of the summer.
During the next week French resist- His plan was simple and it was
ance cracked completely and on June called "Operation Sea Lion." First
22, the French capitulated and signed phase was elimination of the RAF.
the armistice at Compiegne. In one Second phase, water-borne invasion
month the great French nation had and defeat of the British on their own
been overwhelmed. Hitler was ecstatic. territory. To Hermann Goering's
It had taken him less than two months Luftwaffe fell the first task — elimina-
of the spring campaign to conquer all tion of the RAF — for Hitler knew

A Lockheed Hudson of the Royal Air Force approaches Dunkirk on a patrol flight. The smoke is from
burning oil tanks. During the nine days of evacuation from the Dunkirk area, the RAF mounted
3,561 sorties over the beaches. A "sortie" is one mission by one airplane.
that unless the Germans held complete shipping. Luftwaffe planes undertook
control of the air overhead, there was mine-laying in the English Channel
little chance the invasion of England along with irregular night raids on
could succeed. cities.

The date for "Alder Tag" (Eagle The crescendo of Nazi air attack
Day) — beginning of the all-out air built up rapidly in late July and early
offensive against the RAF — was set at August. RAF Bomber Command
August lo, with invasion planned for struck back in night sorties on airfields

September 15. The pompous Goering and targets in Germany and on fleets

had estimated four days to defeat the of invasion barges seen gathering on
RAF Fighter Command and thirty the French and Belgian coastlines.
days to clean up the remainder of By early August air battles over
British airpower. England had risen to a high pitch. It
On airfields spread from Brest was already obvious to Luftwaffe chiefs
across the Low Countries to Hamburg that something had gone wrong with
in Western Germany, Reichmarshal their plans to eradicate the RAF
Goering regrouped and prepared his quickly. Luftwaffe losses were running
Luftwaffe for the coming clash over high. In one August week alone they
Britain. By the middle of July the lost 256 aircraft to 130 for the RAF. Be-
Luftwaffe's Luftflotten II and III were tween August 8 and 23 German
ready. These two air fleets, reinforced air losses reached 403. On "Alder
and well stocked with combat supplies, Tag" Day, August 15, the Luftwaffe
comprised nearly 4000 first-line fight- mounted a 1500-sortie effort which
ers and bombers. The eve of the Bat- met furious opposition indicating the
tle of Britain was at hand. RAF was in no way weakening. For
Across the channel on British air- the rest of August and into September
fields the RAF could count 2591 air- heavy continuous day and night aerial
craft of all types. Only 620 were battles filled English skies. The famed
Hurricane and Spitfire fighters — the JU-87 Stuka dive bomber, the scourge
handful of planes which would write of Poland, Holland, Belgium, and
history in the three months ahead — France, proved a dismal failure when
and a small reserve of around 300. confronted by the faster, more ma-
Flying with the RAF now were sev- neuverable British Hurricane and
eral new squadrons of Polish and Spitfire fighters. The Luftwaffe soon
Czech pilots who had fled the Nazi found need to provide escort fighters
controlled continent of Europe. Soon to escort fighters, so dogged were the
French and Belgian pilots would join RAF defenders. Armament on Ger-
the RAF's growing ranks. man bombers was found inadequate
Preliminary Luftwaffe attacks be- to deal with RAF fighters and the Luft-
gan in the middle of July on channel waffe bomber's short range did not

11
 The famed JU-87 Stuka dive bomber, the scourge of Poland, Holland, Belgium and France, proved
a dismal failure when confronted by the faster, more maneuverable British Hurricane and Spitfire
fighters.

permit their pilots the luxury of eva- Britain, and although only 56 Luft-
sive action enroute to or return from waffe aircraft were shot down, the fe-

target. rocity of aerial engagement was at its

When September 15 arrived (the height. From then on there was abso-
scheduled date for seaborne invasion) lutely no doubt as to the final outcome,
the RAF was stronger than at the be- though bitter fighting continued un-
ginning of the battle, and the British abated throughout the month, costing
people were nowhere near giving up. the Luftwaffe 435 more aircraft.

On this date the Luftwaffe flew In early September the primary mis-
against England in a mass grudge op- sion of the Luftwaffe — to destroy the
eration which the RAF met in an his- RAF — was all but forgotten as Hitler

toric encounter. Luftwaffe formations ordered the hate bombing of London

were thrown into such confusion by in retaliation for RAF Bomber Com-
RAF fighters that few reached their mand raids on German targets around
targets. Many dropped their bombs Berlin. If the RAF could not be de-
indiscriminately before fleeing back to stroyed, reasoned the Fuehrer, the
their airfields on the Continent. This British people would be hammered
day marked the peak of the Battle of into submission.

12
 In early October, Luftwaffe strategy As to the Battle of Britain, it was
switched from daylight to night bomb- one of history's great events, and the
ing, an admission that their original world shall never forget Winston
plan had failed. The end of this month Churchill's tribute to the RAF: "Never
marked the end of the Battle of Brit- in the field of human conflict w^as so
ain. The Luftwaffe had lost nearly 60 much owed by so many to so few."
per cent of the original force of 3500 While nothing can ever degrade the
aircraft, while RAF losses totaled 915. individual heroism of RAF Fighter

A Heinkel HE-1 1 1 over the Thames River in a daylight attack on London.

Command pilots, German High Com- Command night attacks on Germany.
mand errors in strategy and tactics con- Throughout the terrible winter of
tributed much to the final outcome. German bombs rained
the night Blitz,
Instead of concentrating on the de- on England. The obliteration of Cov-
struction of the RAF on
in the sky, entry on November 14-15 and the sav-
their aerodromes, and on wiping out age incendiary raid on London of
the British radar installations which December 29-30, 1941, left deep scars
played so vital a role in spotting in- on the brave English people. There
coming German formations and vec- were nearly half a million casualties
toring British fighters to the attack, during the "Blitz." The night attacks
the Luftwaffe chief diluted his air continued throughout the winter but
forces over a wide variety of targets: on a gradually reducing scale. The
English Channel shipping, British three Luftwaffe air fleets in Western
anti-invasion forces, harbors and ports, Europe showed the effects of aircraft
British industries and cities at large. and pilot attrition from British anti-
These bomber attacks contributed lit- aircraft and night fighters. The intro-
tle to the gaining of German aerial duction of the RAF's new twin engine,
supremacy over England, a condition radar-equipped interceptor, the Bris-
which Hitler needed before he could tol Beaufighter (replacing the Hur-
cross the Channel with his invasion ricane, Defiant, and Blenheim night
barges. German misuse of its numer- fighters) gave the German pilots a
ically superior airpower was fatal, and brand new problem they never did
the errors committed led the mighty successfully solve.
Third Reich into its first major defeat Then too, by late 1940 the air war
of World War II. emphasis began to shift away from
Victorious British airpower had English skies to other parts of Europe.
given the war a completely new look. The Luftwaffe's "johnny-came-lately"
Within two years the island of England partner, the Italian Air Force (Regia
would be converted into a gigantic Aeronautica), was in serious trouble
aerial springboard against Germany. in the Mediterranean area.
However, the end of the Battle of After Mussolini entered the war,
Britain was little cause for joy in the the Regia Aeronautica contributed lit-
island kingdom. The Luftwaffe con- tle to the German campaign in West-

tinued to hammer populated cities ern Europe. Proudly the Italian "II
from November, 1940 until May, 1941 Duce" had sent 75 BR. 20 bombers,
and the period became known as the 100 Fiat CR. 42 and G-50 fighters to
"Blitz" — the revenge bombing of Belgian air fields in October, 1940.
London and major British industrial Within two months they were with-
areas for failure to defeat the RAF drawn, having been completely inef-
and in retaliation for RAF Bomber fective against the RAF. Their combat

14
 -ijA- •M.-

London fires burn into the next morning after a "night Blitz" raid by Hitler's bombers. This picture
was taken from one of the bridges across the Thames.

The introduction of the RAF's new twin engine, radar-equipped interceptor, the Bristol Beoufighter,
gave the German pilots a brand new problem they never did successfully solve.

15
record proved typical of the entire back decisively by counterattacking
Regia Aeronautica which looked good British ground forces and RAF units,
on paper with a total of nearly 5000 with less than 300 aircraft of obsoles-
aircraft. But in first-line strength, the cent types (Lysanders, Gladiators,
story was different. Nearly two-thirds Blenheim I's, Fairey Battles, Hawker
of the Italian fighters were the obso- Harts). A complete Italian fighter
lete Fiat CR 32 and CR 42 biplanes group was captured by the British on
while the two mainstays, the Fiat G.50 the ground at Martuba, and by Jan-
and the Macchi C.200 Saettas were uary, 1941, Mussolini's African ven-
underarmed and no match for the ture was facing complete disaster.
British and French. About one-half of Thus the Axis situation in the
the looo-plane Italian bomber force Mediterranean called for quick Ger-
was the effective three-engine medium man help and Luftwaffe units were
craft,the S.M. 79 Sparviero, and the hastily dispatched from France and
remainder consisted of torpedo carry- the Low Countries to pull Mussolini's
ing S.M. 79s, BR. 20S, S.M. 81s and chestnuts out of the fire. By the end of
Z. 1007s. An additional force included January, 1941, Luftwaffe reinforce-
700 reconnaissance type aircraft and ments in Sicily numbered 150 JU-87
76 transports of the S.M. 75 and S.M. Stuka dive bombers, 40 ME-119 fight-
82 variety. ers, 120 JU-88 and HE-111 bombers,

Initial combat for the Regia Aero- 40 ME-iio fighters, and 20 recon-
nautica were bombardment strikes on naissance fighters. Malta and the vital
Southern French cities, the British- Sicilian straits now came under Ger-
held island of Malta, and on British man air control. A month later addi-
forces stationed in the Egypt and Suez tional Luftwaffe units were sent to
Canal area. While they were bother- North Africa to help forestall a major
some, these attacks were never critical. British drive into Italian Libya from
The first major reversal for Musso- Egypt.
lini's airmen came in November, 1940 Simultaneously strong Luftwaffe
with the Italian assault on Greece. units from Western Europe moved
The small Royal Hellenic Air Force into the Balkan states bordering Rus-
prevented the numerically greater sia and by March, 1941, over 1100
Regia Aeronautica from gaining air German combat aircraft in Rumania
superiority over that country. On the and Bulgaria were poised for the
heels of this came a second setback spring 1941 offensive.
in North Africa. Here Italian ground In the traditional "blitzkrieg" pat-
forces, supported by
500 aircraft, tern of previous offensives, the Ger-
launched an assault east out of Libya man invasion of Greece got underway
along the coastline to capture Egypt in early April. Within three weeks
and the Suez Canal. It was turned that country had fallen to the Panzer

16
divisions supported in the air by 400 Turning his back on unconquered
Luftwaffe fighters and bombers. The England, Hitler made the greatest
Royal Hellenic Air Force, which had strategic error of the war. With more
held the Italians at bay, was quickly than 3000 first-line aircraft (one-half

destroyed by Goering's planes, and the of his total Luftwaffe) grouped along
royal road to the Middle and Far East the 1000 mile Russian border in East
was now open to Hitler's legions. Prussia, Poland, Rumania, and Bul-
Flushed with success by the new garia, the Fuehrer suddenly attacked
spring offensive, the German High the Soviet Union with whom he had a
Command turned their attention to non-aggression pact. The campaign at

the island of Crete, a strategic piece firstwas a repetition of the highly

of real estate off the coast of Greece successful "blitzkrieg" used in Poland,
held by the British. On May 20, after France, and Greece. The mobile,
strong air bombardment, swarms of mechanized ground forces rolled into
German JU-52 transports disgorged Russia at many points, led by the ex-
thousands of paratroopers onto the perienced, morale-high Luftwaffe pav-
island while troop-laden gliders swiftly ing the way with fighters and dive
descended into dry river beds and flat bombers.
fields. The airborne invasion, sup- The Russians fell back from the
ported by 650 combat fighters, bomb- Baltic to the Black Sea. Though the
ers, and fighter bombers, overwhelmed Russian Air Force was numerically
the gallant defenders at a high cost. superior to the German (12,000 to

Nearly 5000 paratroopers and glider 15,000 first-line aircraft), its organi-
men, along with 170 JU-52S, were lost. zation was poor and the planes them-
But the operation was a success for selves far inferior to those of the
the Germans, a boldly conceived plan Luftwaffe. Most fighters were the ob-
and strictly a Luftwaffe show. It gained solescent I- 15s and L-i6s. Assault air-
for Hitler a strategic foothold in the craft were ancient R-Z biplanes.
Eastern Mediterranean, directly north Russian bombers (TB-3S, DB-gs, SB-2S
of Egypt and the vital Suez Canal and 3s) could not live in the air against
waterway. German fighters.

The tide of Nazi conquest was again In the first few days of the Russian
running high. All of Western and campaign, the Luftwaffe gained air
Eastern Europe, except Britain, lay superiority. Hundreds of Russian air-
under Nazi control. From the Arctic craftwere destroyed in the air and on
Circle and out in the North Atlantic the ground while many were captured
to the shores of North Africa, the on airfields by the swiftly moving
Luftwaffe ruled the skies. Hitler could German ground forces. Estimates of
now dream of conquering the Middle Russian aircraft losses range between
East and pour his forces into India. 8000 and 9000 during the first five

17
months. Nevertheless, the Soviet Air gan to reappear in strength. Other
Force failed to disintegrate and in foreboding things were happening.
Julv alone it made over 7^^,000 sorties Unseasonable wet weather turned
while the Luftwaffe a\eraged 1500 to Luftwaffe airfields into seas of mud
2000 per day. and soon an early and unusually severe
For the Russians the early stage of winter set in, freezing aircraft lubri-
the war was a rear guard action. cants, and cementing aircraft in hub-
Heroic and suicidal missions by Rus- deep frozen ground. All along the
sian pilots were normal. Glider-borne Russian front Luftwaffe losses began
agents were landed behind German to mount. More than 300 aircraft were
lines to harass the advancing Nazi shot down near Moscow by Soviet
legions. Formations of Russian bomb- fighters. Many more were lost in acci-

ers flew boldlv into superior Luft^vaffe dents and aerial resupply of units
attackers to deliver their bombs. Aerial along the vast front. Out of 3000 air-

ramming were not uncommon.

tactics craft at the start of the offensive, the
Losses in both aircraft and pilots were Luftwaffe ^vas down now^ to around
phenomenal. 1700 and reinforcements could not be
So rapid ^^"as the German advance brought in \sithout weakening other
that by July. 1941 Smolensk was sur- combat theatres in 'Western Europe
rounded and the Luftwaffe ^vas bomb- and the Mediterranean. Only 500 re-
ing Moscow. In the next three months, mained on the Moscow front out of an
the Luftwaffe carried the German original 1500.
front Leningrad and Estonia was
to The high tide of conquest had been
conquered. Spreading south, tactical reached. While the Luft^vaffe would
successes were many on the central temporarily gain air superiority in
front and south in the Black Sea area. sections alon2[ the endless Russian
With the onset of winter, however, front, never again would it be able to
things began to change for the Ger- enjov the dominance it had during
mans. The Russian enemy had actually the summer and fall of 1941.
melted into the vastness of their coun- On December 6, the day before
try and while victors' after victory went Pearl Harbor, a Russian counterattack
to the Luftwaffe, decisive strategic at Moscow threw the Germans back
action A\as Soon time,
impossible. and made improbable the capture of
distance, weather, losses, and over- the Soviet capital.
commitment of forces began to show Elsewhere around Europe, 100 Luft-
on the Luftwaffe. The stubborn Rus- waffe fighters and dive bombers were
sian defense of Kiev set back the Nazi hastily dispatched to North Africa to
timetable and by early October, with reinforce the Italian Air Force pitted
the Germans pinned down outside against the advancing British. In the
Leningrad, the Russian Air Force be- west, British Bomber Command night

18
A German photograph showing a Russian railway station burning after an attack by the Luftwaffe.

Royal Air Force and Russian crewmen prepare a Hurricane for take-off at a field in North Russia.
Two RAF squadrons of 39 Hurricanes were sent to aid in the defense of Murmansk.

19
raids on industrial targets on the Con- bat aircraft spread from Moscow to
tinent and in Germany were growing the English Channel, from Norway to
in number and effectiveness. Hitler North Africa. This force was backed
could not afford to draw on his fight- up by an aircraft production capability
ers on this front to replenish the dwin- of more than 12,500 per year. Luft-
dling forces in Russia. waffe combat equipment was superior
Thus was the state of the air war in to 95 per cent of that possessed by the
Europe when the Japanese warlords enemies it faced. Two years of contin-
leveled a surprise attack on Pearl uous combat had given German flyers
Harbor — an attack which brought and air leaders a high level of skill and
the United States into the war in seasoned experience. So strong was
Europe. the Luftwaffe, so firmly backed up by
Though the German air forces were a solid industrial base, so entrenched
over-extended on all fronts surround- in tactical and strategic positions
ing the Fatherland, the Luftwaffe of throughout Europe, it would take
December 7, 1941 was still the most three and one-half years for the Allies
powerful air force in the world. Its to destroy it.

strength stood at more than 5000 com-

With the spring thaws of 19^0 Hitler moved quickly against Denmark and
Norway by sea and by air. Within two days the Luftwaffe had occupied
all key airfields and the Nazi ground forces all key positions in Norway.

The falling Chamberlain Government in Britain quickly assembled forces

to capture Trondheim, in northern Norway, and on April i^ the British
expedition landed at Namsos, north of Trondheim and at Aandalanes to
the south, with the objective to surround and capture the key Norwegian
town. Harassed by Luftwaffe aircraft, the British ground forces needed
fighter protection but no bases existed for such support.
It was then an RAF intelligence officer borrowed a Tiger Moth from the

Norwegians, surveyed the surrounding country and found a frozen lake

covered by three feet of snow, 52 miles southeast of Aandalanes. With the
aid of 200 Norwegians a strip 800 yards long, y^ yards wide, was cleared
in the middle of the lake. Meanwhile No. 26^ RAF Squadron with Gladia-
tor biplanes was loaded on the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious and by
April 24 the ship was ploughing through the cold heavy seas near Nor-
way. On a signal from the lake, the 18 pilots and their CO, Squadron
Leader J. W. Donaldson, (none had ever flown off a carrier before) left
the flight deck and headed out into the low mist for a destination in
enemy-held country that was not on the maps, that none had ever seen
before.

zo
 Miraculously all ice runway of Lake Lesjeskog.
i8 landed safely on the
Spring thaws had already melted the around the edges. Gasoline sup-
ice

plies had to be dog-sledded to the squadron in four-gallon tins. Unknown

to the pilots the Luftwaffe had been curiously and secretly watching every
move. Despite the odds, the RAF pilots' spirits were up and their courage
unfathomable and their orders were to patrol Dombaas early the next
morning. The plan was the first of several attempts to get an air foothold
in Norway and rescue that country from the Germans. It was a desperate
venture, the men brave who carried it out, but all were doomed from the
start. This was obvious even to the strongest of heart in the early morning

hours following their arrival on the frozen surface of Lake Lesjeskog.

Twilight In Norway
The RAF at Bay
Peter Wykeham

In the semi-Arctic twilight of the ing Gladiators. At last the Luftwaffe

next day their first serious troubles began leisurely bombing and machine-
began. The Gladiators were frozen up, gunning the grounded fighters, and
engines would not start, controls were should certainly have eliminated the
rigid with ice, landing wheels stuck to whole base in the first thirty minutes.
the surface of the lake. But by five Somehow two more Gladiators got into
o'clock two aircraft got off and patroled the air and drove off the bombers,
Dombaas, where their appearance while a naval light A.A. detachment
cheered the soldiers in the way that gallantly fired their Oerlikon guns
the actual sight of our own aircraft was from the lake's edge.
always to cheer them. Seeing aero- This day, April 25, was an agony at
planes, however ineffective, they were Lake Lesjeskog. As soon as the few
comforted. Air action unseen, however Gladiators flying landed, they were
effective, left them cold. While this set upon by the German aircraft over-
first party was airborne, the German head, while the lake began to break up
reconnaissance aircraft were already under the bombing. It is almost past
brooding over the lake, while frantic crediting that, in this hopeless situa-
attempts went on to start the remain- tion, 263 managed to fly 30 sorties

21
during the day, and shot down five At the end of the day they were re-
enemy aircraft. By noon ten of their duced to one Gladiator and no fuel.
fighters were destroyed on the lake, The gallant efforts of the naval aircraft

and by the end of the day only
were left serviceable. But no pilots
were lost, for no aircraft had been shot
down in air fighting. In the evening,
Squadron Leader Donaldson took
five from Glorious and Ark Royal to pre-
serve Namsos and Aandalanes had
been equally fruitless, and without air
support the whole campaign in Cen-
his tral Norway began to collapse. No. 263

surviving Gladiators to a small clear- were safely evacuated in a merchant

ing at Setnesmoen, slightly to the ship, arriving at Scapa Flow on May

south, and set them down on a strip 1 Their smashed aircraft and wrecked
.

400 yards long by 80 yards wide. By equipment still lie in Norway as a sad

superhuman efforts some of the ground monument to a gallant but utterly

equipment was forced through to join hopeless attempt at air defense of an

them, and on the 26th the five flew area, and as a proof that the weapon
patrols and reconnaissances once more. itself is only a component in the air
Their oxygen was exhausted, and they defense system.
could not reach the heights which the In the meantime, the operations
prudent Luftwaffe now maintained. against the far more isolated Narvik

At the end of the day they were reduced to one Gladiator and no fuel. Their smashed aircraft and
wrecked equipment still lie in Norway as a sod monument to a gallant but utterly hopeless attempt
at air defense of an area, and as a proof that the weapon itself is only a component in the air
defense system.
showed some possibility of success. An Gladiators, and 46 Squadron with
Anglo-French force was ashore nearby, Hurricanes, commanded by Squadron
and were building up for an assault on Leader K. B. Cross. Early on May 21,
the town. As our forces withdrew from the first flight of 263 took off from the
the Trondheim area Wing Com- flight deck, in villainous weather, and
mander R. L. R. Atcherley arrived at the guiding Swordfish led it straight
the British H.Q. near Narvik to ar- into a mountainside. The naval air-

range the air support for the next craftand two of the Gladiators crashed,
move. The Luftwaffe were now oper- but the rest managed to turn back and
ating from Trondheim, and bombing find the carrier, and what is more to
had already begun. Atcherley, whose make their first landing on a flight-
dynamism attained almost frightening deck. Next day they got safely to
proportions, borrowed a Walrus am- Bardufoss and immediately began
phibian from the navy, sought for and operations.
found two possible sites at Bardufoss The 46 Squadron Hurricanes were
and Skaanland, enrolled civilian vol- stillaboard Furious, which had with-
unteers by the hundred, and blasted a drawn farther out into the North Sea.
series of landing-grounds out of the Their destined base of Skaanland was
snow, ice, and rocks. The work went flooded by the thaw, and until they
on for 20 hours a day under condi- arrived the assault on Narvik was not
tions of appalling difficulty. Mindful to begin. Furious returned to Scapa
of the lessons of Lake Lesjeskog, Flow and transferred 46 Squadron to
Atcherley and his engineers built taxi- Glorious. In the meantime, the Ger-
ways and protection pens, camouflaged mans were pushing north from Trond-
positions for aircraft, and air-raid heim. On the 26th, Glorious was back
shelters for ground crew. Melting snow in Norwegian waters and 46 flew off,

flooded the works and was repelled but after the first three aircraft had
again, and when the transport lorries nosed over in the soft ground at Skaan-
proved inadequate 200 mules were land the rest were diverted to Bardu-
drafted to help out. In three weeks foss and operated from there.
the landing grounds were ready. Both squadrons now began working
Back at Fighter Command yet an- together. Yet again they were without
other Air Component H.Q. had been radar, and had little or no warning of
assembled at Uxbridge, and sailed for enemy raids. Moreover, they were
Norway on May 7. Four days after some 50 miles north of the bases and
Hitler's main European offensive anchorages of the expeditionary force,
opened, the carrier Furious left for while the Germans were coming up
the Narvik area, carrying on board the from the south. Thus they had to fly

undaunted crews of 263 Squadron, the wasteful system of standing pa-

now furnished with a fresh batch of trols until another tiny strip was pre-

23
pared at Bodo, south of Narvik. Three on June 7 in the bright light of the
Gladiators under Flight Lt. Caesar Arctic midnight, 46 followed 263. As
Hull put into this little glue-pot, re- CAorious quivered and shook with the
fueled from tins, took off and shot utmost speed that could be beaten out
down tAvo German aircraft over the of her engines, they came in one by
heads of the Allied troops. Next morn- one to a safe landing and were made
ing Me 1 los and Stukas descended on fast on her flight deck.
the landing-ground and began sys- Nos. 263 and 46 flew 638 sorties
tematically destroying everything in during their period at Narvik; they
sight. Hull got off the groimd minus had engaged the Germans in 95 com-
his flying helmet and shot up a num- bats and shot down 27 of them for the
ber of }u 87s before his aircraft was loss of seven aircraft in the air and five

so badly damaged that he crashed at- on the ground. Their conquest over
tempting to land. conditions past describing was worthy
On May 28, the Allies finally took of the hard-used word epic. The or-
Narvik. But events in France and the ganization that supported them had
Low Countries had now made a farce achieved the impossible every hour of
of thewhole operation, and there was every day. The curtain that now fell

nothing left but to withdraw. The on their display of skill and courage
soldiers themselves, with their usual was swift and brutal.
grim humor, were now maintaining On the afternoon of June 8 the
that the initials BEF stood for "Back Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, hunting
Every Friday." 263 and 46 flew patrol for ships coming from Norway, fell in
after patrol to guard Narvik and the with Glorious as she steamed for Scapa.
fleet of evacuation. was arranged
It Her escorting destroyers turned and
that the RAF should maintain this flew at the German battlecruisers with
defense until all had left biu the dem- heroism, but after two hours'
selfless
olition engineers, when the Gladiators unequal gimfire, helpless and burn-
were to land on Glorious, and the ing from end to end, she slipped be-
Hurricanes, which had never landed low the waves of the North Sea. With
on and supposedly could not,
a carrier her went all the pilots but Squadron
were to be destroyed on their landing Leader Cross and Flight Lt. Jameson,
ground. 263 duly took off from Bar- who somehow gained a Carley float
dufoss for the last time and landed with 30 For five days they sur-
sailors.
their Gladiators safely on Glorious. vived bitter cold and terrible priva-
Squadron Leader Cross, knowing that tions, watching 25 of their companions
Fighter Command was desperate for die one by one. They were still alive
Hurricanes, begged for permission to when they were picked up by a fishing
try to fly his aircraft on, and this was boat and brought to England.
granted. Every pilot volunteered, and

24
Naval aircraft on the deck of one of His Majesty's Ships, an aircraft carrier, awaiting orders to take
off for air action against Norway.

25
There were many hitter, dark days in the early part of the war. May 26,
1940 was one, for on this day the 400,000-man British Expeditionary
Force (BEF) on the Continent was driven to the sea by the overwhelming
"blitzkrieg" of German land forces spearheaded by thousands of Luft-
waffe fighters and bombers.
It all happened in a brief 16 days during which Hitler's legions burst
across the flat plains of Flanders (the traditional invasion route), and
over-ran Holland and Belgixim. By May 20, 10 days after the "blitzkrieg"
started, Nazi armored columns had reached the channel coast at Abbe-
ville. The valiant British were pinned against the water at Dunkirk.

For the RAF, whose meager forces were split defending the homeland
and assisting the BEF in the Battle of France, it had been a grim two
weeks. Losses had cut their fighter strength by 2^ per cent and nearly
1000 precious planes had been destroyed. Their bases in France were
gone.
Faced with extermination of their major land army, the British mounted
the most dramatic withdrawal operation of the war — officially called
"Operation Dynamo," but known to the xvorld as the "Nine Days of
Dunkirk." It began on May 26, ip^o.
Everything British that could float or fly ivas thrown into evacuating
the BEF across the channel to England. The pompous Hermann Goering
promised to crush the effort by air assault of his powerful Luftwaffe. He
had more than }^oo first-line fighters and bombers with which to do it.
On the sea a fantastic armada of 848 British ships from destroyers to
private sloops, fishing smacks and dinghies of amateur sailors put out for
the French coast to retrieve the troops.
Overhead the small RAF, battered and weary, flew cover as best they
could with a portion of the 600 Hurricane, Spitfire, and Defiant fighters
that remained. To commit the entire force loould have left the British
Isles defenseless against the Luftwaffe.
And so it was that aircraft of all vintages were resurrected, hastily jerry-
rigged with machine guns and floivn against the Luftwaffe over Dunkirk
in the most desperate combined operation in the history of British arms.
It was another defeat for the Luftwaffe.

26
 Dunkirk: Victory Within
Deliverance
Alexander McKee

The real victory of Dunkirk was Clarke noticed some Blenheim IVs
won by the navy, but desperate efforts which never left the ground, asked
were made both by the RAF and the why, and was told: "Gas! We're fitted

Fleet Air Arm, with totally unsuitable with tanks for spraying gas, just in case
— and therefore expendable — aircraft, the Jerries start using it." There was
to aid the evacuation. At Detling an also an Anson with what appeared to
amazing collection of long-forgotten be an enormous rod sticking out of its
machines was assembled. Pilot Officer nose. "What on earth have you got
D. H. Clarke reported there for duty there?" he inquired of the pilot.
on May 3 1 flying a target-towing Skua
, "Cannon, old boy — like it?" He al-

of No. 2 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation most purred. "Got a and a 109 on

1 10
Unit, Gosport. He was told that he was the last trip, plus a 109 damaged."
to patrol each night west of Dunkirk, "But where did you nick it from?"
dropping powerful flares to light up asked Clarke, whose own aircraft was
any attempt by the German Navy to unarmed.
interfere with the evacuation; he had "Ah, now there's a thing plenty. . .

precisely two hours night-flying expe- of guns if you know where to go to,
rience. During the morning of June old boy." The pilot was evasive. "Got
1, as his operation was not timed until some Vickers gas-operated, too — look."
after nightfall, he assisted the ground He pointed to the bullet-splashed side
crews who were working on about 50 of the Anson, where a twin-barrel was
Fleet Air Arm Swordfish, which were poking out of a side window.
shortly due to take off on a fighter pa- "Another one on the starboard side,
trol over Dunkirk. The Swordfish was a Lewis in the turret — and we cut a
an obsolete biplane torpedo-bomber hole in the floor to fire at the silly clots

and it was hoped that the German who try to sneak in underneath. No
bombers would mistake them for mounting, we just hold a Vickers, and
equally obsolete Gladiator biplane spray— works like a charm!"
fighters,and be frightened off. They The second "fighter-patrol" of the
had already done one such patrol with- morning was flown by Fleet Air Arm
out being attacked, but the Germans dive-bombers and two-seater fighters.
were not fooled a second time. "The 37 Skuas and Rocs were a

27
splendid sight as they took off in mass it. How that pilot flew home will never
formation," recalled Clarke. "They be known, for I found out that he was
looked a bit more operational than dead when they dragged him out. Of
some of the others, even if their maxi- those 37 Skuas and Rocs, nine came
mum speed was only 225 m.p.h. They back; of the nine, only four were
came back just before lunchtime, so I serviceable."
stayed to watch them There were
land. The morning was not quite over
not many — I counted six; where were yet. A shot-up fighter-Blenheim came
the others? One belly-flopped and I in and landed; the pilot, Reg Peacock,
went across to see what had happened, was a friend of Clarke's. His lean face
the blood-wagon passing me on the was grimy and sweat-stained, his black
way. That aircraft was a complete hair plastered down from the pressure
write-off. Bullets and cannon shells of his helmet. "I think I'm the last
had ripped the fuselage from end to of the squadron, Nobby," he said. "We
end; the after cockpit was sprayed were attacking a crowd of Dorniers
liberally with blood, the inside of the when a whole swarm of 109s jumped
."
glass-house reddened throughout by us . .

the forward draught. The front cock- "He went along to the mess with his
pit, if anything, was worse. Two bullet crew for a beer," recalled Clarke. "An
holes through the back of the pilot's hour and a half later they were air-
seat showed where he had been hit, borne once more. The starboard wheel
and his parachute, still in position, was not fully retracted and they disap-
was saturated with blood. The instru- peared at low level with a decided list
ment panel was shattered wreckage, to port — too much rudder bias coun-
and on the floor was a boot — and the tering the drag of the wheel, I thought.
remains of a foot. They looked very pathetic limping
."
"I was nearly sick with the horror of back to Dunkirk all alone . .

Editor's note
The boast of Hermann Goering that his put up over the evacuation beaches and
Luftwaffe would prevent the evacuation returning ships. The British Army lost
did not come true. In the nine days the 68,000 killed, missing, wounded, or pris-
motley armada of 848 ships, criss-crossing oner; 2472 guns; 63,879 motor vehicles;
the channel, brought back 338,226 of the half a million tons of ammo; and 226
400,000 men of the BEF. The BEE had ships of all classes. The RAF lost 106
been saved by a combination of Nazi fighters (80 pilots), and several score
bungling, disorganized, unpremeditated bombers. Luftwaffe losses ranged be-
bravery, bad weather which hung over tween 156 and 262 planes.
Luftwaffe airdromes for about half the During the nine days and nights 820
period, and the valiant defense the RAF bomber and recce sorties had been flown

28
over the beaches. Fighter Command made this dehverance which should be noted.
2739 fighter sorties — for an average of It was gained by the Air Force We . . .

300 a day. got the Army away and all our pilots
. . .

Dunkirk was a military defeat. "But," have been vindicated as superior to what
they (the Germans) have ."
said Winston Churchill in a speech to . .

Parliament, "there was a victory inside

In the days following Dunkirk, RAF Fighter Command licked its wounds
and counted numbers — ^66 serviceable fighters were left, including 53/
Hurricanes and Spitfires. Though badly mauled, British airpower was far
from defeated and the British air chiefs set about in haste to rebuild and
re-equip their units.
Aided by priority aircraft production and flight training, Fighter Com-
mand grew to ^8y planes and 1200 pilots by June ^o, and by August 5 it

had yo8 aircraft and 1434 pilots.

Facing the RAF narrow English Channel were two massive

across the
Luftwaffe air fleets, Luftfiotten II and III on fields from Brest to Holland.
Ready to fly from Southern Norwegian bases against north England was
Luftfiotten V. Total first-line aircraft for the three fleets numbered 2790
planes, including more than 1200 bombers, 280 Stuka dive bombers and
p8o fighters, mostly ME-iops and iios.
Thus were the forces lined up for the next great move in the European
air war — the Battle of Britain.
Hitler's grand strategy for defeat of Great Britain rested on "Operation
Sea Lion" — Nazi code name for the invasion of England. First step of the
plan called for the elimination of the Royal Air Force. Next, air-sea land-
ings on British soil and defeat of British armies on their own land.
Fortunately for the RAF, Hitler's hope that England would sue for
peace without further bloodshed bought precious time to rearm. The
summer days of June and July slid by with no serious air action from, the
poxverful Luftwaffe. Despite the open invitation from Hitler, Britain re-
fused to surrender.
Finally on August 10, two months after Dunkirk, Goering announced
the beginning of the campaign to reduce the RAF, and the Battle of
Britain got under way in earnest. The valiant RAF defense of the British
Isles a story well known. Instead of being defeated in four days, as
is

Goering predicted, the small handful of RAF

pilots aggressively met the
overwhelming numbers hurled at them and in the first 50 days shot down
y8i German aircraft, damaged 242.

29
 Day and night the Luftwaffe attacked England, and day and night the
courageous lads of Fighter Command in their Spitfires, Hurricanes, and
night fighters rose to challenge the incoming formations. German chiefs
on French airfields watched in dismay their bedraggled squadrons return
canying grim signs of bitter combat and telling grim tales of what wrath
they encountered over England.
The order of priority of English targets (radar stations, airfields, in-
dustry) luas soon discarded as the fanatic Hitler directed indiscriminate
bombing of cities in retaliation for the stubborn resistance of RAF
Fighter Command and the night raids on German cities of Bomber
Command.
Sunday, September i^ — the original "Sea Lion" date for Hitler's
armies to pour ashore in England — dawned and full of sun-
quiet, clear,
shine. The mighty Luftwaffe had failed to achieve the first step. The
RAF, instead of disintegrating, was growing stronger and on this day
Goering would throw his forces at England in a fury hitherto unknown.
Itwas a day that luould live in the annals of air war— the climax of the
Battle of Britain. And here is that story, told by a British writer.

War Over Britain

Ivor Halstead

It was clear in these early days of barges — over 150 feet long, and each
September that invasion plans were built to carry about two trainloads of
developing swiftly.There were small men and materials. Secret information
assemblies of men and materials on revealed at this time, too, that Ger-
September i, but as the days went by many had commandeered every avail-
our reconnaissance planes told of in- able barge of over 500 tons and that
tensifying activity. Before long hun- armies of workmen were employed in
dreds of barges, ships, and other war the shipyards altering the bows of the
equipment were reported to be as- vessels so that tanks and guns could be
sembled at Antwerp, Calais, Dunkirk, more easily carried and disembarked.
Ostend, Nieuport, and Le Havre. Our Added to these concentrations of barges
airmen saw them daily, hugging the were submarines in many of the har-
coast and moving from one canal or bors, some of the ocean-going type,
port to another. Small warships were large motor-vessels, tugs, and merchant
also moved near the self-propelled ships. One report told of 45 large mer-

30
Aformation of JU-87 dive-bombers
with their top fighter cover of ME-
109s over the English countryside.
The JU-87s ore in the first stage of
a let-down for a bombing attack
on an RAF airfield.

i^r.^^«i«&ig£S

chant ships at Le Havre. New aircraft schemes fermenting in his cunning

shekers were being built inland on the brain could hope to succeed unless a
numerous aerodromes from which it fatal arrow could be plunged into the
was expected enemy aircraft would heart of Britain first.

play their part in the invasion. He did what he could with his supe-
The German Air Force continued rior air weapon, wielded by the enthu-
its daily attacks on Southeast Britain siast Goering. The ugly conspirators
and London to prepare the way for a were working to a new date. They
great invasion follow-up. Hitler was were to be in the country of their
throwing in heavy air stakes because dreams on September 15.
he knew deep in his heart of hearts Every September day and every Sep-
that not one of the world-conquest tember night was a day and night of

3»
 4U

aJL4*

A rare German combat photograph, taken over England, shows an air battle between a Dornier
DO-17 and a Spitfire.

air-fighting,and Hitler's desperate by land, sea and air, that was to put,

need to dominate our RAF fighters London and then the whole of
first,

could be measured by his almost drunk- Britain, under Hitler's control. In

enly reckless expenditure of valuable this period, relays of German bomb-
bombers and fighters and much more ers came over and just let their bombs
of valuable pilots. Gaining in a sense go blindly the low lying
through
and
of superiority sureness of striking clouds. One on the Chapel at
fell

power every day, our own fighter Buckingham Palace. The King and
pilots continued to take their heavy Queen were in residence. Neither was
toll from the enemy. They brought hurt, but three members of the staff

down 52 on September 9 and 89 on were injured. Another bomb fell on

the 1 ith. One of the longest continu- the House of Lords. Big stores in Ox-
ous attacks on London came on the ford Street were hit, and high explo-
day and night of September 13/14, sivesand incendiaries fell in Mayfair.
and this concentration is now known Many shoppers were killed as they
to have been an early rumbling of the walked in the busy streets.
gathering storm of a planned attack Now dawned Sunday, September 15,
32
 :'"i^'^'
1#HALF ROLLS OFF

DESTROYS ANOTHER & 7^

m THE TOP OF HIS
^Oqp
DAMAGES A THIRD > '
i

1/ SWOOPS UPWARDS 6-
SHOOTS DOWN REAR
AIRCRAFT

SIN6LE HURRICANE MEETS

12 MESSERSCHMITTS HEAD-ON DIVES UNDER THEH

One Hurricane against twelve Messerschmitt ME-109s and that leaves nine. A drawing of the actual
fighter attack tactic used against the German air formations.

A close-up of a Hurricane fighter on patrol.

33
 With the towering St. Paul's Cathedral in the background, this London home guard spotter scans
the sky for approaching German bombers.

the great invasion day, the peak of the During the day there were mag-
blitz, and a day that will be remem- nificent aerial battles six miles up in
bered in the annals of the Royal Air the shimmering blue over London.
Force with pride, even in coming cen- Flashes, rolling detonations, the crack
turies when new achievements have of anti-aircraft guns, the zooming of
erased the memory of many of the old. diving machines, German aircraft cut
It was a day of air fury, a day when in two by the knife-edge bullets from
Nazi bombers hurled themselves in Spitfire wings, and falling in a trail of
waves against London and Southeast smoke and flame, bombs whistling and
England most desper-
in a series of the crashing, fires starting up, firebells

ate mass raids Germany had ever de- clanging — surely Jules Verne and H.
livered. G. Wells, dreaming of the coming wars

34
in the air, had conceived nothing more mond, Dover, Esher, Tunbridge Wells,
fantastic, thrilling, and wonderful than Dorking, Orpington, Chislehurts, Big-
this reality unfolding before the fasci- gin Hill, Weymouth Bay, Porlock,
nated eyes of those of us who were in Eastbourne, and baling out Nazi pilots
London and saw it. descended on the English countryside
Here was the dream of the super like showers of summer snow. It had

film-producer developing to a magnifi- been history's biggest battle in the air,

cent dramatic intensity without re- and the boys of the RAF had wori it.
hearsal, and with stately St. Paul's and
Buckingham Palace as part of the set- Editor's note

ting. And through all this day of al- This day "had been the ultimate clash
of human wills." The score was not im-
most continuous fighting our battle
not only held the
posing: 26 RAF planes 56 Luftwaffe
lost,
squadrons of the air
shot down. The story was written in the
enemy but out-maneuvered him, out-
intensity of the fighting, the fury of des-
gunned him, and confirmed a qualita- peration which both sides sensed. Mas-
tive superiority of man and machine sive fleets of bombers and
Luftwaffe
that will never now be challenged or hordes of fighters streamed over England
questioned. Here was the supreme test and were met by the entire force of
in the air for which the world had Fighter Command. During the height of
waited, and our boys, to the immense the battle Churchill asked the RAF
and profound relief of all
gratification Commander "How many fighters do you
men and women of good will, were have left?" The answer was "None." All
were committed. The air was congested
producing an indefinable spiritual
with struggling aircraft, mid-air colli-
something that defies and rises serenely
sions, smoke trails, anti-aircraft shells
above the effects of material onslaught,
bursting with bits of wreckage falling
and against which poor Adolf Hitler like rain. Pilots landed with blood on
battered his impotent fists, hurled his their cowling, parcels of human flesh in
frenzied curses and exploded his bombs the air scoops — so close, so deadly had
in vain. it been. Radio channels were swamped,
The boys won new laurels on this air controllers were unable to cope with
supreme day, for they brought down a reports and orders.

record catch of 185 enemy machines.* The greatest effort of the Luftwaffe
was turned into a rout. Only a few Luft-
No need to wait for the evidence of
waffe bombers got through to their tar-
the intelligence officer. The shattered
gets, so great was the confusion and chaos
Dorniers and Messerschmitts and
into which their formations were thrown.
Junkers were lying splintered and
By nightfall a feeling of victory ran
charred in Kensington, at Victoria Sta- throughout England. On the Continent,
tion, in the Thames meadows, at Rich- Goering's Luftwaffe squadrons were lick-
* Official ing their wounds from the worst defeat
recount later put Luftwaffe losses at 56
destroyed. since the offensive began. And on the

35
 A London news vendor kept a daily box score of the dogfights between the RAF and the Luftwaffe.

17th of September Hitler postponed "Sea tain: July 10 to October 31, 1733 Ger-
Lion" indefinitely. man aircraftdestroyed to 915 for the
While the Battle of Britain continued RAF.
to the end of October, some days with Most serious was the loss to both sides
intense ferocity, there was never any of irreplaceable men. Britain lost 415
doubt that the RAF could turn back pilots while 451 flew the entire Battle.
whatever the Germans put in the sky Itwas estimated the life expectancy of a
over England. By the end of September RAF pilot during these months was 87
the great daylight armadas stopped com- flying hours, not long as time goes in
ing. And the dreaded night attacks grew. combat.
Targets were the big cities and the By the end of October, convinced of
purpose for the deadly night raids was the futility in trying to hammer the Eng-
no longer to defeat the RAF but to re- lish people into submission from the
taliate for British bombing of German air, Hitler called off his air legions and
cities. To the very last day of the Battle turned his forces toward the Eastern
of Britain — October 31, 1940 — the Luft- Front for the coming campaign against
waffe kept the pressure on, despite con- Russia and the Mediterranean.
tinued high losses (325 in October). England was saved by a handful of
Total box score for the Battle of Bri- flyers.

36
 nnen
A
-

Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill watches one of his Sterling heavy bombers take off for a
mission over Berlin.

Of Death in the Sky

Ricliarci Hillary

My first emotion was one of satisfac- share the dangerous emotions of the
tion, satisfaction at a job adequately bomber pilot who night after night
done, at the final logical conclusion of must experience that childhood long-
months of specialized training. And ing for smashing things. The fighter
then I had a feeling of the essential pilot's emotions are those of the duel-
Tightness of it all. He was dead and I ist — cool, precise, impersonal. He is

was alive; it could so easily have been privileged to kill well. For one must if

the other way round; and that would either kill or be killed, as now one
somehow have been right too. I real- must, it should, I feel, be done with
ized in that moment just how lucky a dignity. Death should be given the set-
fighter pilot is. He has none of the ting it deserves; it should never be a
personalized emotions of the soldier, pettiness; and for the fighter pilot it

handed a rifle and bayonet and told never can be.

to charge. He does not even have to

37
 One of the great contributions of the Battle of Britain was the develop-
ment of air combat tactics, both fighter and bomber that were used
throughout the war.
The basic rules of fighter combat, handed down from the great aces
ofWorld War I,remained unchanged: use of sun and cloud, the surprise
bounce, team fighting rather than lone wolfing, aerial marksmanship,
determination and aggression, guarding against "blind spots." The cri-
teria for judging aircraft in World War II were the same as in World
War I: speed, rate of climb, maneuverability, and firepower. But the later
aircraft characteristics themselves had vastly changed. The Hurricane and
Spitfire, the ME-109 and no, the P-^y and P-^i bore little resemblance
to the Sopivith Camel, the Fokker DR-jf, or the French Spad. While
much of the old had to be relearned, a whole area of new air war tech-
niques unfolded in the skies over Europe in the early ip^os.
Top British ace. Group Capt. J. E. "Johnny" Johnson, RAF, who
fought the Battle of Britain, here analyzes what was learned in that en-

gagement about air weapons and their employment.

Fighting Talk: Tactics of Aerial

Warfare
Group Capt. J. E. Johnson, RAF

To us FIGHTER PILOTS this period, the the Hurricane. The enemy fighter car-
Battle of Britain, is full of interest ried either four machine guns or two
from a tactical point of view because machine guns and two cannon; the
the tactics developed by both sides latter compared very favorably with
formed the basis upon which our air our eight Browning machine guns,
battles were fought for the remainder The 109F, which was soon to make its
of the war. It is worth examining these appearance over England, had one
tactics and some of the differing opin- cannon which was centrally mounted
ions held by those in authority at the and fired through the hub of the pro-
time, peller, and later versions of this splen-
The Luftwaffe possessed some ex- did fighter had three cannon,
cellent aeroplanes, and the Messer- During the fighting over Dunkirk,
schmitt 109E had a higher ceiling and our pilots found that their Spitfires
better guns than either the Spitfire or had slight margins of speed and climb

38
over the 109E. But most of these fights
took place below 20,000 feet, and later,

when we had to fight well above this

height, it was soon discovered that the

enemy fighter was decidedly superior
because its supercharger was designed
to operate more efficiently at the higher
altitudes. When the Messerschmitt
took evasive action by half-rolling and
diving vertically for the deck, we found
that we couldn't stay with it in this
maneuver. Certainly the Spitfire was
more maneuverable, but maneuvering
does not win air battles, and tight
turns are more of a defensive than an
offensive tactic. The Spitfire's rate of

turn would get you out of trouble if

you saw your attacker in time, but Group Captain J. E. Johnson, Royal Air Force top
fighter pilot ace, in a relaxed moment during the
only superior height would save you Battle of Britain.

from the "bounce."

The Luftwaffe pinned great hopes line up his diving aircraft against a

on the stable companion of the 109, ground target with great accuracy and
the twin-engined Messerschmitt iioD release his bombs when he pulled out
"destroyer" fighter. had a greater
It at low But one of the basic prin-
level.

range than the 109 and was accordingly ciples of employment of close-
the
often employed as a close escort to support aircraft is that they must be

the bomber formation. It carried a capable of holding their own against

formidable number of cannon, but it contemporary fighters. The Stuka con-
could not hold its own against either tradicted this simple truth and paid
Spitfire or Hurricane. On more than the price in full when it met our Spit-
one occasion the 109 had to help the fires.

twin-engined fighters out of a tight Of the three types of enemy bomb-

spot. ers, the Heinkel 111, the Dornier 17,
The Junkers 87 dive bomber, the and the Junkers 88, the last named
Stuka, had enjoyed great success as a was superior to the other two and
close-support weapon in the recent quite the most difficult to bring down.
campaigns. It was little more than a It had a high top speed, and when it

piece of flying artillery and it could dived with wide-open throttles our
dive very steeply at a low forward Spitfires couldn't catch it.

speed. This meant that the pilot could Morale was high in the Luftwaffe.

39
Their young fighter leaders had fought tion. It was based on what they called
in the Spanish Civil War and had then the rotte, that is the element of two

blazed their way across half of Europe. fighters. Some 200 yards separated a
Their fighter tactics were more ad- pair of fighters and the main respon-
vanced than ours and they were highly sibility of the number two, or wing-
critical of our tight fighter formations. man, was to guard his leader from a
Before the war our own fighter quarter or an astern attack. Meanwhile
squadrons, together with those of other the leader navigated his small force and
countries, flew in compact formations covered his wingman. The schwarme,
built up from tight elements of three four fighters, simply consisted of two
aeroplanes. Such formations were ideal pairs,and when we eventually copied
for spectacular fly-pasts, and although the Luftwaffe and adopted this pattern
every fighter pilot must be able to we called it the "finger-four" because
"formate" closely on his leader to the relative positions of the fighters
climb through cloud, this close style are similar to a plan view of one's four
was to be of little value in the great fingertips.

air battles. Let us examine the oustretched fing-

In Spain, the German fighter pilots ertips of the right hand and assume
soon realized that the speed of their that the sun is shining from well above
109s made close formations impractic- on the left side. The longest finger
able for combat. The large turning represents the leader and the index
circle of the curving fighters dictated finger is the leader's number two,
that a loose pattern was the only meth- whose task it is to search the down-sun
od in which individual pilots could area of the sky. The wingman flies

hold their position in the turn and lower than his leader so that the pilots
keep a sharp lookout at the same time. can see him well below the direct glare
The high closing speeds, especially of the sun. An attack will usually de-
from head-on positions, made it essen- velop from the sun, so we must have
tial to pick out and identify enemy a constant search maintained in this
aircraft as soon as possible, so that the direction. This is why numbers three
leader could work his way into a good and four on the right side of the
fly

attacking position. The simple require- leader, but slightly higher, so that we
ment was for a loose, open type of have two pairs of eyes always scanning
combat formation with the various the danger area.
aeroplanes flying at separated heights When you fly your Spitfire five miles
which would permit individual pilots above the earth you will find that your
to cover each other and search a great- wings hide a good deal of the ground
er area of sky than before. and sky below. Suppose you are cross-
Credit must be given to the Germans ing the coast and Margate is just dis-
for devising the perfect fighter forma- appearing imder your nose. The port

40
A formation of Spirfires,
the single seater, doy and
night fighter, over Mar-
gate, England.

wingtip is over Clacton, the starboard able. The three pilots following the
wingtip slides across Gungeness, and leader can search their respective areas
Maidstone is just reappearing from the of sky and keep him in sight without
trailing edge of the wing. In other a great deal of uncomfortable neck
words, an area of about looo square twisting. The finger-four is easy to
miles is always hidden from your view fly and far less tiring than the line-

at this height. But the finger-four, if astern style. It permits an excellent

properly flown in varying height inter- all-round view, and the two wingmen,
vals, is means of covering these
the best numbers two and four, separated by
blind spots below individual aircraft. a distance of 500 or 600 yards, can
The formation is loose and maneuver- guard the vital area above and behind.

41
It is easily split up into its basic ele- squadrons were ahead of us, for our
ments of two aircraft, the smallest two types of formation were either
fighting unit in the air, since a lone built up from a tight vie of three air-
pilot cannot protect himself from all craft or four in line astern. The vie

quarters at the same time. It is a of three had little to recommend it

simple matter to build it into a squad- and was an unfortunate legacy of
ron or wing formation. It is a great peace-time flying, for the two wing-
boost to morale, for the number four men had all their work cut out to stay
in a line-astern formation, tail-end near their leader and little time to
Charlie, knows full well that if his search the sky. The high casualty rate
section bounced he will be the first
is of the wretched tail-end Charlies was
to take a beating. But his equivalent a grim measure of the vulnerability of
in the breast formation is well up with the line-astern formations. A further
his comrades and stands an equal disadvantage of both these patterns
chance of survival. was that the tightly packed aircraft
Some critics of the finger-four were far more conspicuous in a clear
claimed that frequent turns made it sky than the widely spaced fighters of
difficult for the two wingmen to hold the finger-four.
their flanking positions, but our pilots Some of our squadrons provided
simply slipped into line-astern posi- two weavers in an attempt to guard
tions behind their leaders during tight themselves from the bounce. The weav-
turn and combat maneuvers. We ers flew above the squadron and con-
found this criticism to be unjustified, tinually weaved and crisscrossed. They
and it is an interesting fact that towards were usually the first to be picked off
the end of the war the finger-four was by the Messerschmitts, and the prac-
flown by fighter aircraft throughout tice was stopped.
the world. It has survived the test of The fighter is simply a flying gun,
time and the jet age, for it was used and its basic qualities of speed and
by both Sabre-jets and Mig 15s during surprise could always be used to the
the near-sonic fighting over Korea. To- greatest advantage. The outstanding
day, supersonic fighters carry out their pilots of an earlier generation than
operational training at speeds of over ours soon found that the leader with
1000 m.p.h. in this well-proven fash- the height advantage controls the bat-
ion. tle. With height the fighter leader can
Upon his return to Germany after use the sun or cloud cover to the best
a tour of operations in Spain, that tactical advantage. Those fighter pilots
great fighter pilot Werner Molder ad- of days had coined an apt
earlier
vocated that the open formation should phrase, "Beware of the Hun in the
be standard throughout their fighter sun," and its warning was no less po-
arm. Tactically, the German fighter tent today.

42
 In the 'thirties there was a growing to know something of the theory of
body of opinion that maneuvers at bomber support and escort by fighters.
high speeds were impossible because The bomber is the true instrument
of the effects of "g" on the pilot. Dog- of air power, and the fighter, when
fighting at speeds over 400 m.p.h., used offensively to assist the bomber,
said the critics, is no longer possible. is merely a means to an end. In any
And so we had to learn, the hard way, fight for domination of the air it is
that fighter tactics must be simple in the bombers, assisted by the fighters,
character because elaborate techniques which will decide the issue. When used
are not possible within the critical alone, fighters can challenge the de-
time available. A leader cannot retain fenders to combat but the number of
control of even a small formation aeroplanes shot down in such clashes
through a lot of complicated maneu- will rarely decide the main issue.
vers, because the force is soon split up There are two methods by which
into individual, ineffective packets. fighters can assist bomber operations.
Tactics must be simple, and the lead- Ranging formations of fighters can
er's task is to bring all the guns of his sweep ahead on the flanks, and behind
fighters to bear against the enemy in the bombers. Usually they are well out
the shortest time. Leadership in the of sight of the bombers, for they may
air consists not in scoring a personal be 50 or 100 miles away. Their lead-
kill but in the achievement of a de- ers should have complete freedom of
cisive success with the whole force. action to vary their planned flights so
During by the Al-
his interrogation that they can take full advantage of
lies at the end of the war and subse- the local tactical conditions. This type
quently in his book,* Adolf Galland, of fighter operation usually pays good
one of Germany's greatest fighter pi- dividends and is known as "bomber
lots, accused his commander-in-chief support by fighters."
of faulty direction and tactical misem- Bomber"escort" by fighters is quite
ployment of their fighter forces during different from support, for here the
the Battle of Britain. Galland asserts fighters provide protection within
that Goering cut down the offensive sight of the bombers, and the nearest
power of his fighter squadrons by or- fighters, those of the close escort squad-
dering them to act in an escort role rons, are never allowed to break away
and not permitting them to leave the and chase the enemy. The escort-cover
bombers even when they could see squadrons guard both the close escort
Spitfires or Hurricanes maneuvering and the bombers, and we later found
for attack. Before examining the val- that to get the best results two of the
idity of Galland's claims it is necessary usual three squadrons of the escort-
cover wings should be free to leave
• The First and the Last, Holt, paperback re-
print, Ballantine Books. the bombers. Against stiff opposition

43
high cover and top cover wings were fault with the broad directive issued
used, but two-thirds of these forces by Goering. Indeed, the Americans
were always free to break away. adopted the same tactics when they
It is not possible to lay down hard developed daylight operations to a

and fast rules about the proportion of high standard with their ranging fight-

fighters to be used in the support and er sweeps, which covered the length
escort roles. The allocation of fighters and breadth of Germany. But we know
to these two tasks will depend upon that the Luftwaffe fighter squadrons
the efficiency of the enemy's defense were by no means used in the tactical-

system and the type and number of his ly correct and flexible manner de-
defending fighters. If the enemy creed at the time.
chooses to ignore the free-lance fighter During the vital phase of the Battle
sweeps, which he should, and concen- of Britain when the bombing attacks
trates his fighters against the bomber were aimed at our airfields and air-

formations, then it would be a mis- craft factories, the Luftwaffe assem-

take merely to increase the number of bled massed formations of bombers
escortins: fighters. The most effective with a close escort of iios and large
remedy would be to plan the fighter formations of 109s in the escort cover,
sweeps to patrol the enemy airfields high cover, and top cover roles. The
and from their superior height bounce timing of these heavy attacks was such
the defenders when they climbed up. that they usually followed a diversion-
During 1941, our bomber pilots were ary raid 30 or 40 minutes earlier
greatly encouraged by the sight of against a coastal target.Although these
masses of wheeling Spitfires, but there tactics made life difficult for our con-

is no doubt that we tied far too many trollers, who had to distinguish be-

fighters to the bomber. tween the feint and the main thrust,
Fighters should always be used as we foimd that the 109s flew too high
offensively as possible and there is no above the bombers and so gave them
doubt that Goerina: realized this, for little protection.
after a conference with his air com- During late August and early Sep-
manders before the Battle of Britain tember, it was obvious that Goering's
he issued clear instructions about their doctrine about the freedom of action
employment. Only part of the fighter of the 109s was not being followed,
arm, the Reichmarshal instructed, was for the fighters were rarely seen unless
to be employed as escort to the bomb- they accompanied the bombers. For-
ers; the remainder must be employed mations of fighters flew above, on the
on free-lance operations in which they flanks and behind the bombers, and
could come to grips with RAF fighters sometimes the 109s were seen weaving
and indirectly protect the bombers. well below. Great gaggles of 109s were
No student of air warfare can find stepped up behind the bombers, and

44
some idea of the size of these escorts height in the air battle, and even on
can be judged from a great New Zea- the few occasions when they possessed
land fighter pilot, Al Deere, who re- an apparent height advantage over the
ported that when the bombs from the logs they now rarely failed to leave
leading were
Heinkels onfalling covering Spitfires high in the sun.
North Weald the rising screen of logs
stretched to Gravesend, a distance of Time one of the most important
is

more than 20 miles. These were poor factors air fighting. During the
in
tactics, for the lengthy assemblies of Battle of Britain the requirement in
these unwieldy formations over the terms of time was to intercept with
Pas de Calais often gave our radar am- our fighters before the bombs fell. Far
ple warning of the approach of large better to have one squadron above the
raids. These large gaggles could be Huns than half a dozen below!
seen by our pilots from a great dis- There are other strong reasons for
tance, and the high proportion of not committing fighters in too large
fighters tied to the bombers denied to formations. The vital element of sur-
the Messerschmitt squadrons that flex- prise was often lost because the tight
ibility and freedom so essential to formations of Hurricanes and Spitfires
fighter operations. could be seen from a great distance by
Apart from the high altitude superi- the Luftwaffe's escort fighters. In addi-
ority of the 109 over our Spitfires, tion, the leaders soon found that the
which only the introduction of a more larger the formation the more un-
powerful engine could redress, our wieldy it is in the air and the more
squadrons had largely resolved the tac- difficult to control. My own later ex-
tical inferioritywhich had marked the perience on both offensive and defen-
beginning of the fighting. We had sive operations confirmed that two
recognized the principle that two fight- squadrons of fighters was the ideal
ers constitute the smallest element number to lead in the air. On some
which can fight, and survive, in the subsequent operations, when large
air. The vulnerable vie of three was numbers of enemy fighters opposed
fast disappearing, and pilots who found our fighter sweeps over France, I led
themselves alone knew that there was a Balbo of five squadrons, but we got
no future in a hostile sky. in each other's way in a fight and only
Although some of our squadrons the leaders were able to bring their
still clung to the line-astern formation, guns to bear. Our common radio fre-
the individual sections of four aircraft quency was insufficient to control the
were separated by greater horizontal activities of 60 pilots, especially in
and we were evolving a more
distances a fight. Finally there was the weather
flexible abreast style of fighting. Our tocontend with, for when we climbed
leaders had re-learned the value of our Balbo through layers of cloud we

45
sometimes spent more time searching Germans fell into the trap of trying
for each other than looking for the to operate their fighters in formations
enemy. of up to 60 strong, the same size as

It is interesting to note that the pat- one of our Balbos of five squadrons.
tern of the great daylight air battles These cumbersome sraffffles denied to
fought over Germany between the the enemy fighter pilots those essen-
United States Army Air Forces and tial and inherent qualities of their
the Luftwaffe vindicated the tactics aircraft— speed, surprise, and man-
used by Park* during the Battle of euverability — and they fell easy prey
Britain. The German problem in to the ranging and aggressive Ameri-

1944 was the same as ours four years can fisrhters.

previously: to stop large bomber for-

by from • A\T Vice Marshall K. R, Park, Commander-in-

mations, escorted fighters,
Chief, R.A.F.
reaching their targets in daylight. The

Throughout the winter and spring of ip^i Luftwaffe pressure on Britain

decreased as units moved from Western Europe onto airfields in the
Balkan States of Bulgaria and Rumania and to Poland and East Prussia
along the jooo mile Russian Front.
Russian-German had been balanced on the delicate edge of a
relations
non-aggression pact that u'as worthlittle more than the paper upon which

it was printed. The treaty merely assured Hitler temporaiy immunity

from attack in the rear while his legions gobbled up Europe, country by
country.
Now that his West European ventures were over (except a badly bat-
tered Britain which he feared no more), he turned arrogantly toward the
Kremlin.
His plan, called "Operation Barbarossa" envisioned the application of
the "blitzkrieg' technique against massive, but weak, Russia. In a summer-
fallcampaign of six weeks he estimated he could slash the Soviet armies
Then, with the Communist nemesis out of the picture he could
to pieces.
turn West once more and deal with England at his leisure.
On Sunday morning, June 22, 1941 his troops struck out suddenly into
,

the endless plains of the Soviet Union. The

7^5 divisions he threw across
the Russian frontiers were commanded by some of the best professional
soldiers on earth — von Runstedt, von Brauchitsch, Haider, Guderian, van
Kleist, Kesselring, and others. The forces made a frontal assault in three
major directions — Leningrad in the north, Moscow in the center, and
Stalingrad in the south.

46
 Again spearheading this massive attack were jour Luftwaffe Air Fleets,
I, II, IV, and V, comprising 2000 aircraft and including 1000 twin-engine

bombers, ^^o dive bombers, 600 fighters, yoo tactical and strategic recon-
naissance aircraft, ^00 transports, and around y^ twin-engine fighters.
Opposing the Luftwaffe on this June morning were approximately J ^00
front-line aircraft of the Soviet Air Force consisting of ^000 fighters, 2500
medium and light bombers, 1^00 transport/bombers, and ^00 liaison air-
craft.
The ill-fated off to a good start. The initial offensive, rem-
venture got
iniscent of the successes in Western Europe, plunged the well-oiled Ger-
man land-air machine quickly and deeply into the great enigma of Russia.
Soviet land and air forces disintegrated before the powerful drive and fell
back, disappearing beyond the horizon.
Here, from the diary of a Luftwaffe fighter pilot is a word picture of
how it was at first
. . . . .

Dawn Attack on Russia

Sr. Lt. Heinz Knoke, Luftwaffe

June 21, 1941: Three weeks have In the evening orders came through
passed since the squadron was last on that the on the scheduled
airliner
operations. Berlin-Moscow run is to be shot down.
We are now based at Suwalki, a for- The commanding officer takes off with
mer Polish Air Force station near the his headquarters section; but they fail

Russian border. Stukas and fighter- to intercept the Douglas.

bombers use the field also. We spend the night sitting in the

For the past two weeks our armies mess.The guesswork continues.
have been massing in increasing What is the significance of "Opera-
strength, all along the Eastern fron- tion Barbarossa"? That is the code
tier. No one knows what is happen- name for all the vast military activity
ing. One rumor has it that the in the east of the Reich. The order
Russians will permit us to cross the for shooting down the Russian Doug-
Caucasus in a thrust to occupy the oil las airliner has convinced me that
fields of the Middle East and the Dar- there is to be war against Bolshevism.
danelles and seize the Suez Canal. June 22, 1941: 0400 hours. General
We shall see. alert for all squadrons. Every unit on

47
the airfield is buzzing with life. All trol stick. I distinctly feel the aircraft

night long I hear the distant rumbles lift as it gets rid of the load.

of tanks and vehicles. We are only a The others drop theirs at the same
few miles from the border, time. Great masses of dirt fountain up
0430 hours: All crews report to the into the air, and for a time we are
squadron operations room for brief- unable to see because of all the smoke
ing. The Commanding Officer, Capt. and dust.
Woitke, reads out the special order One of the huts is blazing fiercely.
for the day to all the armed forces Vehicles have been stripped of their
from the Fiihrer. camouflage and overturned by the
Germany is to attack the Soviet blast. The Ivans at last come to life.

Union! The scene below is like an overturned

0500 hours. The squadron takes off ant heap, as they scurry about in con-
and goes into action. fusion. Men in their underwear flee

In our flight, four aircraft, includ- for cover in the woods. Light flak guns
ing mine, have been equipped with a appear visible. I set my sights on one
bomb-release mechanism, and I have of them, and open up with machine
done considerable bombing practice guns and both cannon. An Ivan at the
in recent weeks. Now there is a rack gun falls to the ground, still in under-
slung along the belly of my good "Em- wear.
il," carrying 100 five-pound fragmen- And now for the next one!
tation bombs. It will be a pleasure for Round again, and I let them have
me drop them on Ivan's dirty feet.
to it. The Russians stand fast and begin

Flying low over the broad plains, firing me. "Just wait till I take
back at

we notice endless German columns the fun out of your shooting, you
rolling eastward. The bomber forma- Schivein!"
tions overhead and the dreaded Stuka Round yet again for another attack.
dive-bombers alongside us are all I never shot as well as this before. I

heading in the same direction. We are come down to sixty feet, almost brush-
to carry out a low-level attack on one ing the treetops in the process and then
of the Russian headquarters, situated pull up sharply in a climbing turn.
in the woods to the west of Druskin- My Ivans on the ground beside
lie flat

inkai. their gun. One of them leaps to his

On Russian territory, by contrast, feet and dashes into the trees.
everything appears to be asleep. We I carry out five or six more attacks.

locate the headquarters and fly low We buzz round the camp like a swarm
over the wooden buildings, but there of hornets. Nearly all the huts are in
is not a Russian soldier in sight. flames. I fire at a truck. It also burns
Swooping at one of the huts, I press after the first burst of fire.
the bomb-release button on the con- 0556 hours. Flight landing in for-

48
mation. set up a record by being completely
The chief sees smiling faces all ready in 22 minutes. We take off

round when the pilots report again immediately.

Aircraft are refueled and rearmed There is not much left of the Rus-
at top speed. The field is in a state of sian camp by now. Every target which
feverish activity. The Stukas return we spot in the surrounding woodland
from their mission in support of our is thoroughly strafed. I place my
armored units advancing on the bombs on the last building which is

ground. Their crews are jubilant, too. still standing. Krupinsky does the
0630 hours. Only 40 minutes after same, which takes care of anything
landing we are off again. Our objec- remaining. The camp is totally de-
tive the same headquarters as be-
is stroyed.
fore,and from a great distance we are After 48 minutes in the air we land
guided to our destination by the again and taxi over to the dispersal
smoke rising from the burning build- area. We now take a short breather
ings. and enjoy our first meal of the day.
This time considerable quantities New operation orders have arrived.
of light flak come up to welcome us. Russian transport columns have been
It is just like that time near Canter- observed by our reconnaissance aircraft
bury. Once again I give special atten- retreating eastward along the Grodno-
tion to the Ivans at their flak guns. Zytomia-Skidel-Szczuczyn highway,
This time I put down my bombs on with our tanks in hot pursuit. We are
one of the emplacements. Dirt and to support them by bombing and straf-
dust, the gun-site burst! And that takes ing the Russians as they retreat.
care of the Ivans. Take-off at 1007 hours, accompanied
The Russians appear to have taken by the Stukas. They are to dive-bomb
cover and hidden their vehicles in the the Russian artillery emplacements in
forest round the camp. We work over the same area.
the forest systematically with our ma- We soon reach Grodno. The roads
chine guns. Fires break out in differ- are clogged with Russian armies every-
ent places. That must be where they where. The reason gradually dawns on
have their fuel dumps. I fire at every us ^vhy the sudden surprise attack was
target which presents itself to me, un- ordered by our High Command. We
til the magazines are all empty. begin to appreciate the full extent of
We land at 0720 hours. Once again the Russian preparations to attack us.
the flight is prepared for action at We have just forestalled the Russian
lightning speed. Ground crews work timetable for an all-out attack against
with swift precision. We pilots help Germany for the mastery of Europe.
them and have to give them a full ac- This is one day I shall never forget.
count of the operations. This time we Our armies move forward everywhere.

49
the spearhead units thrusting ahead. firepower. The IL-2 Stormovik dive
The Russians are taken completely by bomber could not compare with the JU-
surprise. Soldiers on the roads on our 87 Stuka. Soviet PE-2 and DB-3 twin-

side wave as we pass low overhead. The engine light bombers were underarmed
and their performance and capabilities
congested roads and lanes on the Rus-
far short of the JU-88 and HE-111 Luft-
sian side are subjected to concentrated
waffe counterparts. German air technolo-
bombing and machine-gun fire.
gy of the 1930s had definitely far out-
Thousands of Ivans are in full re- classed that of the Soviet Union.
treat, which becomes an utter rout Neither the German nor the Russian
when we open up on them, stumbling Air Forces possessed a strategic long-
and bleeding as they flee from the range bomber force able to strike the
highway in an attempt to take cover enemy's resources far behind the battle-
in the nearby woods. Vehicles lie burn- front. Both nations had designed and

ing by the roadside after we pass. Once built their air forces for support of ground
I drop my bombs on a column of heavy armies alone. This proved fatal for both
nations.
artillery drawn by horses. I am thank-
What gave the numerically inferior
ful not to be down there myself.
Luftwaffe the great advantage was its sur-
We take off at 2000 hours for our
prise mass attacks on Soviet airfields and
sixth mission on this first day. There the superior performance of its combat
has been no sign of the Russian Air
aircraftand its pilots.
Force the entire day, and Ave are able By the end of the summer of 1941, the
to do our work withoiu encountering Luftwaffe had complete control of the
opposition. air above the battle areas. In the fall,

things began to change. Strong reinforce-

ment poured from the
of Soviet fighters
Editor's note factories which the Russians had moved
While the Soviet Air Force was numeri- beyond the Ural Mountains. With air-
cally superior to the Luftwaffe, it had craft production capacity estimated at
little else in its favor except the courage 5000 per month, the Russians came back
and tenacity of its airmen. with vengeance and by the end of the
The was especially
disparity in fighters autumn of 1941 forced the Luftwaffe on-
marked. The obsolescent I- 15 and I- 16 Weather, accidents, and
to the defensive.
(which made up the bulk of the fighter combat had taken a terrific toll of Ger-
force) were no match for the Luftwaffe's man aircraft and men. The demands for
ME-109 and iios. Even the MIG-is, aircraft in North Africa and Western
Lagg-gs, and Yak- is, just coming in ser- Europe precluded reinforcements being
vice in 1941 were inferior in speed and sent to the Russian Front.

50
The Russian 1-16, used successfully in the earlier Manchurian war against Japan, was considered to
be an obsolete airplane on the Eastern front.

PART TWO

STRIKEBACK OVER EUROPE:

BUILDUP AND SHAKEDOWN
January, 1941 - June, 1943
 Introduction

Hitler's military conquest of Eu- the industrial arsenal of the world, the
rope rolled at high crest when the U.S., which up to December 7, 1941,
Japanese carrier task force struck sud- was precariously maintaining neutral-
denly at Pearl Harbor on December ityon the one hand while on the other
7, 1941 —an act that brought the U.S. supplying the Allies with weapons and
into the war against Germany. materials for war.
England alone had defeated the As early as 1938, President Roose-
mighty Luftwaffe and remained a free velt foresaw the coming conflict and
political entity in Western Europe. In U.S. involvement in it, and further,
Eastern Europe, Soviet Air Forces all that airpower would play a key role in
but disintegrated before the Luftwaffe winning it. The Naval Expansion Act
air offensive and her ground forces had ofMay, 1938 authorized a 3000 plane
fallen back with cruel losses into the program to modernize our carrier
amorphous vastness of Russia, defeated striking forces. In January, 1939 the
on the field, but unconquered in spirit President called a $300,000,000
for
and in fact. Army Air Corps expansion to include
To the south, Nazi Panzer Divisions 6000 aircraft. As important as were
with strong Luftwaffe had
support these measures in building up U.S.
crossed the Mediterranean into North air forces, equally significant was the
Africa. Here under Gen. Erwin Rom- stimulus these appropriations gave to
mel, "The Desert Fox," the German building a LI.S, industrial base to pro-
offensi\e was striking eastward along duce weapons for all countries
air
the African coast toward Egypt and fighting Germany. Money cannot be
the Suez Canal. translated into production-line com-
In the Atlantic Ocean, German sub- bat aircraft in weeks, or months, but
marines in "wolfpacks" stalked the sea in years. Fortunately the war did not
lanes preying on merchant shipping begin for the U.S. in 1938, 1939 or
while overhead Luftwaffe patrol 1940, the years during which our air-
bombers ranged far out to strike indi- craft industry began shifting out of
vidual merchantmen and convoys lo^v peace-time gear. In the winter of
bound for the beleaguered British 1939-40 large British and French
Isles. The air-sea blockade of Europe orders for nearly 11,000 first-line

was an effective thing. American combat aircraft poured into

Long before Pearl Harbor, Russia U.S. aircraft industries, adding further
and England had turned for help to stimulus to their mushroom-growth.

52
In 1938, American industrial output fend itself against fighters, and the
was 100 military aircraft per month. degradation of the fighter concept and
By April, 1940 it had reached 402 per its design development.
month and was tooling up for double Thus only three fighter models, de-
that amount. This phenomenal growth signed in the middle 1930s, were im-
was but a trickle compared to produc- mediately available to carry the U.S.
tion set into motion by the Pearl Har- brunt of the early years of the war: the
bor attack. Bell P-39 "Aircobra," and the North
In January, 1942 President Roose- American P-40 "Warhawk," (both of
velt reorganized the machinery for which were inferior to the German
industrial mobilization. The giant ME- 109 and 110) and the Lockheed
automobile industry and all of its tre- twin-engine P-38 "Lightning" — which
mendous resources were wholly com- first saw action in late 1942 and could

mitted to the production of aircraft hold its own against the Luftwaffe. It
and war material by June, 1942. Labor would be a full year later, 1943, with
organizations promised not to strike the appearance of the Republic P-47
for the duration of the war. Factories "Thunderbolt" and the North Amer-
went on a 24-hour basis, six and seven ican P-51 "Mustang," that U.S. fighters
day weeks. Aircraft production re- could match and surpass the best in
ceived high national priority as the combat fighters German technology
President called for 45,000 combat could put into the air.

planes in 1942 and 100,000 in 1943 American medium bombers were

(85,000 were actually produced that much better: the Douglas A-20
year). By the end of 1943, the aircraft "Havoc" (called the "Boston" by the
industry labor force reached a peak of British), the North American B-25
2,100,000 men and women. Mass pro- "Mitchell" and the Martin B-26
duction became a fine art. In early "Marauder" (the "flying coffin" to

1944, the Ford Willow Run factory most crewmen) served well throughout
alone equaled the production of the the war.
entire Japanese aircraft industryand Lone star in the first-line heavy
half that turned out by Germany. bomber class was the Boeing B-17
Total monthly U.S. output shot up "Flying and of these the
Fortress"
from 2464 aircraft in December, 1941, U.S. had only 23 on hand when Hitler
to a top of 9113 in March, 1944, and attacked Poland. The B-17 had been a
an annual output that year of 1 10,000. controversial piece of equipment in
American warplanes in demand by the budget-lean peacetime years, both
the Allies reflected the U.S. military in political and military circles. It was

air concepts of the 1930s — emphasis a superlative bomber, advanced for

on the heavy bomber which could be its time, and by Pearl Harbor the
flown as fast as pursuits and could de- "Fort" stood ready for mass produc-

53
tion. The Consolidated B-24 "Liber- Ferries (a subsidiary of Pan Am Air-
ator" which teamed up with the B-17 ways) began delivery of C-47S and
in campaign from late
the strategic B-25S on the soiuhern route to Africa
1942 onward was still a drawing board for British and Russian forces. By the
design in September, 1939. Within end of 1942, 102 B-25S were turned
two years it would be appearing in over to Russia. A third roiue via
small numbers. Alaska to Siberia became a major traf-

Thus was the colossal task cut out fic-way for air delivery of U.S. warcraft
for the U.S.: gear up the entire na- to the Soviet Union — by the end of
tional effort, provide the Allies with the war more than 1000 Lend-Lease
combat weapons and at the same
air P-63S, P-39S, A-20S, and B-25S were
time up and modernize the
build delivered via "Alsib" route.
Army Air Forces and the Naval Air Plane delivery by Army Air Force
Arm into large, strong and effective crews began in November, 1941, when
forces, deployed for action and combat several B-24 Liberators were flown to
ready. Fortunately, the industrial base Cairo for the British North African
to do this was there. Congressional ap- Forces. This flight was the beginning
propriations were forthcoming, mili- of what later became a massive aerial
tary leadership was prepared for the delivery and supply force, reorganized
herculean job, and eager young men in June, 1942 as the Air Transport
by the tens of thousands streamed into Command (ATC). From June, 1942 to
the air arm to fight the war from the the end of the war ATC made 268,000
cockpit and flight deck. ferry deliveries; ofwhich 219,000 were
Prior to Pearl Harbor, aircraft pur- to domestic U.S. bases and 45,000 to
chased in the U.S. by friendly foreign overseas destinations. It lost 594 planes
nations with cash or under Lend-Lease on overseas runs and 419 in the U.S.
went overseas by shipboard or by aerial ATC crew deliveries to overseas coun-
delivery. British and Canadian pilots tries were supplemented by foreign

in 1939 and 1940 ferried 2400 Amer- aircrew deliveries. Russian airmen
ican warplanes to England from fields picked up planes in Alaska, in Cairo,
in Canada and on the Atlantic sea- Teheran, and other points, while
board. Between June 6, 1941 and Pearl British crews took delivery on Amer-
Harbor British airmen ferried 1350 ican and Canadian bases for the flight
aircraft to Fngland. Meanwhile the to England.
U.S. Army Air Corps Ferrying Com- U.S. supply of combat aircraft to its

mand pioneered air routes across the foreign Allies rose to mountainous
North Atlantic via Scotland, and the proportions. Allocation of aircraft
South Atlantic via Brazil, to Cairo and through June 30, 1942 included 6634
points north and east. In August, 1941 to England, 1835 to Russia, 407 to
civilian crews of Pan American Air China, and 104 to other Allies. Total ,

54
to Great Britain for 1942 numbered caster," outstanding British heavy of
around 10,000. The build-up contin- By February, 1942
the entire war).
ued into 1943 with Russia receiving RAF Bomber Command averaged a
343 (94 per cent of our commitment),
1 daily combat serviceable rate of 374
and Britain 9262 for that year, exclu- bombers. By late spring. Bomber
sive of transports. Total U.S. delivery Command was ready to carry out a
to the Soviet Union from June 22, 1941 looo-plane night mission to Cologne,
to September was 15,000 air-
20, 1945 Germany, officially called "Operation
craft, 80 per cent of which were A-20 Millennium." Actually 1046 aircraft
medium bombers, P-39, P-40, and were dispatched on the night of May
P-63 fighters. 30-31, 1942. Photo reconnaissance
American supply and delivery of showed unprecedented damage. Colos-
aircraft was only part of the overall sal fires from the bombs swept through

Allied air force build-up. Throughout the city, uncontrolled. Churchill prom-
the Battle of Britain and the long ised Germany would receive "city by
winter of the "Night Blitz" British city, from now on" an equal taste of
production rose, with emphasis on British airpower. It was Cologne which
the defensive fighters — the Hurricane firmly gave the British concept of night
(hero of the Battle of Britain) and its strategic area bombing its strongest
superior partner the famed Spitfire. support and endorsement.
As these fighters rolled off British as- Meanwhile, and concurrent with
sembly lines and into RAF combat supplying aircraft to Britain, Russia
squadrons, the tough, fast, versatile and other Allies, the U.S. set about
little twin-engine "Beaufighter" made to expand its Army and Naval Air
its appearance in night combat and on Forces at a schedule that staggers the
daylight sweeps into Europe. It was imagination.
followed by the all-wooden "Mos- In September, 1939, on the eve of
quito" which became one of the most the war, the total U.S. Naval and Ma-
versatile fighter/bombers of the war. rine Corps Air Arms measured only 7
At the beginning of 1942, British large and small aircraft carriers, 5
1

four-engine heavy bombers were com- patrol wings, 2 marine aircraft wings,
ing into service. Three models were 5900 pilots and 21,678 enlisted men,
put into production from the drawing 5233 aircraft of all types, including
boards, and before flight test, saving trainers, and only a few bases outside
two to three years development-test the U.S. The Army Air Corps con-
time and proving to be one of the sisted of 26,000 officers, cadets, and
great visionary decisions of the war. enlisted men on 17 air bases and four
They were the "Stirling," the "Hali- depots. 2000 were pilots. The force
fax," and the "Manchester" (which was equipped with 800 first-line com-
later in redesign became the "Lan- bat aircraft of which three standard

55
models were the obsolete Douglas war against Germany and Japan. The
B-i8s, Douglas A- 17 attack bombers, plan called for the AAF's major con-
and the P-36 fighter. The Naval Ex- tribution to be strategic bombing of-

pansion Act of May, 1938 was the first fensive featured by daylight precision
of a series of air rearmament actions bombing. It set down as the require-

during the next two years. Appropri-
ations were heaped on top of each
other in frantic effort to catch up with
the one-half million-man German Air
Force, the 50,000 to 75,000 trained
aircrews had on hand, and the Luft-
it
waffe's 4100 first-line combat planes
that could be matched only by U.S.
models on drawing boards. By July,
1941 authorization for army and navy
aircraft had reached 50,000 planes.
ment for the defeat of Germany and
Japan, an air force of 239 combat
groups and 108 separate squadrons,
63,467 planes of all types and 2,164,916
men. The air offensive against Ger-
many, these officers predicted, would
reach its maximum power in April,
1944. With almost uncanny accuracy
and vision they were proved right.
AWPD/i became a book of air proph-
ecy. Peak strength of the AAF reached

By December, 1941 major Army air 2,400,000 men, 243 combat groups,
installations had grown to 114 with and approximately 80,000 aircraft. Of-
28 more authorized. Combat groups fensive power of the AAF was at its
had expanded to 67, with 18 overseas, height in the spring of 1944 in Europe.
28 1/4 in reserve and 20 1/2 in training. Along with the build-up of its own
Thanks to stepped-up flight and tech- and its Allied Air Forces, the U.S.
nical training programs, officer and constructed air bases in Newfound-
enlisted man had risen to
force levels land, on British possessions in the

354,000, pilots to 9000, mechanics to Caribbean, in Dutch Guiana, in South

59,000. First-line combat plane inven- America, in the Panama Canal, Puerto
tory numbered 2846. In December, Rico, Iceland, and Greenland, with
1940 the peace-time Air Corps had the Azores coming about mid-war.
been reorganized and renamed the These bases provided excellent out-
Army Air Forces, with Gen. H. H. posts for hemispheric defense and
Arnold as its chief, gaining for all springboards for air patrol against
practical purposes autonomy of opera- enemy submarine operations. Through
tions and management needed for war them, particularly those in Newfound-
footing. Six months later four brilliant and Iceland, poured
land, Greenland,
young air force officers (I.t. Cols. Har- equipment bound for
the planes and
old L. George and Kenneth N. Walker England and the build-up under a
and Majs. Laurence S. Kuter and Hay- code name "Operation Bolero."
wood S. Hansell, Jr.) drew up a plan Under "Bolero" American forces
called AWPD/i which forecast air streamed by sea and by air to scores of
strategy and requirements for the air bases being carved out of the pleasant

56
English countryside. During the sum- the daylight sweep was successful. Dur-
mer and fall of 1942, B-17S, C-47S, and ing the next three weeks ten more
the twin-engine P-38S airspanned the small missions were flown by the Fly-
North Atlantic to begin the formation ing Fortresses of Eighth Air Force in
of theAmerican Eighth Air Force in a test of the American theory of day-
England. Before the 1942 winter set light bombardment and the equip-
in, 882 aircraft, mostly B-17S and C-47S ment to carry it out. Of the 1 1 missions
arrived in England. On June 18, Maj. only two B-17S were lost. American air
Gen. Carl A. Spaatz set up Eighth AF leaders were jubilant.
Headquarters in Bushy Park, outside Meanwhile the invasion of French
of London, and on July 4, 1942 the North Africa, "Operation Torch," was
first U.S. air combat took place when being prepared to take the pressure
6 A-20 medium bombers attacked off the British Eighth Army which
German airfields in Holland. A month Field Marshal Erwin Rommel's Afrika
later Gen. Eaker led the first heavy
Ira Korps had driven to El Alemein, the
(B-17) attack of the war in a mission to last defense before the Suez Canal.
the marshaling yards at Rouen-Sotte- Much of the growing strength of the
ville, France. With RAF fighter escort. U.S. Eighth Air Force in England was

Three of the Eighth Air Force's World War II leaders are pictured in this "standup" staff briefing
in England at the height of the Command's strategic aerial bombardment of Nazi Europe. In the

middle of the photo facing the camera are: General Carl A. Spaatz, Lt. Gen. James Doolittle, and
Maj. Gen. William Kepner.

"mmi^
M^'-^^
\,

I
— nm^
1
— mIm Mj^
.
—iiU^SEi-^^/
_L
=.- ..

^"^^*^W%"'^^^^H^^^^H
t

i J^^K: jJ7j
transferred to Twelfth Air Force (the in France and the Low Countries that
African Invasion com- Air Force) could not be damaged with normal
manded by Brig. Gen. Jimmy Doo- bombs because of their rugged con-
little. struction. Then, too, Luftwaffe oppo-
Eighth Air Force Bomber Command sition stiffened and 10 per cent losses
missions were thus subordinated to on a 106-plane mission to Bremen,
the training and preparations for Germany on April 17, 1943 were un-
"Torch" and only three more opera- acceptable. These losses indicated a
tions were flown over Europe before tremendous build-up of German de-
October, 1942. Biggest was the 107- fense fighters (500 to 700) in Western
plane heavy bomber sortie on Lille, on Europe. Confronted by an efficient

October 9. By this time the German enemy warning and control system and
fighter defense had felt out the For- increased effectiveness of German
tressesand attacked with vengeance. anti-aircraft fire around major targets,

Eleven B-17S were shot down and the the American daylight precision bomb-
formation was thrown into confusion. ing concept still faced the ominous

The U.S. daylight strategic bombard- task of proving itself equal to or bet-
ment concept had yet to prove itself in ter than the British night concept.
deadly combat. By late spring, 1943, Eighth Air
The shift of U.S. air emphasis to the Force and British Bomber Command
Mediterranean in the fall of 1942 left were ready for the coming air offen-
the RAF Bomber Command with its sive. American air leaders were firm in

radar-equipped night bombers as the their strategic air convictions based on

principal air offensive until the spring
and summer of 1943 when the African
invasion was successfully completed
and the combined U.S. -British day-
light and night bomber offensive
against German-held Europe could get
underway in earnest from England.
Eighth Air Force, with only two to
six groups, hampered by bad weather,
supply shortages, inexperienced crews,
and maintenance problems
down its forces to 50 per cent opera-
tional aircraft,conducted only occa-
sional missions during the winter of
1942-43. Rarely 100 B-17S could be
put in the air at one time. Main tar-
gets were submarine bases and yards
daylight precision bombing. The com-
bat aircraft, the units, and personnel
build-up were in high gear, the shake-
down missions of the past year had
blazed the trail, hardened crews, ham-
mered out bitter lessons on the anvil
of desperate aerial combat.
In the East, Russian Air Forces be-
gan to rise out of the ashes of destruc-
tion. When the Germans attacked
that cut Russia, the Soviets wisely dismantled
aircraft factories in Kiev, Leningrad,
Kharkov, and Moscow and moved
them beyond the Ural Mountains, out-
side the range of German bombers.
Now these factories were pouring out
more effective fighters like the MIG-i,

58
Yak-1, and Lagg-3 and total aircraft England and the U.S. These Hurri-
output was up to nearly 5000 per canes, P-40Tomahawks and P-39 Air-
month. cobras added to the expanding num-
Hitler's directive to destroy the bers of new Russian Lagg-3, Lav-5,
Russian aircraft industry had not ac- and Yak-9 equipped with
fighters
counted for the short range of his 12.7mm machine guns and 20mm can-
twin-engine bombers. For the second nons. New designs of the twin engine
time since the war began, the Luft- IL-2 Stormovik and PE-2 light bomb-
waffe's shortcomings (lack of a long- ers with improved operational charac-
range strategic bomber force) proved teristics and armor added strength to
a weak link in German armor and the Soviet air capabilities.
strategy. While Soviet air strength was build-
By December, 1941 Soviet fighter ing up numerically it still had many
strength on the Moscow front built up operational lessons to learn. During
to 1000 fighters, as against a depleted the summer and autumn of 1942, the
Luftwaffe of 500, of which about one- tempo of air fighting on all fronts rose
half were serviceable at all times. The to high crescendo. In May, despite

bitter winter brought sub-zero temper- numerical inferiority, German Air

aturesand poor visibility, all but im- Forces played a large role in evicting
mobilizing the Germans. Ill-equipped theRed Army from the Crimea and in
for a Russian winter, the German autumn spearheaded a strong drive
government appealed to the public to toward Stalingrad and the Caucasus.
donate furs and woolens for the men Soviet airmen did little to stop this
on the Russian Front, but it was of offensive. By early winter, however,
little avail. On the other hand, the Soviet air reaction stiffened. The
Soviets thrived on the cold; they were newly-created ADD Long Range Air
equipped and trained to operate in Command with bombers and trans-
the most bitter winter weather. ports ferried tens of thousands of
In early 1942, Hitler was forced to ground troops to Stalingrad from
withdraw one of the three Luftwaffe other fronts. Nearly 1000 new Russian
Air Fleets from Russia to build tip air fighters and bombers were brought in
defenses in Western Europe against to work over German airfields in the

the growing Anglo-American bomber Stalingrad area.

offensive, and to meet the needs of his The second bitter Russian winter
forces in the Mediterranean area where (1942-43) hit the Luftwaffe a deadly
Allied air build-up was in progress. blow. Ice, fog, snow, and paralyzing

By spring of 1942, Soviet and German sub-zero temperatures cut their opera-
Air Forces were on equal numerical tions to 25 per cent. Soviet fighters
footing and later that year the Soviets played havoc with German troop trans-
received nearly 2000 fighters from ports which did get into the air. The

59
German aerial resupply of Gen. von the against mounting
'Tatherland"
Paulus' Sixth Army before Stalingrad day and from
night raids British bases.
was able to deliver only one-third of Then, too, German aircraft losses on
the daily 300 tons of supplies the the Russian Front measured in the
Sixth Army needed to exist. This de- thousands. Nearly 1000 elite experi-
ficiency led directly to the surrender enced LuftwaiTe pilots had been killed

of von Paulus at Stalingrad in Febru- in Russia, while a large share of the

ary, 1943, marking a virtual end of experienced pilots left were trans-

German airpower as a decisive force ferred to Western Europe. From 1942

along the looo-mile Russian Front. onward the caliber of Luftwaffe flyers
Throughout Russia, German air on the Russian Front would be low.
power began a rapid decline from By mid- 1943, with the help of U.S.
which it would never recover. At combat aircraft reinforcements, P-39S,
Leningrad, for example, two Soviet P-40S, A-20S, and B-25S, the Russian
Air Armies comprised nearly 2000 air- Air Force had reappeared in the skies
craft 300 for the Luftwaffe
against as a major factor in the war, and held
standing against them. the decided edge over the Luftwaffe.
Large credit must go to the British- The air initiative of the war now
American Combined bomber offensive passed to the Allies in a vast circle
planned at the Casablanca Conference surrounding Nazi-conquered Europe.
in early 1942. This offensive drew two- Germany was about to experience a
thirds of all German fighter strength year of horror and destruction un-
back into Western Europe to defend precedented in the history of warfare.

Before the smoke had drifted from the debris at Pearl Harbor, the com-
mercial airlines of America, through the Air Transport Association, had
Government. Assimilation into
offered their complete resources to the U.S.
the military got underway immediately. Pilots, executives, ground per-
sonnel, and above all the commercial airlines, were brought into the Air
Corps Ferrying Command. These were hectic days, responding to the
critical need for large scale air delivery overseas to Europe and the Pacific
of men, material, and combat aircraft.
The new organization soon took shape in the birth of the Air Trans-
port Command in June, ig.^2. By the end of the war this "greatest airline
in history" would spiderweb the world with eight air routes (South Pa-
cific, South West Pacific, Central Pacific, South Atlantic, African, North

Atlantic, China-Burma-India, and Alaska) and would consist of 200,000

personnel. It would fly nearly 8 billion passenger miles, i-i/^ billion
ton miles, 1/2 billion plane miles, log nearly 2-7/5 million hours in the
air supplying our far-flung combat theatres and our Allies world-wide.

60
 The chaotic beginning of ATC was not without reason. Even as hun-
dreds of airline crews and scores of commercial airliners reported into
ATC bases to fly for the Army the bases themselves were still being
scraped out of the earth. Items from crew quarters to aircraft servicing
facilities to navigational aids were under construction or non-existent.

Most pilots had only domestic-route flight experience. Long distance,

overseas flying was something entirely different and new. Some trans-
ocean routes had been pioneered in the pre-war days by commercial air-
lines and the Air Corps Ferrying Command. Others were completely new.
Incredible dramas took place in the cockpits of ATC
aircraft along the
primitive trans-ocean aerial routes in early 1942, drawing on the skills
and the courage of airmen as flight had never done before. If some flights
and crews would disappear from the face of the earth, others would re-
turn with stories of heroic and tragic propositions.
One such happened to Ernest K. Gann, one of many airline pilots flying
army cargo out of Presque Isle, Maine. This newly-established U.S. term-
inal of the North Atlantic route suddenly had become important because
of the critical need for combat aircraft and supplies in Europe.
Airbase sites on the treacherous fiord-cut coast of Greenland had been
selected and radio-navigational equipment was badly needed to guide the
coming flow of combat aircraft over the North Atlantic to England.
Gann's job was to deliver the steel beams of a radio tower to the Green-
land site in his twin-engine C-^y. Dead reckoning navigation, in a part of
the world where compasses play tricks on pilots, where aerial maps were
yet to be chartered, where narrow deep fiords offered a one-time approach
— these were the major problems facing Ernie Gann. There was another,
which he could not know about until it was almost too late. Here is that
intriguing story . .

The Rule Books Are Paper

EJrnest K. Gann

This was the very beginning of what poses,and at times nearly chaotic. The
later became the world-girdling Air army personnel at Presque Isle, which
Transport Command. proved to be on the northern border
And it was very much of a begin- of Maine, were beside themselves with
ning: hesitant, tangled in cross pur- chagrin and confusion. They were sud-

61
The Air Transport Command's Douglas C-47 workhorse saw duty all over the world. This one is

flying cargo over the Pyramids in Egypt.

Some of the transport C-47s were loaded with "almost any type of cargo."
denly invaded from the skies by a force men. It was a lovely little town sur-
of civilian air crews which jammed rounded by undulating hills of trim
every facility. Our ten crews were rela- potato fields, each delivered of drab-
tively easy to assimilate since somehow ness by bordering pine trees. A swift
our impending arrival had been duly and clear rivermeandered down from
announced through channels, but a the hills and paralleled the main
much larger group of TWA
planes street. The long early-summer eve-
and crews arrived wearing white caps nings at this latitude allowed the sun
and thin white shirts as if they were to linger affectionately upon the tree-
still flying through the heat of Kansas. shaded streets and erased the look of
While we were sent off to billets in a stolid respectability from the houses,
nearby tourist camp and advised to lending them instead an air of en-
look after our own feeding, no one chantment. There were delicious fresh
had the faintest idea what should be lobsters to be had cheaply in the hotel,
done about the hapless TWA
crews, and on Tuesday nights the same estab-
much less why they had been ordered lishment featured a New England
to come in the first place. As the tele- boiled dinner which thoroughly con-
types sought an answer from Wash- verted the most skeptical of our com-
ington, some recklessly inspired officer pany.
ordered their airplanes loaded with And since Presque Islehad so long
the contents of a freight train which hungered for new events, and because
had been standing alongside the field. it was the sort of small American town

Nothing was weighed. The airplanes where nothing untoward would escape
were simply loaded until they were discussion, we were soon subject to
full. No one bothered to inform the both direct and indirect examination.
TWA crews where they were sup Why had we come? Were we in the
posed to fly their cargoes. Just as the Army? Then if we were not in the
loading neared completion an order Army what were we doing flying Army
came down to unload the planes again. airplanes?
The weary curses of the G.I.s had Anxious to make friends, we did
barely subsided when all of the TWA our best to answer such questions, but
crews were ordered back where they it was difficult, for the only truth was

had come from. They flew away to the
south, quite empty and as thoroughly
bewildered as those who had called
forth these logistic phantoms.
The citizens of Presque Isle, hith-
erto mostly dependent upon the price
and quality of potatoes for gossip,
found new zest in the presence of our
that we did not know the answers our-
selves.Nor could we explain why it
was that if indeed we were pilots, none
of us wore any emblem which might
support our claims. We could not
seem to convince our listeners, either
male or female, that the wearing of
symbolical wings elsewhere than on a

63
uniform was frowned upon. It was a The other airplanes were new mili-
hoary axiom of flying that young neo- tary versions of the DC-3, a type soon
phytes were possessed of several things to become much trusted and beloved.
in lieu of actual air experience — These were C-47S equipped with two
among which were large ornamental Pratt &: Whitney engines and fur-
wings and a large and complicated nished with metal bucket seats. They
wrist watch. In time a few of our flew splendidly through a variety of
more romantically ambitious crew nearly impossible conditions and
members sent away to a mail-order never betrayed us.

house for the largest wings they could Our long-inbred caution received a
buy. They reported immediate and severe shock when we learned of the
thrilling social progress. weights we were expected to fly. In
We were assigned four airplanes the same airplane we had been held
which in normal utilization of crews to the law of 25,346 pounds. Now we
would leave one as a part-time spare should lift a presumed 31,000, an in-

or permit its substitution for others crease which left us dubious because
imder repair. These airplanes were it canceled our ability to fly on one

a patchwork collection of our standard engine until Ion? after take-off. More-
airline DC-^s. Where the brown army over, the loads were not accurately
paint had already begun to peel, we weighed but merely estimated. This
could see portions of faded lettering led to some interesting surprises. Dis-
which had once identified the propri- tribiuion of the loads in the airplane
etor airline. Two of the airplanes were was purely a matter of convenience.
haggard with age and one which had We were rarely in proper trim and at
survived a crash on United soon be- length became quite accustomed to
came known as "No-s^o" because of its flying either nose or tail heavy.
tendency to take forever to reach fly- There were other innovations to
ing speed. It also displayed a remark- remind us that the conservative days
able habit of flying a trifle sideways of airline flying were no more. We
once it was coaxed into the air. The ^vere assigned radio operators, who
most diligent and clever manipula- squeezed themselves into a cubbyhole
tions of controls and trim tabs could behind the captain. In spite of this
not correct this exasperating fault. confinement, their horizons were lim-
One of our pilots remarked that while itless, for their wireless telegraph keys
he appreciated its strength of character had a vast communicative range; and
he would prefer an airplane with a soit was the pilots, restricted to human

lesser passion for the earth. Its disin- speech, who became the isolated ones.
clination to fly became more vicious These skilled operators had been
with heavy use, and finally it led one hastily recruited from the security of
of our company to his death. their airline radio rooms and were

64
generally of such a peculiar nature still unfamiliar azimuths and declina-
that we despaired of ever fully under- tions, the captain would sometimes be
standing them. They kept much to quite overcome with ennui. He would
themselves, lost in esoteric electrical stretch out upon the table to consider
discussions. These were the men, so his findings more comfortably. This
long unseen, with whom we had talked frequently took a considerable time,
on our regular schedules. For years and the anguished cries of the co-pilot
they had been only voices, and now demanding relief were lost in the
we were not quite sure they were real. drumming of the engines.
We were also assigned a flight me- So it was that in only a few days we
chanic, and most of tl ese men we had threw off our cloaks of conservatism.
known before. They flew with the air- We were almost totally independent.
plane, curing its various ills only after The army where the cargo was
told us
we had landed. They were all thor- destined. How, and when it arrived,
ough professionals of long experience became our individual responsibility.
and we trusted them implicitly. We None of us believed this pleasant
could only hope the reverse held true. and relaxed situation could endure
Additional fuel tanks had been im- for long. But we underestimated both
provised in the cabins of the planes. the perception of our military masters
These were of composition rubber and also the formidable task to be
and were connected to the regular done. It did not occur to us that the
fuel system by a makeshift and rather Army Air Force, preoccupied with
fragile series of pipes and valves. Yet training for actual combat, lacked ex-
they must have been efficient, for we perienced men for such an endeavor
smoked near them often and suffered or that they also recognized the values
no harm. of a tight professional group which
A plywood table had been erected woidd be operating free of elephan-
directly over the tanks on one side of tine officialdom. Using us without
the cabin, and upon this we applied danger of interference or superior
ourselves to the business of long-range restriction, a general could accom-
navigation. We soon discovered the plish far more than he could with his
table also made a tolerable bunk. own personnel. The last thing they
When so employed, it occasionally wanted us to do was join the army.
caused a certain lack of harmony At first we flew cargo and army
among the crews. Since none of the technical personnel to a place called
airplanes had automatic pilots, the co- Goose Bay in Labrador, returned to
pilot was held captive in the cockpit Presque Isle, and repeated the flights

while the captain fulfilled his secon- on a 24-hour-a-day basis. Because they
dary function as navigator. After a are not of flesh and blood, airplanes
prolonged session with Mcintosh's presumably cannot tire; hence the

65
leather cockpit seats were often still the higher trees. The rain replaced all

warm as one flight crew replaced an- useful sounds in our earphones with
other. the whining and screeching of tor-
The actual flying proved to be sim- mented animals. Yet all this was done
ple enough. was amused to find that
I facetiously, with more teasing than
once again we were flying with charts violence. The worst days never pro-
mucli given to the word "Unex- duced the ugly thunderstorms . . .

plored." nor was there even mildly rough air.

Northward beyond the St. Lawrence
River, the land seemed stunned into
silence, still waiting for
as if not yet sure of its
glacial ice. And the pattern past
the horizons was monotonously the
same — a seemingly endless repetition
of deep and quiet lakes cupped in
primeval forests. It was nearly impos-
sible for a stranger to distinguish
lake from another, and
everyone was a stranger. There were
no radio aids of any kind except at
Goose Bay, where a feeble and notori-
ously unreliable range station had
recently been installed. Thus we were
obliged to rely upon the primitive
dead reckoning of our open-cockpit
days and often found it expedient to
Instead, the impression of any real
threat was withheld, the weapons
first breath, dulled, as if we were being persuaded
liberation from to remain hereabouts for the winter
all — and then, if we had the nerve, to
match cunning.
Our heavily loaded airplanes were
so soggy in spirit they responded like
and could not be urged
ailing whales
one above the overcast where we might
in these skies have a chance for a sunsight. Thus
we were often compelled to creep like
furtive thieves along the very treetops,
skimming the lakes so low we could
sometimes see fish jumping, stealing
our progress bit by bit through gloomy
caverns of cloud.
My co-pilot Johnson had the nose
for such flying, for it was a small, saucy,

hold firmly north until we picked up turned-up nose, ideally suited for
the wild Hamilton River. We would pressing against the windshield as he
thence follow its twisting course east- sought the quick loom of hazards and
ward imtil at last we stumbled upon opportunities ahead. His eyes were
the flat projection of land which con- doll-like, deceptively innocent, and his
tained the airport. pink and nearly beardless face was that
Ingood weather the flight was of a healthy baby. His hair was a
child's play. But occasionally the sea- cropped mass of golden ringlets, and
son abandoned its assigned character as he peered thoughtfully ahead, he
and gave us the back of its hand. Then became a hopeful child yearning be-
a solid overcast would descend upon fore the window of a candy store.
the granite outcroppings and hang In truth, Johnson was a flying lepre-
graceful stalactites of vapor between chaun capable of astounding mischief.

66
He was resolute, absolutely fearless, periods in an aluminum cocoon, were
and so utterly devoid of nerves that he typical of all the others. Their faith in
could fall deep sleep
instantly into a me as'we proceeded into the relatively
though all hell's noises might be vying unknown was difficult to justify. I was
for his attention inside and outside embarrassed by its completeness, and
the airplane. Even the loss of an en- touched by the thought of their volun-
gine or a ticklish fuel predicament teer status. They could, in distrust or
could not stay him from his slumbers. disaffection, have left me at their will
Perhaps this was why, at the age of 25, and sought more prudent command-
he carried a special folder of identity ers. I led them quite helplessly into

cards to prove he could buy a drink. many questionable situations. Some of

Our radio operator was Summers, a these were entirely of my own doing,
man of pimgent vocabulary and and others occurred as natural devel-
fiercely independent spirit. He wore opments in our new existence.
glasses which he seldom bothered to All of us had much to learn and
clean even though he was nearly help- there were no instructors save our-
less without them. Yet for what he selves.
lacked in keenness of sight he com- Thus we were often obliged to
pensated for with the most delicate throw large portions of the rule book
auditive powers. He could wrest a sig- away and fly by our wits. No one, for
nal from the silence of a tomb, hearing example, except Lowell Yerex's color-
it long before our detection, or he ful airline in Honduras, knew much
could separate and identify a puny, about flying cargo by air. We learned
fleeting dit-dah from roaring pande- one night that there was more to it
monium. His sending "fist" danced than just heaving assorted material
lightly upon his key and was much ad- into the cabin and closing the door.
mired by his colleagues. Our first cargo for the north proved
Tetterton, our flight mechanic, was to be portions of a radio station which
a genial bull of a man who had for- would one day serve to guide bombers
saken a career as a racing driver so and fighters toward the European
that he might more completely realize theatres of war. The pieces were
his love for fine machinery. Engines mostly long steel girders, pre-cut, for
were not mere assemblies of metal, later assembly into an antenna tower.
gears, oil, and cylinders to Tetterton. We hardly glanced at the piles of metal
He cared for engines as living crea- as we passed through the cabin on our
tures, speaking to them softly as he way to the cockpit. It was a provoca-
worked, cursing and cajoling in ac- tive night and we were intrigued with
cordance with the particular behavior the subtle pleasures of making a take-
of each. offwe should never have attempted
These men, wrapped for indefinite on our regular line.

67
 The field at Presque Isle was offi- of the runway. Beyond, only a void.
cially closed to operations because of "All set?"
fog. It lay with deadening serenity A moment of anticipation. Then a

upon the ground and there was not common urge silently to bless the en-
even a susfffestion of wind to brush it gines.
away. The visibility was less than fifty I did not switch on the landing
yards. Yet we had practiced blind take- lights because the fog would only re-

offs many times and were confident of flect their brilliance and annoy us.

our ability to make one under genu- I shoved the throttles forward, jock-
ine conditions. The technique was eying the rudder pedals slightly to
simple enough — a matter of lining up compensate for the initial surge of
precisely with the desired runway, power, and devoted myself to the in-
carefully setting the gyrocompass, con- struments before me. We gathered
centrating on it, then taking special speed.
care to hold course within a degree or Normally we allowed the tail of
two. It was customary to make such these airplanes to rise of itself imtil a
take-offs every time a chief pilot held satisfactory angle of wing attack had
an instrument flying check, but then, been achieved. The change of attitude
of course, he had perfect visibility occurred at approximately 50 miles
from his side of the cockpit. Here, per hour and the airplane was held on
there would be none for either John- the ground until flying speed, or bet-
son or myself. ter, was acquired.
We followed the tail-lights of a jeep I sensed nothing wrong until we
to the end of the runway and swung had passed 60 miles an hour. The tail
around until our magnetic compass had not left the ground. I shoved for-
matched its direction. We set gyros, ward on the controls, spun a few turns
altimeters, and carefully completed the on the stabilizer wheel. The tail rose
cockpit check list of instruments, en- very slowly. I considered it unimpor-
gines,and controls. This we carried tant, concentrating my entire attention
out from memory, our voices chanting on holding a perfect gyro course. I

the sacrament as priests before an thought I could still slam on the

altar. brakes and stop we drifted off the
if

We were ready. Johnson turned our runway. The runway lights were loom-
radio to the range station so we could ing swiftly oiu of the fog and sliding
climb out on the proper leg. Summers past like rocket balls. Then, to my as-

was in his crypt behind me. Tetterton tonishment, precious seconds before I

stood waiting in the dark passageway had intended, the airplane left the
which led back to the cabin. Past the groimd.
moisture-laden windshields we could We had bare flying speed and I

see a single pair of lights on each side heard Johnson cry out. His warning of

68
a stall was superfluous for I was shov- niche and asked what I wanted. His
ing forward on the controls with all complete unawareness of our predica-
the strength within me. And I could ment was almost a relief. Even watch-
not move the controls! I spun the sta- ing us, breathless, and held rigidly in
bilizer as farforward as it would go. our positions like grotesquely posed
We were shuddering into an uncon- statues, he failed to show fear.
trollable climb which could only end "He's back in the cabin. See what
in a blind spin. My altimeter read less the hell . .
."

than loo feet. Summers dodged into the darkness

I yelled for help from Johnson. He and we waited, hypnotized by the
tl. ^w himself on the controls. The quivering needle of the air speed.
nose had to go down. The engines remained howling at
Tetterton, alert to our dilemma, full emergency take-off power.
yanked up the landing gear. Gradually, hardly daring to believe
We shoved forward on the control the instrument, we watched the air
yokes until our muscles locked. Our speed needle creep past 95.
blood pounded up to our faces in We saw it at 96.
stinging pin pricks and our breathing We saw it at 97.
became grunts of desperation. Then the air speed held, and slid
Yet we could not move the controls to 100. We wanted to cheer. At last

an inch forward. If we relaxed only an we had an airplane in hand. For now

instant the yokes would fly back in we could feel the controls; there was
our laps. We might hang for one sec- give — as sudden and wonderful a feel-
ond before we fell off in a final dive ing as can be imagined. We breathed.
through the fog. We luxuriated in the sensuous feeling
"Tetterton! Go back! See what—" of command and control. During those
He had already gone. awful moments we had been little
We dared not ease off the throttles. boys, although we struggled like men.
Ifwe were to climb so against our will, Our need had been speed.
then we must maintain all possible was again like an introduction to
It

speed and power. This was the most dying, without quite passing the bar-
basic law of flight. To consider the rier. And I thought, this is not like
strainon the engines was useless any- the ice with Hughen, or the cold
way. We had not a hand to spare from mental remains of instant danger with
our frantic pressure on the controls. Beattie, or the visual shock of spewing
The air speed lingered. It refused oil over the jungle.
to pass 90 miles per hour. This was a quick revelation smashed
"Tetterton!" at our senses while we were blinded,
There was no answer. and my heart would not cease its

But Summers swung out of his throbbing.

69
 But the airspeed crept past 105 and sweat and the veins on his hands stood
then 10. We could even ease our pres-
1 out like heavy worms. And he at first

sure on the controls although the sta- also found himself wanting for some
bilizer was still rolled all the way means properly to express his woe. So
forward. he bowed his head in weariness and
At last we broke out above the fog lit a cigarette. Then, staring vacantly

into a glorious parade of stars. I at the floor, he hoarsely and reverently

wanted to hear a band. repeated Johnson's exact verbal ref-

."
Johnson, the nerveless, wonderful uge. "Jesus . .

Johnson, said, "Jesus . .

." "What?"
Then he wiped the beads of sweat "Those damned steel radio towers!
from his pink forehead and said once They should have been tied down.
more, "Jesus ." There was no hint
. . When you jammed on take-off power,
of an oath in his voice. Nor was his they all just naturally slid to the tail!

word a prayer of gratitude. He was Must have been a couple of tons of

simply expressing as best he knew, in 'em. I dragged the pieces forward fast

the most formidable phrase he could as I could. Summers helped."

then muster, an indirect appreciation Then Summers, glasses steamed
of his escape. "Jesus." He savored this with his own heat, said resentfully,
name softly and shook his head in "A thing like that might kill a man."
wonder. I could easily visualize their strug-
We found that one man could hold gles in thedimly lighted cabin as they
the controls, so I asked Johnson to fought to drag the heavy girders up a
reduce the power carefully. Each suc- floor inclined at least 20°. And, far

ceeding moment brought more sen- worse, they could not have known at

sitivity to the controls. We were what instant the might violently

floor
approaching 700 feet, a safe altitude. reverse its angle and tumble them into
Our air speed was steadily climbing, eternity.
and we could see. We had nothing further to say on
There was now time, as we climbed the incident, for in fact Simimers had
toward the stars, to consider our near- said it all. So we remained silent, each
catastrophe. had obviously nothing
It man wrapped in his thought, trying
to do with our blind take-off. Each to beliave as if nothing had happened.
minute the airplane was beginning to Summers went back to his radio
fly as it should, so surely and with such cubicle and switched on his light. He
comparative ease that I could now roll pushed it down close to his tiny desk
back the stabilizer to a decent position. so that glow would not spread for-
its

Finally,Tetterton came forward ward few moments

to the cockpit. In a
and leaned between us, panting. His I heard him clicking away at his key,
shirt was splotched black with his a thin, delicate sound which inexplic-

70
ably prevailed above the engines; and and
ter discovers a typographical error
I wondered with whom in the world is wounded, though the error may be
ne could be conversing at such a time infinitely less damaging than the
and whether he would mention that words. Now Tetterton suspected me
his fortune had so recently demon- of abusing his engines and he wanted
strated its perfect match to our own. an accounting in spite of his deliv-
Tetterton remained in the dark erance.
passageway behind us smoking. And "I haven't the faintest idea. I wasn't
I sensed, more from his observant exactly watching the clock."
silence than anything else, that he was "How high did the head tempera-
still troubled. Finally he leaned for- tures go?"
ward between us so that he could look "I wasn't watching them either."
out at the though his true inter-
stars, Tetterton made no attempt to con-
est was almost at once revealed to be ceal his frown of disapproval. The
elsewhere. parallel wrinkles across his forehead
"How long did you leave the en- became deeper in the subdued cockpit
gines at full power?" he asked so casu- light and he turned his head owlishly
ally that it was as if he were speaking several times, directing his amazement
of a time weeks before. He said it as first at Johnson and then at me. We

primly as a spinster inquiring the had, his eyes accused us, been griev-
length of a sermon unattended, and I ously delinquent.
thought, Good God, how can he care "We're supposed to fill out the log
for the time when the engines have book. What am I going to put in the
just spared his life? Yet I knew the spaces for engine take-off and climb?"
reason for his question, and took a "How about ... I love you."
moment to delight in it. And I won- The forehead wrinkles became
dered at how fixed a man could be- gashes and his lips compressed until
come upon his special pursuit. The they were nearly invisible.
dentist an ailing tooth not
attacks "Thanks," he said with the heavy
seeing the whitening knuckles of his mockery of a man betrayed.
patient squeezing the chair. The prin-

71
 What Lindbergh did in 7927 in his Ryan monoplane, young American
kids of the Army Air Forces were doing in 1942 by the hundreds. In their
P-38 fighters, €-4^ transports, B-26, B-2^, A-20 light and medium bombers
and B-iy heavies, these neophyte airmen equipped with only a lot of
courage and little navigation knowledge, spanned the dangerous North
Atlantic by the hundreds.
It was all a part of "Operation Bolero," joint U.S.-British effort to
build up Air Forces in England for the reconquest of Hitler's Europe.
Eventually nearly 1^,000 U.S. combat aircraft would be flown this route
to bases in England and Europe, with the peak load of 8400 in 1944.
But 1942 the route was new and beset with many unknowns. It
in
traversed through some of the worst weather on the face of the globe.
Navigational aids were few and unreliable. Bases along the route were
being cut out of the rock and ice of Greenland. Yet in that year 882 air-
craft out of 9^0 which started, arrived in England via the North Atlantic,
including ^66 heavy bombers, 1^0 mediums, 18^ transports, and 18^
fighters. No one flight across the North Atlantic at that time could be
termed routine.
There were tragic accidents, and strange disappearances of aircraft.
Sometimes crews were brought back from the dead as Arctic air pioneer
Bernt Balchen relates here.

Blule West Eight: Arctic Saga

Bernt Balchen

All THIS SUMMER of 1942 the "Bolero" fresh from civilian life and inexperi-
movement — code word for the pre- enced in long-range flying, have so
lude to the Allied invasion of Western few accidents and forced landings —
Europe — has been in full swing. Air- less than one in a thousand. But now
an endless stream have been
craft in thesummer phase is coming to an end,
pouring across Greenland, most of and we are getting into the fall, with
them refueling at Narsasuak, called its storms, darkness, heavy icing, high
Bluie West One (BW-i), but a num- winds, and must be prepared for bad
ber of them coming in here at BW-8. luck to strike any day.
It is a tribute to Yankee training and It strikes early in November when
skill that these young air force pilots, a B-17 Flying Fortress, engaged in a

72
routine search mission for a missing over several hundred miles of the area
transport plane, makes a wheels-up are without result. No further word
landing on a heavily crevassed section ever comes from the downed plane; it

of the Cap, in one of the roughest and vanishes forever.

most inaccessible parts of Greenland. Meantime 120 planes from the
The ensuing rescue effort, the biggest "Bolero" movement have been called
ever attempted in the north, goes on on to intensify the search, combing the
for half a year and involves a number Cap in grid patterns whenever there is
of aircraft as well as Coast Guard and a break in the increasingly bad
Navy vessels and dog teams and motor weather. We are nearing the winter
sledges. A total of five men are killed solstice, and shall have no sun left at

before the evacuation is completed, all in another three or four weeks. The
and one of the crewmen, Lt. O'Hara, crews take off before dawn and land
loses both legs. I make three belly after dark, with flare pots for runway
landings in the snow with a PBY, the demarcation, in order to utilize the
only ones ever accomplished, to bring few remaining hours of daylight.
out the last survivors. The whole op- On November 9 comes word that
eration is called by the air force one one of the "Bolero" planes, a Fortress
of the great sagas of the Arctic, an un- with a crew of nine, has failed to re-
paralleled story of suffering and sacri- turn. The big bomber was assigned to
fice and human endurance during the northern sector of the search pat-
almost six heart-breaking months on tern, which would place it somewhere
the Greenland Icecap. on the west leg of the Curio Range, a
The missing C-53 transport which radio range we had set up at Angmags-
set this chain of events in motion ran salik, and in the area of the Atterbury

into engine trouble on a flight from Dome weather station. Now with two
Iceland and was forced down some- planes down, and the sun sinking
where on the east coast of Greenland. lower toward the horizon each day, we
The first word at BW-8 is confusing. must redouble our efforts before dark-
They report by radio that they are at ness loses in. I commandeer a civilian
9200 feet altitude, and give their posi- C-54 from TWA, to extend the range
tion at Lat. 61° 30' N. and Long. 42° of the search, and day after day we
30' W., which would place them out comb the Cap in vain.
over the water. Three days later comes The freezing winds are building to
another message from the C-53 giving gale force,and always as we fly there is
the same position but 2000 feet alti- the threat of a sudden williwaw. Once
tude. Atterbury Dome, one of our I am at 12,000 feet over the Icecap
chain of weather stations on the east when we hit a violent downdraft, the
coast, reports seeing flares shot in the down-roll of a williwaw curling off the

air to the north; but our search flights Cap, which drops us to 8000 feet with

73
 A Douglas C-54 four-engine transport taking off from an Air Transport Command base in Green-
land during "Operation Bolero."

our plane still in climbing attitude, Ahead I see a little red star climbing
throwing us on our side with the rud- the dark sky, and then another flare
ders full out opposite in an effort to and another, and I alter course and
counteract. Then we hit the reverse drop down. The wrecked Fortress is
draft, and shoot upward again to 15,500 lying in a valley of a glacier, at an alti-

feet, in descending attitude. I estimate tude of about 4000 feet, like a crushed
the wind velocity at about 175 miles at dragonfly on the ice. It has hit in the
this time, and with an indicated air worst possible area of the Cap — an
speed of 215 m.p.h. our ground speed active part of the glacier, scored with
is only 37 m.p.h. For 20 minutes our crevasses and bottomless canyons in
four-engine ship is tossed like a leaf in the from the air that the im-
ice. I see

a cyclone. It's the severest turbulence pact has broken the fuselage behind
I have ever encountered in an air- the wing, and the tail end of the plane
plane, and I think in all my flying this is hanging down into an abyss. Held

is the narrowest escape of my life. on the level ice only by the weight of
On November 24, after two weeks its front end, the bomber is obviously
of futile search, I follow a hunch and in a precarious position.
make a long sweep to the southward. It is a miracle that any of the crew

74
are alive. They were flying low over him, and he clung to the shroud line
the Icecap in heavy overcast, we learn with one hand as he chopped his way
later,and suddenly one wing tip struck over the protruding rim.
the ice, and the plane flipped and then Now O'Hara noticed for the first

leveled again, skidding and cartwheel- time that he had no feeling in his toes,

ing to a halt at the very rim of the and realized that the snow inside his
crevasse. Lt. Monteverde, the pilot, was boots had frozen both his feet. Monte-
unhurt, but one crewman, Sgt. Spina, verde tried to thaw them with the heat
had broken his right wrist, and an- of his own body, holding them against
other was badly cut by safety glass his bare stomach, while the other crew-
when he was thrown through the nose. men redoubled their efforts to get the
The navigator, Lt. O'Hara, helped radio going. At last they managed to
carry Spina back into the plane, and pick up signals, but the transmitter
some snow sifted into his boots, but still could not give out their position.
he gave it no thought at the time. The glacier was active, the ice fissures
The crew lashed canvas over the around them widened, and bit by bit

shattered nose, and huddled inside the the sagging tail of the plane settled
unhealed plane, with icy gusts blasting deeper into the crevasse. They had
through the cracks in the twisted fuse- almost given up hope when on the
lage. The blizzard let up after three 24th they heard the faraway drone of
days, but when they crept out they dis- my engines.
covered that the ice around them was I take one look at the crumbling
so badly fissured it was dangerous to glacier, and instruct them not to leave
move in any direction. They needed the plane unless roped together. I

medical help for the two crewmen, have on board emergency supplies —
and their radio was not operative, so stoves and sleeping bags and clothing
O'Hara and Spencer, the co-pilot, vol- and equipment — and my first
first-aid

unteered to make a try for the coast. couple of drops are made with cargo
They were still within sight of the parachutes. The howling wind whips
plane when a snow bridge gave way, them past the plane before the crew
and Spencer plunged out of sight. He can grab them, and the bundles slip

slid a hundred feet down a hidden over the rim of the abyss. I decide to
crack in the glacier and, by one chance try free-dropping without chutes, and
in a million, landed on a block of ice warn the men under cover in-
to stay
wedged in the fissure. His crew-mates side the wreck. I come down
to about
lowered a parachute shroud line to 50 feet over the glacial valley, bucking
him, and inch by inch he worked his the violent air that boils off the Icecap,
way back up the slippery wall, only to and kick out the remaining bundles,
be stopped by an overhang at the sur- actually hitting the fuselage several
face. They passed down a machete to times. The wind is so strong that the

75
drifting snow streams from the B-17's Sgt. Tetley, only 20 miles from the
wingtips as I pull up after the drops wreck, making good time across the
and head for the auxiliary stations at Cap. They should reach the Fortress
Atterbury Dome, 80 miles away. by late tonight, and take out O'Hara,
I rip out a page from my diary and and Pritchard morn-
will return in the
make a sketch as I fly, showing the ing for the rest of the crew. I head

location of the wreck and distances back to BW-8, confident that our
and routes, and weight it and drop the troubles are almost over.
instructions to the station. Here they The Arctic is an unscrupulous
have dog teams and motor sledges, and enemy. It fights with any weapon that
in command is Lt. Max Demarest, one comes to hand, it strikes without warn-
of the best young glaciologists in the ing, and it hits hardest just when you
States. He is experienced in Arctic think the fight is won. The following
travel, and I feel certain that the crew morning, November 29, it strikes a
will be evacuated without further double blow. First comes a report that
difficulty. Demarest's motor sledge has broken
I am back four days later, as soon as through a snow bridge, only 100 yards
there is another break in the storm, to from the Fortress, and he has fallen to
drop additional medical supplies for his death in a crevasse. Less than an
O'Hara. While I am circling the hour later I hear that Pritchard and
wreck, I pick up a radio call from an another Coast Guard crewman have
approaching Grumman, a Coast Guard taken off on their second evacuation
amphibian piloted by Lt. Pritchard, flight with the B-71 radio operator,
who was with me last year at BW-8. Howard, and failed to return to base.
I tell him he can make a wheels-up It is not until the following March
landing with his little amphibian on that the remains of the Grumman are
a level area near the downed Fortress, discovered, flattened against a moun-
and I drop him rope and bamboo
will tainside in the blinding snow. All
poles and snowshoes for crossing the three men were killed instantly.
crevasses to the wreck. An hour later Now begins the long wait. The
Pritchard reaches the stranded party. Arctic winter has closed in, and the
O'Hara's feet have started to become violent storms have reached their peak.
gangrenous, and he cannot be moved Every day when the weather allows us
back to the Grumman withoiu a sled, to fly, our planes make supply drops
so Pritchard guides the two other in- over the wreck, despite severe icing
jured crewmen across the glacier to his conditions and intense gales. O'Hara's
rescue-plane and flies them out safely. gangrenous legs are getting worse, and
From the air as I circled I have already he must have medical attention. Sgt.
spotted two motor sledges from Atter- Tetley with the second motor sledge
bury Dome, with Lt. Demarest and has remained with the Fortress crew

76
since Demarest's death, and Monte- Ikatek (Bluie East-2) only a short hour
verde decides that the only chance to by air from the wreck. He drops food
save O'Hara's legs is to make a desper- and medical equipment and also a
ate gamble for the coast. Tetley esti- walkie-talkie, so we can keep in touch
mates that he can make the trip in two with the survivors at the sledge camp
days.He wraps O'Hara in his sleeping as well as the three crewmen at the

bag and puts him on the sledge, taking wrecked Fort six miles away. Another
along a tent and emergency rations for rescue caravan sets out from Atterbury
three days. With him go the two Dome with 35 dogs. They are within
strongest members of the B-17 crew, 10 miles of the sledge camp when bad
Spencer and Wedel, the flight engi- weather forces them to retreat, and
neer. Spencer knows only too well the they struggle back to the Dome with
danger of hidden crevasses, and he only eight dogs left. Two months have
walks ahead on snowshoes to test the gone by, and hope is beginning to
trail, and Wedel follows behind. fade that any of the survivors will be
About two miles from the wreck alive by spring.
they come to a smooth slope on the Late in December I am called to
glacier, and Tetley decides they can BW-i for a conference with Col. Wim-
all get on the sled and ride to make satt, commanding officer of the Green-

better time. As Wedel comes alongside land Base Command, and Adm. Smith,
to climb aboard, a concealed snow commander of the Greenland Naval
bridge collapses beneath him, right Patrol, to whether anything
discuss
beside the sledge. He makes one des- else is left I have one last
to try.

perate grasp, his fingertips sliding off trick to outwit the Arctic. Back in

the sled runner, and vanishes from 1925, when Amundsen and Ellsworth
sight. Tetley guns the motor, and they were forced down on their first attempt
hurtle the gaping hole just in time. to fly to the North Pole, I remember
There is no chance of ever finding that Riiser-Larsen and Dietrichson
Wedel's body, they know, and they took off the heavily loaded Dornier
push on across the Cap with O'Hara. Wal flying boats by skidding them on
A couple of miles farther, the oil line their bellies across the floe ice, and I
to the motor congeals and breaks, and propose a belly landing on the Cap
without Wedel's engineering ability with a PBY.
they cannot repair it. Tetley and But the Navy, disposing of the PBYs,
Spencer set up the tent and carry doesn't see it my way. I'm given a
O'Hara inside, just as another heavy glacier-cold shoulder. No planes for
blizzard strikes. me for such a lunatic purpose.
There they are discovered three days I tell them if I'm to crawl in on my
later by Capt. Pappy Turner, flying hands and knees, I'll get the boys off
out of the 6000-foot landing strip at the Icecap. I'm boiling hot under the

11
collar,and Wimsatt and I go out for of O'Hara's critical condition. We have
fresh air.Soon afterward we have a had no time to make a test landing,
wire on the way to Gen. Devers, our but I figure that if anything is going
commanding general stationed in Eng- to happen it will happen anyway, test
land, in which we request a plane. He landing or not.
cables right back that I may have the The area at the sledge camp has a
plane, but it must be manned with slight upslope of about 2 per cent only.
volunteers. I tell Dunlap to bring the plane in at
And now, at long last, the Navy normal landing speed, like a power
wakes up and gives me two of their stall letdown on a glassy sea. We set

PBYs. the air speed at a fixed 80 knots, sink-

I poll the crew members of the ing about 200 feet a minute, and hold
planes to see who will volunteer for the plane in this position until the
this mission. Every man steps forward. hull grazes the snow. Dunlap cuts the
I select a skeleton crew consisting of throttles,and the PBY slides smoothly
Lt. Dunlap, the pilot of one PBY, and right up to the camp. Spencer is stand-
his radio operatorand crew chief, and ing in front of the snow hut they have
also Dr. Sweetzer, the medical officer built over the tent, and Tetley scram-
at BW-2. We strip the armor plating bles out as we halt. Dr. Sweetzer and I
and all machine guns from the plane crawl inside.
to make it as light as possible, and wait O'Hara is lying in his sleeping bag,
for the first available weather. Just as his face a waxy yellow, emaciated and
I am about to on February
start, 5, a weak, but he forces a little grin. I

message is handed to me: carry him to the plane in my arms, as

"Factory indicates forward bulk- bimdle of rags. He weighed
light as a
head of PBY too weak for landing 180 pounds when he landed on the
on snow. What are your plans? Cap three months ago, and now he is
Commanding General, only about 80 pounds. Spencer and
Army Air Forces" Tetley crawl aboard the PBY, and I
I scribble my answer and hand it to give it the gun. The hull of the flying
the messenger: "Going ahead as con- boat has already frozen to the snow,
templated. and it will not budge.
5 February, 1943." The men scramble out onto the
I have sent a couple of B-17S ahead wings and rock the plane back and
to the rescue area, to scout conditions, forth until it is free, but before they
and at eight o'clock this morning they can climb back inside it has frozen
report the weather fair and calm, the tight again. I order the crew to get out
ground temperature about 10° below and stand at either wingtip float, wig-
zero. I have decided to evacuate the gling the plane up and down until it
group at the sledge camp first, because breaks loose, and I start sliding. I taxi

78
slowly in a wide circle, and the men radio operator and Dr. Sweetzer grab
line up on the snow outside this circle, each man in turn by the scruff of his
and wait for me to come around. As neck and the seat of his pants, and haul
soon as the right outboard engine has him inside. I shove the throttles for-

passed over their heads, they dive for ward, and after a few seconds of eter-

the blister one by one, like jumping nity the hull breaks the snow's grip
aboard a merry-go-round, and the and we are airborne.

Throughout the winter, spring, and summer of 1942 American aircraft

and units arrived in England by air and by sea under "Operation Bolero"
to form the U.S. Eighth Air Force and unite with the RAF in the air
build-up for the coming destruction of Nazi Germany and the reconquest
of Europe.
"Bolero" originally called for invasion of France in fall, 1942 or spring,
194^. It was to be delayed a year by a second front in Africa, hastily
planned for November, 1942 to take pressure off the defeated British
Eighth Army pinned down at El Alamein in Egypt and relieve the Rus-
sian retreat in the Ukraine by drawing German forces to the Mediter-
ranean.
With the shift of British-American emphasis to the Mediterranean the
AAF's Eighth Air Force in England was directed to give large part of its
growing strength to a newly-organized African invasion air force — the
Twelfth, commanded by James H. Doolittle, recently returned from the
historic Tokyo Raid. Eighth Air Force strategic operations were to be sub-
ordinated to the North African venture.
Nevertheless, beginning in the summer of 1942 the depleted Eighth
initiated small scalecombat strikes over Europe in a test of U.S. air con-
cepts, equipment, training, and command leadership.
The British were frankly skeptical of the American daylight bombard-
ment plans. They had tried the earlier, lighter-armed B-iyE "Flying For-
tress" over Germany and found it wanting in defensive firepower. Besides,
the "Fort's" small bomb bay could not carry the massive two-ton block-
busters required for night mass area bombing missions which the British
were pursuing. British air leaders were openly doubtful of the American
concept to the point of being hostile. And in the British press it was
chided as "foolish, wasteful plans and efforts of U.S. air leaders." British
logic reasoned: day bombardment had proven failure for the Germans at
Dunkirk, in the Battle of Britain, over Malta, and at Stalingrad. It had
been prohibitively costly for the British over Europe in the first two years.
Up to the advent of the Eighth Air Force in England it simply had not
worked. The day fighter had the edge over the day bomber every time.

79
 But by 1942 American bombers — the B-iyF and the slab-sided B-24 —
had tiuo new contributions not previously available. These were the famed
Norden bombsight which could pickle-barrel a bomb from high altitude
beyond effective enemy anti-aircraft artillery, and heavy defensive armor
to protect itself against any enemy air fighters patrolling the skies of Eur-
ope. American airpower had developed long-range bombers as a defensive
weapon in the ip^os and American industry was geared to produce the
B-iy and B-24 in large numbers. Moreover, American military airmen
were loud exponents of the daylight strategic bombardment concept, hav-
ing developed, taught and practiced it in the U.S. during the ip^os. There
would be no turning back the clock of military air concept; no argument
would deter American airmen from carrying out their plans.
Thus was the first year over Europe a year of trial and error for the
Eighth Air Force, a year of build-up and shakedown missions. It was a
year which hammered out in the ordeal of combat the refinements of
American day bombardment techniques; a year that set the pattern for
the great daylight sweeps of 194^-44 which ripped open the heart of
Europe.
And it was during this time the "Combined Bomber Offensive" — the
U.S. by day, the British by night — took form and substance.

Counterattack Europe:
The First 18 Months
Dr. Murray Green

This is the story of an experiment waffe airdromes in Holland flown in

which began, appropriately enough,
on July 4, 1942. On the morning of
the 166th anniversary of our indepen-
dence, six A-20 Boston bombers bor-
rowed from the Royal Air Force by
the fledgling Eighth Air Force took off
on the first mission of a three-year
campaign that was to help preserve
that independence for ourselves and
our posterity.
As a mission, this sweep of Luft-
the company of 6 other twin-engine
A-20S manned by their regular RAF
crews, was less than a tactical success,
The low-flying Bostons were spotted
by "squealer" ships that radioed a
warning ahead. The Germans had a
reception committee waiting. One
American pilot made his normal turn
and allowed the flak tower gunners to
anticipate his course. He was shot
down. Another, Capt. Charles Kegel-

80
 ^^i^i

J\

The Douglas A-20 was used very successfully by the British in the tactical support of troops. The
A-20s pictured here have D-Day markings, black and v/hite stripes.

man, had his right propeller shot off. Distinguished Service Cross." Three
He searched the sand dunes for a place other crew members who flew that day
when he heard his tail
to belly land, also received the Distinguished Fly-
gunner exhort him to "Give 'em hell, ing Cross.
Captain." "Why not?" he asked de- America hailed this heroic begin-
fiantly, and swung his nose toward a ning and at Headquarters Eighth
harassing flak tower, squeezed the Bomber Command that day, the fol-
trigger until he silenced it, then lowing notation appeared in the offi-
wrenched his crippled ship around at "Arrival of aircraft; i B-17E
cial log:
water level and made it back to the — Total: 1."

field. The B-17 Flying Fortress, with an

The Theatre Commander was so able assist by the B-24 Liberator, gave
impressed by the report of Kegelman's meaning to an American concept of
feat thathe wrote in pencil across it: high altitude daylight precision bomb-
"This officer is hereby awarded the ing. But before they could conduct it,

81
the Fort and Lib aircrews had to pene- in the London Sunday Times, a lead-
trate the political fog of doubt and ing article fairly bristled with "plain
question, just as they had to prove speaking" as to how the B-17S and the
themselves in combat against the fierc- B-24S were not cut out for the job of
est aerial opposition in the world. flying over heavily defended enemy
The Eighth Air Force was estab- territory. Perhaps these planes were
lished on paper in January, 1942 in more suitable for patrol missions over
the winter of our discontent following the Atlantic submarine and shipping
the Pearl Harbor disaster. In Febru- lanes, the air correspondent suggested.
ary, Gen. Henry "Hap" Arnold, Com- The trans-Atlantic telephones
manding the Army Air Forces, sent burned as Washington demanded to
Brig. Gen. Ira C. Faker to England to know what it was all about. Fortu-
establish a bomber command head- nately, Gen. Spaatz was spared the
quarters and to prepare for the arrival necessity for apologies. The Fortresses,
of the fighting men and planes. with Gen. Eaker, Eighth Bomber
In May, 1942 Maj. Gen. Carl Commander, riding in the "Yankee
"Tooey" Spaatz took command of Doodle," one of the lead planes, plas-

Eighth Air Force at Boiling AFB, in tered the target and returned un-
Washington, D.C. One month later, scathed.
he opened his headquarters at Bushy The first climax of the modest of-

Park, on the outskirts of London, after fensive against Festung Europa came
which the aforementioned token raid on October 9, 1942. A mission, includ-
in borrowed A-20S took place. ing for the first time, the slab-sided
But Eighth Air Force was to put its B-24 Liberators, was dispatched against
faith in daylight precision bombing. the French industrial city of Lille
Spaatz and Eaker counted on a combi- where the great Fives-Lille steel plant
nation: the quality of their crews, the was made to order for high-altitude
firepower of the B-17, and the accu- precision attack. The term "air raid"
racy of the secret Norden bombsight was for the first time inadequate. At
to attain their goal. Lille, it was an air battle pitting 108
By mid-August, 1942, enough B-17S formation-flying American bombers,
had crossed the Atlantic to permit the protected along the way by a total of
planning of the first high-level mis- 500 escorting fighters vs. 242 German
sion. After the weather "scrubbed" interceptors. The "green" bomber
some starts, 18 B-17S impatiently took crews made mistakes. Aborts ran high
off on Monday, August 17. Twelve and traffic control over the target
headed for the Rouen-Sotteville rail- looked like a conjuncture of freeways
road marshaling yards, the other six in downtown Los Angeles. Some bom-
on a diversionary sweep. The mission bardiers had jettisoned their loads in
got off none too soon. The day before, mid-English Channel and were deri-

82
sively christened "chandeliers." But Fledgling Eighth Air Force was now
69 bombers made it to the targets, at a invited to take a crack at the unin-
cost of 1 Lib and 3 Forts. Final claims viting submarine pens which the Nazis
by our side distilled to 2 1 fighters shot had sited allaround the Bay of Biscay
down, 21 probables, and 15 damaged. — at Lorient, at St. Nazaire, and La
A dramatic victory of sorts, Lille Pallice. The prospects for distinctive
represented a sharp reversal of the tra- service in this mission were not bright.
ditional bomber vulnerability to ag- The more experienced RAF had
vastly
gressive fighter interception. If the in 1941 dropped 400 tons on Lorient
public applauded the Libs and Forts alone, causing damage to the port area
as destroyers of the Luftwaffe, the pro- and to the town itself. But the U-boat
fessionals regarded this prowess strictly shelters, built with 12 feet of rein-
as a valuable by-product. The primary forced concrete overhead, reflected si-

objective was to destroy ground targets multaneously the Teutonic fondness

by precision attack. for massive construction and for boast-
The men who flew to Lille did not ing to match. Certainly, the sub-pens
realize it, but that mission was the were as bombproof as the technology
largest one mounted by the Eighth Air of that era could make them. Goebbels
Force for the next six months. In the crowed that "Britain's RAF holds
dynamic, quick-changing war picture, Germany by the wrist, but Germany's
strategic air took a back seat. Tempo- U-boats hold Britain by the throat."
rarily ahead of it were placed the re- Late in 1942, few would gainsay that
quirements to mount "Operation Nazi boast.
Torch," our maiden amphibious land- Indeed, there was a strong and grow-
ing in North Africa, scheduled for ing belief that the U-boat wolfpacks
November. Programming account was could bring Britain to her knees be-
also taken of an urgent appeal to Pres- fore the U.S. could intervene in suffi-

ident Roosevelt by Prime Minister cient strength to tip the balance back.
Churchill for air support of his Eighth The failure of a similar U-boat cam-
Army in Egypt which had finally paign in 1917-18 was dismissed by
turned on Rommel at El Alamein in German strategists because the Kaiser
the summer of 1942 and pushed for a had failed to establish U-boat bases
decisive breakthrough. on Atlantic ports. This shortcoming
As the weather turned bad and the Hitler had quickly rectified in 1940.
nights grew long, control of the U-boat Against the formidable submarine
menace in the Atlantic suddenly took a bases which resembled tiny cardboard
turn for the worse in October, 1942. In shoe-boxes from four miles up, was
November, the blackest single month pitted the Eighth Air Force whose
of World War II, sinkings rose to a plans for precision bombing were so
terrifying level. large and whose means to accomplish

83
 The Boeing B-17, a four-engined bomber, was the early mainstay of the Eighth Air Force in Europe.
This B-17, photographed from another Flying Fortress in the same formation, is flying through a
sea of flak.

it were yet so modest. Three impor- exhausted and depressed by their own
tant missions were sent in against tlie losses and the lack of replacements
sub-pens. Fighter opposition was fero- which seemed to reflect that no one
cious and skillful. Yellow-nosed FW- cared much one way or another.
190S attacked from the rear in such a There were encouraging letters from
way that the high sweeping tail fin of the RAF and the British Admiralty
the Fortresses screened them from the which attested to the destruction
fire of the radio hatch and top turret. caused and the lengthening of the U-
The Germans brought in fresh con- boats' turn aroimd time. But the prin-
centrations of flak, including 100 big cipal depressant was the knowledge
guns sited around St. Nazaire — now born of combat experience. The AAF
known as 'Tlak City." learned the hard way that the destruc-
Several bomb were recorded
hits tive power of a single bomb, or even a
directly on the submarine installations. few bombs, was less devastating than
The B-17S claimed 10 enemy fighters expected. What they needed was a
destroyed, plus four probables and concentration of bombers whose cumu-
three damaged. But they limped back lative effect could cause the Germans

84
to despair of repairing heavy damage. RAF could appreciate what the Eighth
But this called for more bombers Air Force was trying to accomplish,
and more crews — neither immediately even though British leaders believed
available. that this objective could better be at-
Another side effect of marking time tained by night area bombing. The
was reflected in a certain impatience RAF had taken the initiative away
that showed up on the home front. from the Germans who had initiated

People in the United States had ac- the concept of mass bombing and even
quired the notion that an air force, to coined the word "Blitz" for it.

be effective, could or should fight a By mid- 1942, the RAF

had begun
major engagement every day. Doubt- to spread ruin and terror throughout
lessly, this illusion was fostered a bit Germany. In the face of Hitler's in-
(like the pickle-barrel bombing accu- creasing obligations on the Eastern
racy myth) by overzealous salesmen and Western fronts, the Luftwaffe
of airpower and blindness generally strove to maintain peak strength every-
distributed at all levels of understand- where, with the result that it was un-
ing to the realities of air warfare. No able to dominate the air anywhere. In
one expected a naval task force — or a surprise foray, late in October, 1942,
a ground army, for that matter — to about 100 Lancasters penetrated 400
fight several big-scale battles each miles (deeply for that time) with escort
month, repair their damage, and re- and plastered the Schneider armament
place casualties overnight. Yet, the works at Le Creusot. They knocked
Eighth Air Force was expected to do so. out the plant for eight months at a cost
Some critics recalled that the RAF of only one plane.
on May 31 and June had sent
2, 1942, Some influential voices were raised
out looo-plane raids against Cologne on either side of the Atlantic suggest-
and the Ruhr, respectively, and ing that the best way to use the com-
emerged with only a few casualties. paratively small American bomber
Still other critics believed that ships force was to incorporate it into the
or tanks, or perhaps machine guns, RAF's night bombing pattern. But the
should warrant higher production pri- AAF would not accept assimilation —
orities than bombers. And in the other for reasons which went beyond the
services, one school of military strategy need for separate identification, just as
felt that if bombers were to come first, the AEF in World War I insisted on
they could serve our national interest retaining its separate identity.
better in the Pacific or in the Mediter- It was more than a matter of patri-
ranean. otic pride. It was a means of testing a
Carping criticism of the AAF did theory of war deeply felt. Daylight
not extend to the men of the RAF. precision bombing was not only
After 21/^ years of trial and error, the grounded in logic but had dug roots

85
into the substructure of our psychol- man warships out of the water off
ogy. Americans traditionally respect Hampton Roads. Last, but certainly
marksmanship. This goes back to the not least, the Norden bombsight, a
squirrel rifle of the frontier days when Navy-assisted and develop-
research
the scarcity of powder and shot put a ment project of the 1930s, showed
premium on accuracy. Secondly, pre- great promise as an instrument of pre-
cision-bombing was our best answer to cision bombing.
real or feigned antipathy for area The growing controversy over day-
bombing of "civilian" objectives which light bombing came to a head at the
the RAF favored. Thirdly, pinpointed Casablanca Conference. In mid-Janu-
accuracy was essential to participation ary, 1943, President Roosevelt and
in the Pacific war — primarily a naval Churchill came together, in company
engagement. Its beginnings could be with their leading political and mili-
traced to Billy Mitchell and his in- tary advisers, to lay the basis for future
trepid flyers. In the early 1920s they strategy. In the absence of Gen. Spaatz,
justified the air service by blasting a who was North Africa, Gen. Eaker
in
succession of obsolete U.S. and Ger- flew to Casablanca. He was handed a

Allied leaders at theCasablanca Conference. From left, seated: President Franklin D. Roosevelt of
the United States and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain. Standing: Lt. Gen. H. H.
Arnold, Admiral Ernest J. King, General George C. Marshall, Admiral Sir Dudley Pound, General
Sir Alan Brooke, and Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal.
 .

series of questions by Gen. Arnold. On man soil. Fifty-three bombers attacked

the answers to those questions de- the U-boat production yards at Wil-
pended the future of Eighth Bomber helmshaven on January 27, 1943. The
Command. Gen. Eaker presented these drop was made through a smoke screen
reasoned arguments: and some rather attentive, but not too
accurate, flak. The results attained at
1 Day bombing permitted destruction a cost of three ships were only fair,

of relatively small targets that could but was only a beginning.

it

not be found or seen at night;
2. Day bombing, being much more
accurate than night bombing, per-
mitted a smaller force to be em-
ployed against a given target. This
economy would permit simultane-
While Eighth Air Force was getting
untracked, the RAF went into high
gear as the weather improved. They
went into Cologne and hit the U-boat
equipment plants in several heavy
raids. In a series of coordinated at-

ous attacks on several targets, split- tacks on submarine yards, repair shops
ting enemy defenses and reducing and Diesel engine works, the RAF hit
losses; Lorient, whose great concrete pens
3. Day bombing, or the threat of it, could house 30 U-boats. There was
kept enemy defenses alerted round- one raid of 1000 tons on the night of
the-clock, caused him to lose pro- February 13, 1943. St. Nazaire felt the
duction, sleep and effectiveness; weight of a deluge of 1000 tons in 30
4. Day bombing would reduce air- minutes on the night of February 28.
drome,air space and communica- This bombardment penetrated only
tions congestion in the U.K. This an occasional heavy concrete shelter,
problem would intensify as the but the successive battering destroyed
U.S. and British bomber forces nearby electric power sources, machine
increased. shops, and other supporting facilities.

5. And finally, consecutive day and Simultaneously, industrial centers in

night bombing would complement Western Germany and the Ruhr be-
each other, offering unparalleled gan to feel the weight of successive
opportunities to sustain the attack. looo-ton raids. One in mid-March bat-
tered the famous Krupp works in the
The Allied leaders accepted these Ruhr.
arguments. One day, two weeks later, Of particularly grim satisfaction was
the word went out for the first time the resumption of raids against Berlin
to the Eighth Bomber Command — which — with the exception of a few
"Target — Germany." A new air of sporadic Russian raids — had been
optimism filled air staff briefing rooms spared of Allied air attacks since De-
as for the first time mission briefers cember, 1941. Some precision timing
swung their pointers to targets on Ger- on January 30, 1943, gave unique cause

87
for delight in the West and proved The contribution of Eighth Air
a real tonic to Allied morale. Anniver- Force in this period was still modest,
saries of the Nazi accession to power biu of growing proportions.
were customary occasions for a spate of Wilhelmshaven became a regular
party oratory in Berlin. Both Goering "customer" for its attention. In mid-

and Goebbels were scheduled to ad- March a daylight attack by U.S. bomb-
dress the party meeting at tli£ Sports- ers on Vegesack near Bremen did heavy

palast. The first raid by RAF "Mos- damage to submarine building and
quitos" struck at ii a.m. just as repair ships. It cost the Germans seven
Goering stepped to the podium. The severely damaged U-boats out of 15
Reichsmarschall and his hearers hastily in the stocks.

repaired to the nearest air raid shelter. On April 4, 1943, 133 Forts — the
At 4 P.M., Goebbels was about to take largest AAF raid up to that time — hit
the rostrum for his offering as to how the Renault plant in France. On April
well things were going, but another 17, the Eighth Bomber Command
well-timed air raid unceremoniously went into Bremen. They lost 16 bomb-
broke up the meeting for the rest of ers out of 106, but really plastered the

the day. target. The sustained and imremitting

Perhaps the effect of the prank raids
was more psychological than physical,
but the Germans took very seriously
the fact that daylight bombers
first time had been able to penetrate
to the capital. Their presence was
fresh reminder of the emptiness of
Goering's boast that Berlin would be
spared of attack. To Germans
was revelation of the vulnerability of
character of these operations was with-
out precedent. By April, 1943, there
was hardly a day when Allied planes
for the were not over enemy territory during
the 24 hours.
a Sir Archibald Sinclair, British Sec-
retary of State for Air, estimated the
air offensive had by March, 1943
there wrecked 2000 German factories, cut
steel production by ii/^ million tons

Germany's vitals to the mounting air annually, and reduced Saar and Ruhr
assault. coal production by 80,000 tons a day.
The March i raid on Berlin was no As the warm weather approached,
prank as 900 tons showered down and the prospects for a decisive bomber
left 20,000 people homeless and fires campaign brightened. There was a
that burned for three days. On the spectacular rise in American produc-
27th and 29th equally heavy and even tion as the "Arsenal of Democracy"
more concentrated raids made clear went into high gear. In May, 1943, the
the pattern of destruction which the U.S. produced 7200 planes, including
Allies, principally the RAF in this 5000 combat types. Among them was
period, methodically visited upon the an increased proportion of bombers.
homeland of the enemy. The Eighth Air Force doubled its

88
 A Royal Air Force twin-engined Mosquito, the airplane that drove LuftwafFe chief Hermann Goering
from the speaker's platform at the Sporfspalcsf in Berlin, January, 1943.

Strength by the addition of six heavy tightcombat box, and stacking two or
bomber groups and in May, just one three boxes into what was known as a
year since Gen. Spaatz had taken com- combat wing.
mand, tlie Eighth Air Force received Other significant changes in the
high priority to conduct a Combined character of strategic bombing oc-
Bomber Offensive in concert with the curred. Two-ton and four-ton "block-
RAF Bomber Command. The chief busters" began to be used against main
targets were to be the German aircraft, objectives. They were effective against
ball bearing and oil industries. structures that could \vithstand the im-
The task was formidable and the pact of smaller bombs. The British
mission hazardous, for the bombers as Air Ministry asserted that the "block-
yethad no nose turrets to protect them busters" were paying their way.
from frontal attack. The escorts pro- There was also a return to dispersal
vided them could not penetrate much of thebombing effort. Since half the
beyond 200 miles inland. So the Eighth German fighter force \vas already tied
Bomber Command devised self-pro- down to the relief of the Mediterranean
tection by packing 18 bombers into a and Russian fronts, the strain on Ger-

89
man defenses in the West could be in- ward as the Luftwaffe doubled its

creased by spreading the blows over a strength in June, 1943 over that of
wider area. Thus, the looo-ton raid be- January, 1943.
came commonplace in 1943 as against The air battle was now joined. Both
the 1000 plane raids of 1942. Now, sides threw every available resource
only 400-500 planes could drop 1000 into the struggle for mastery of the air
tons, reflecting improvement in tech- over Western Europe. The outcome
nology. would largely determine Allied plans

A significant shift in the respective for a second front, now deferred to

burdens borne by the collaborators in 1944. The
account of that air battle
this Combined Bomber Offensive is which lasted one full year is another
reflected in a few statistics culled from exciting chapter in the story of air
the files of the U.S. Strategic Bombing power and its on the
decisive effect
Survey which was later established by final victorious outcome of World
President Roosevelt to provide an au- War II.

and unbiased evaluation of

thoritative
air power in World War II. The fig-
ures showed that the USAAF "total Editor's note

bomb tonnage dropped" in 1942 was
but 2003 tons as against 74,489 tons
for the RAF. By September, 1943,
however, the AAF had attained the
same monthly level as the RAF at
about 23,000. By the war's end the
AAF total of 1,463,423 tons had sur-
passed the RAF's total
From the start the Germans developed a
healthy respect for the firepower of a
Fortress formation. Ever since a crippled
"Fort" took on a flight of ME-iogs over
Holland in autumn of 1942 and shot
down two and damaged others, the word
among Luftwaffe pilots was "lay off those
verdamnt Forts."
tonnage of It was not until later when Focke-Wolf-

1,307,117. 190s and ME- 109s were equipped with

By the summer of 1943 only a small heavier armament and the Germans had
fraction of this tonnagehad been de- studied B-17S shot down over Europe,
livered, but the shakedown of Eighth that the Luftwaffe devised improved tac-

Air Force was virtually complete and tics for attacking the Forts.

its build-up proceeding at a geometric

The appearance of the Forts over
Europe also gave urgency to a re-gear of
rate.
German aircraft production. In Decem-
The Germans belatedly realized that
German aircraft industry
ber, 1941 the
disaster would overtake them if the
produced 510 bombers, 130 fighter bom-
Combined Bomber Offensive were not bers, and 360 fighters. By December, 1943
halted. Hitler ordered a switch of vir- monthly production had shifted to 400
tually all aircraft production facilities bombers, 255 fighter bombers, and 600
to fighters. At the same time, available fighters. A year later, single-engine fight-
interceptor groups were rushed west- ers had risen to 1425 per month, twin-

90
engine fighters to 245, while only 15
bombers rolled off production lines.
Thus, by 1943 the pattern of German
air effort, from production to combat air
operations was changing rapidly from
offense to defense.
Allied air leaders hopefully recalled
thatno nation in history had ever won a
war by defense and looked to the year
ahead with confidence and determination.

While the Eighth Air Force build-up and shakedown missions were
underway, the RAF continued its daylight and night fighter and bomber
sweeps over Europe. For two years the RAF had been ranging over the
Western fringes of Europe, limited by short radius of action of their
fighters.Spitfires, Hurricanes, Typhoons, Beaufighters, and U.S. A-20S
would sweep the Low Countries and France hunting targets of oppor-
tunity and engaging the Luftwaffe in aerial battle.
Flying with the RAF were pilots of many nationalities — French, Poles,
Czechs, Dutch, Belgiums, Norwegians, and others, who had fled their
countries after defeat and joined the British to fight Hitler. In some cases,
units were composed entirely of nationals of one country, using British
and American equipment, as with the resurrected French Lafayette Esca-
drille Squadron flying P-40S in North Africa, the Ardennes Squadron in
the Middle East, and the Lorraine and Bretagne bomber squadrons in the
Mediterranean area. Others were integrated into RAF units and flew from
British bases.
Deeply motivated to eliminate the Nazis and restore their nation to free-
dom, they were a group of resolute, daring, determined flyers. Here is a
dramatic glimpse of a Spitfire fighter patrol sweep over France by Pierre
Clostermann, French ace flying with the RAF in early 194^.

Ranger Over France

Pierre Clostermann

Half-past six. The ringing of the wires outside and every gust shook the
alarm clock tore me out of bed. Lord, 20 doors in our quarters.
how cold it was! I peeped under the I lit a cigarette and put the light on.
blackout curtain — low clouds, ceiling Tom and Danny, my roommates, had
less than 2000 feet, and what a wind! gone back to sleep. I hurriedly put on
It screamed through the telegraph a couple of pullovers over my pajamas,
91
a leather waistcoat, my battle-dress, shouted to them.
two pairs of long woolen stockings and was 7:25, just time to get outside
It

my flying boots, into which I slipped a cup of coffee and a few biscuits. Time
my map. for breakfast proper when we got

The dark concrete bulk of the Ops. back — if we did get back.
Room loomed in the night. I could Huddling round the miserable
dimly hear the throb of the air-condi- stove, Jacques, Dumbrell and I lis-
tioning plant for the underground tened while Ken, map in hand, gave us

rooms. After the bitter cold outside, I the gen.

were plunging into a deli-
felt as if I "We'll cross the French coast, either
ciously warm vapor bath as soon as I on I.F. or above the clouds, then we'll
passed through the heavy metal doors. go Amiens flying low. We'll
as far as

The room, lit by mercury vapor lamps, turn and patrol the area Saint-
left

seemed like a scene from another Quentin, Noyon, Beauvais, and we'll
world. come back at 13,000 feet. Like that
The sergeant on duty was kept on we'll stand a decent chance of in-

the go answering a dozen continuously tercepting a low-flying transport.

ringing phones. Without even looking Roughly line-abreast formation, 100
up he handed me the "Met" report yards between aircraft, crossing over
and the area controller's instructions. from left to right when we alter
Ten-tenths cloud at 4000 feet. Wind course. Every man for himself if it

at sea-level 320°, 35 m.p.h.; 50 m.p.h. comes to a scrap. The first one who
at 5000 feet. Visibility moderate, drop- spots a target tells the rest and leads
ping to 500 yards in the showers. the attack."
Twelve Typhoons were to carry out a 0750 hours. Strapped in our Mae
sortie in the Chartres area from 0840 Wests, cluttered up with our dinghy
to -850 hours at zero feet. A piece of as well as the parachute, we climbed

cake, if it weren't for the wind. laboriously into our cockpits, helped
I woke up the rest of the gang. Ken by the mechanics. My breath imme-
and Bruce were O.K., but Jacques pro- diately froze on the windshield. I

ceeded to bind like hell. I shook him switched on my radio, my cameragun,

up. Five minutes later we were on our the carburetor, pilot head and gyro-
way over to Flight. On our way we intake heaters and the de-icing equip-
checked the fixing of our big 45-gallon ment. My fingers were numb under
auxiliary tanks, slung like bombs be- three layers of gloves — silk, wool, and
tween the Spitfires' two radiators. The leather — and it was quite a business
mechanics lay on the ground, working messing about with all those tiny but-
away by the light of their storm lan- tons crowded together on the instru-

terns. ment panel.

"Take-off at 8 o'clock sharp," Ken 0755 hours. I got them to see the

92
mirror was properly adjusted. A glance naled to us to close up again for the
at the sight, I set the safety-catch of dive through the cloud-layer. It was a
the guns. All set. A glance toward Ken. tricky business. Ken had worked it out
"All clear." that if we didn't time it right there
"Contact." was a risk of coming out in the coastal
A whine from the starter. One cyl- flak belt. The "Met" forecast had to be
inder fired, then two more. I pumped right too as, if the cloud base was lower
furiously and all at once the engine than expected, we wouldn't have
burst into life. enough margin to rectify any error in
It was still very dark and the mauve our I.F.

flashesfrom the exhausts lit up the We plunged into the opaque mist.
snow. It was two minutes past eight. Ken had his eyes glued to his instru-
Navigation lights on, wingtip to wing- ments. Jacques and I desperately clung

tip, we climbed through the black, to his wingtips. Suddenly we found

threatening clouds. ourselves in clear air again, at less than
We emerged at 13,000 feet above 1 500 feet over a cluster of little wooded
the thick layer of strato-cumulus, over hillocks intersected by a narrow marshy
the Channel. At once we took up the valley. A fine rain was falling, shreds
battle formation. Complete silence of mist dragged over the ground, the
over the radio. In spite of icing we had light was glaucous, like in an aquar-
switched over to our auxiliary tanks ium. That awful curdling of the stom-
without anything going wrong. In the ach muscles as usual. We must watch
gathering dawn the clouds were edged out now.
with light. "Hullo, Skittles, Red Leader calling.
The German spotters had probably Combat formation, drop your babies."
picked us up. The usual irritating Having got rid of our auxiliary
radar interference started up in our tanks, we dived to get up speed. Ken
headphones, worse with each sweep of was skimming the river in the middle
the beam. Suddenly Bruce Dumbrell of the valley; Jacques beyond him was
waggled his wings and turned for following the road, keeping below the
home. The perfect ellipse of his wings level of the telegraph wires. I was half-
was outlined against the pale sky for way up a slope, bothered by constant
the space of an instant and I could clumps of trees. I kept a cautious look-
make out a thin white stream flowing out for high-tension wires. One hun-
from his radiator. Glycol escaping. dred and seventy-five yards a second.
One aircraft less. In theory one of us In that grisly visibility the fatal ob-
ought to escort him over the sea but if stacle came on you in a flash. On the
we did that we should have to return ground, apart from a glimpse through
to base without completing our job. my hood of a couple of women shelter-
Ken said nothing and merely sig- ing under an umbrella, there wasn't a

93
solitary cart, nothing. A few roofs out- course Ken was and studied the
setting
lined against the horizon, a factory map as best I could. No
doubt about
chimney or two. White smoke from a it. Ken had boobed as we came out of

small marshaling yard approached rap- Amiens, at the Langean fork. We were
idly. Doullens, probably. We veered heading for Noyon and Compiegne
toward the south, to leave the French instead of Saint-Quentin. The Canal
town clear on our left. We had neither du Nord passed beneath us, then the
permission nor inclination to attack a Oise. Sure enough, here was Com-
train — no point in risking flak un- piegne forest, slashed by a bank of fog
necessarily. apparently anchored to the trees.

The rain started to come down in Suddenly we heard the controller's

sheets.I must really watch out now. voice, very distantly as we were flying
Amiens must be somewhere not far low!
away in the murk. "Hullo, Skittles, look out for Huns
"Look out, flak!" and Tiffe boys around."
A shout from Jacques over the radio. I wedged myself against the seat and
Instinctively, I turned. A fan-shaped tried to pierce the murk into which
cluster of white puffs spread in front we plunged, six feet above the de-
of my windshield. Tracers started nuded branches. Suddenly all hell was
whipping through the trees. Then, let loose — we roared into a fearful

under my wings, I saw roofs, allot- madhouse of planes. Yellow cowlings

ments. In a rift the towers of the ca- marked with black crosses cut through
thedral loomed up, too close. I roared the tracer trails. At 40 Focke-
least
over wet cobblestones, greasy ma- Wulfs, all apparently gone berserk.
cadam, dirty slates, clusters of gray With my thumb I immediately re-

houses. It was Amiens. leased the safety catch of my guns. My

Skimming the chimneypots we earphones were screaming.
veered to the left and emerged level I just avoided colliding with a

with a station. A glimpse of a few rail- Focke-Wulf. Glued to the back of my

waymen, rooted to the spot, caught be- seat by the centrifugal force I did a
tween the trucks of a goods train, then tight turn behind another and let fly
flashes from the loco park as a battery with my machine guns as I passed.
of three automatic guns opened up, Then, my finger still on the button, I
their stuttering barrels wreathed in had to break away violently. I could
smoke. see another hovering just behind in
Each of us on his own, weaving, full my mirror, his wings lit up by the
throttle, we made
off, pursued by flashes of his four cannon.
orange was only a few miles
tracer. It Having got rid of that one I drew a
from the town that we formed up bead on another, who seemed to have
again. I discreetly checked on the lost his head and was waggling his

94
wings. All of a sudden a Typhoon columns of black smoke rose above
loomed up in my windshield, coming the forest. Visibility was getting worse
straight for me. I kicked the rudder and worse. I caught a glimpse of a
bar desperately. I justabout grazed couple of Focke-Wulfs vanishing into
him, and caught my wingtip a terrible the mist. No one left in sight. I could
crack in a branch. Sweating and hold- vaguely hear Ken and Jacques over the
ing my breath I righted my Spitfire, radio, excitedly chasing after a Focke-
just as a Focke-Wulf in flames crashed Wulf. They ended by shooting it down
in front of me, mowing down the trees somewhere or other and then the wire-
in a fearful shower of sparks. less went dead for a bit.

Stick right back I made vertically I called Ken to tell him my juice

for the clouds, firing a burst of cannon was getting low and that I was going
on the way at a Focke-Wulf which was back to Detling. Half an hour's I.F.
so close that the black crosses on his through cumulus with flanks heavy
fuselage filled my gunsight. With his with snow and found myself over the
I

tail-plane half torn off,
spin and crashed into a clearing.
Once I got into the shelter of the
clouds I breathed more
bunch of pirates, 609 Typhoon Squad-
ron, commanded by my Belgian friend
Demoulin, must have dropped unex-
pectedly on a wing of Focke-Wulfs
taking off from Compiegne airfield.
We had landed in the middle of the
party by mistake!
Nerves tensed, I came down into
the scrap again. I saw three flaming
masses on the ground and three thick
he went into a sandy spit of Dungeness, in a fog you
could cut with a knife. I asked for a
homing and was brought back slap
easily. That over base by the controller. As I made
my approach, skimming the treetops
I saw Ken and Jacques touching down.
Ken caught a packet in his starboard
wing from 20 mm, but he signaled
that he had bagged a Jerry.
With the help of my mechanics I
jumped down from my Spit, stiff and
cold, only to hear that immediately
after breakfast I had to return to Dis-
persal on stand-by readiness.

95
 While allied airpower was building up in Western Europe the intensity of
aerial fighting on the Russian Front mounted. Nowhere is this better il-
lustrated than in the German drive to dislodge the Russian Army from
the bastion of Sevastopol, in the Crimea. Despite the setbacks of the bitter
winter of 1941-42, and the comeback of the Russian Air Force to numeri-
cal superiority by spring of 1942, the Luftwaffe was far from defeated.
Here Werner Baumbach, elite Luftwaffe dive-bomber pilot who ended
the war as Hitler's Chief of Bombers, describes the Luftwaffe role in the
terrible last days of Sevastopol.

Sevastopol -Ring of Death

Werner Baumbacli, Luftwaffe

Here am back
i in the Crimea. ters of Col. -Gen. Baron von Richt-
The heaviest rocket bombs are all hofen.
ready in case the Russian fleet tries to I climbed again until I received a
relieve the fortress of Sevastopol, now green light signal. There was a Volks-
isolated. wagen waiting. It was late afternoon
My old Ju-88 has brought me non- and the air was like a hot bath.
stop straight across the Balkans from We drove through the high walls of
Italy. We came down from 16,000 feet the Khan's palace in the center of the
to our destination, Eupatoria airfield. town. Ithad previously been a mu-
The heat was almost unbearable. It seum. An A.D.C. met me in the gar-
brought a return of the fever I have den. We hurried through a whole
only just got over, and with it a sort series of halls and rooms and a pergola
of mental paralysis. I was glad enough on the sunny side and after a short
of my thin khaki uniform. I took a period of waiting I found myself in
Fieseler Storch to visit the headquar- the presence of Col. -Gen. von Richt-
ters of the divisional general command- hofen.
ing the Eighth Air Corps, whom Seated at his desk, his back to the
Jeschonnek had informed of my com- wide-open window, Richthofen al-

ing. I came in low into the valley of most looked a Khan himself, with his
the Ishuruk-su in which lie the town high cheekbones, small, narrow eyes,
and Khan's palace of Baktshisarai, "the and weather-beaten features. Our talk
house of the gardens," then headquar- was brief and military. He explained

96
the attack on Sevastopol, which had airfields in the vicinity of Sevastopol.

just begun, and outlined what was re- It meant that we had to keep 200 to
quired of the Luftwaffe, which was to 250 aircraft always ready for action
smother the fortress with bombs, I was every day.
to visit the airstrips involved the same From the air, Sevastopol looked like
day. a painter's battle panorama. In the
Richthofen seemed to be in his ele- early morning the sky swarmed with
ment. It was a job after his own heart. aircraft hurrying to unload their
He was one of the most striking fig- bombs on the town. Thousands of
ures among the Luftwaffe leaders in bombs — more than 2400 tons of high
the war. His friendship with Jeschon- explosive and 23,000 incendiaries —
nek, the Chief of Staff, must have made were dropped on the town and for-
things easier for him. tress. A single sortie took no more

Next morning I flew over Sevastopol than twenty minutes. By the time you
myself. Bombs at the feet of the army had gained the necessary altitude you
— a sine qua non as it had been before. were in the target area.
When the army wanted a decision in a With all the smoke and dust, amid
battle there were loud shouts for "that the roar of the detonations, the battle
whore, the Luftwaffe." But when it area is largely invisible to our troops
was a matter of deciding a whole cam- on the ground, though they could see
paign, such as the Moscow offensive in the bombers fly down into the wasps'
the summer of 1941, the idea was not nest which is the shrinking defense
carried through to its logical conclu- ring. The screaming descent of the
sion. Stukas and the whistling of falling
But was the taking of Sevastopol bombs seemed to make even nature
really of strategic importance? To the hold her breath. The storming troops,
German seemed more a
leaders it exposed to the pitiless heat of the
question of prestige and a political burning sun, paused for the few sec-
factor against Turkey. It was certainly onds which must have seemed an
to Russia's interest to hold it, though eternity to the defenders.
it is probable that they had "written The Russians clung to their mother
off" the garrison. At that moment it earth with unparalleled obstinacy. If
must have suited them to tie down big no other way lay open, they blew up
German forces there so that they had their forts and defense works, often a
to postpone the next part of their pro- long way underground, together with
gram. We may (Conclude that the Ger- their assailants and themselves. The
mans were led into a trap when they Russian A. A. was silenced in the first

set out so late to capture the fortress. few days so the danger to aircraft was
In all we had assembled about 400 less than in attacks on the Caucasus
Stukas, bombers, and fighters on the harbors or Russian airfields. Yet our

97
work at Sevastopol made the highest The earth drank in streams of blood
demands on men and material. 12, 14, and sweat while in the old palace of
and even up to 18 sorties were made the Tsars at Yalta the army chiefs pre-
daily by individual crews. A Ju 88 pared to celebrate victory — inciden-
with fuel tanks full made three or four tally a celebration which was to be
sorties without the crew stretching rudely disturbed by a Russian air raid.
their legs. It meant tremendous wear The when there was a
only times
and tear for the aircraft and the ground short pause was when the sun sank
staff, those unknown soldiers who behind the Black Sea, its last rays bath-
could not sleep a wink in those days ing the fortress and harbors in a blood-
and nights and were responsible for red glow. And only when the last

the safe condition of their machines. Russian soldier had fallen in the Cher-
Under the massive weight of the sonese or surrendered in the lighthouse
bomb carpets, the heavy artillery of the did the end come on July 4, 1942.
army and the "Thor" super-mortar, Such was Sevastopol, a name spell-
even the most desperate defense was ing something gruesome and horrific
bound to break down. Day by day the to all who were there. Attacker and
ring got smaller and smaller. Thou- defender alike fought with a fury
sands of German and Russian soldiers which was quite exceptional even for
died in fierce hand-to-hand fighting. this war.

98
 I
•\

PART THREE

NORTH AFRICA:
THE DESERT AIR WAR
June, 1942 -June, 1943
 Introduction
Throughout history the Mediterra-
nean has been an open highway of
conquest through which nations, king-
doms, and empires have marched to
meet their rendezvous with fate.
In 1940, the Italian air-ground
forces of empire-bent Benito Mus-
solini struck out for Egypt along the
North African coast only to be hurled
back by the British. The Italian de-
bacle was retrieved by Hitler who sent
to North Africa one of his top com-
manders, Gen. Erwin Rommel with
elite, crack Panzer Divisions supported
by strong Luftwaffe elements. This
force became known as the Afrika
Korps and by June, 1942 it had driven
the British back across the desert to El
Alamein, the last strongline before
the Nile River. At stake now was
Egypt and the Suez Canal, possession
of which by the Third Reich could
effectively choke to death an already
gasping British Empire.
The critical situation stirred an ar-
ticulate British Prime Minister Win-
ston Churchill to appeal for American
air reinforcements at once, and for
substitution of the early planned
ground invasion of Europe for one in
Africa. The Churchill arguments had
attractions: conquest of North Africa
would provide a base for an attack on
and invasion of the soft underbelly of
100
Europe; it would eliminate the pro-
Nazi Vichy-French government hold-
ing Algeria; it would free the vital
Mediterranean sea lanes — lifeline of
the free world to the Orient; it would
relieve pressure on the British Eighth
Army defending the Suez Canal and
draw German air strength from the
Russian Front where a Panzer drive
was rolling toward the Caucasus. Pres-
ident Roosevelt bought the idea.
In response, small American air re-
inforcements of B-24S and B-17S began
arriving in Egypt as early as June,
1942 and by mid-August a B-17 heavy
and B-25 medium Bomb Group (the
98th and 12th) and the 57th Fighter
Group with P-40 "Tomahawk" fight-
erswere in action with the RAF Desert
Air Force in support of Lt. Gen.
Bernard L. Montgomery's hard-pressed
Eighth Army.
Organized into Ninth Air Force,
these American units played a signifi-
cant part in the Battle of El Alamein
(October 24 — November 5, 1942)
which broke the back of the Afrika
Korps, beginning for Gen. Rommel
the great retreat out of Egypt back
into Libya and Tunisia. Controlling
the air and pounding the Afrika Korps
as it pummeled backwards out of
Egypt, the tactical Ninth and the RAF
Desert Air Forces demonstrated for
 Casualties of the El Alamein Line. An RAF repair depot convoy approaches the Gizeh Pyramids
near Cairo.

the first time the power and effective- Subjected to the full weight of
ness of coordinated air-ground effort Montgomery's coordinated air-ground
in which the first job of air force is to offensive, Rommel fell back and by
reduce the enemy air forces to impo- February, 1943 drew up to make a
tence, second to isolate the battlefield stand behind a string of fortifications
by attacks on supply and communica- in Tunisia called the "Mareth Line."
tion lines in the enemy's rear, and Meanwhile, on November 8, 1942,
third to hammer directly at enemy "Operation Torch" — the Allied in-
ground This new concept em-
forces. vasion of North Africa — got underway
ployed at El Alamein was to be further under the command of Lt. Gen.
refined during the African campaign Dwight D. Eisenhower with landings
and used through the war in Europe. at some half-dozen places along the
It was the birth of tactical airpower coast from Casablanca to Oran in
as we know it today. Algeria.

101
 The invasion met little enemy
fleet uously absent.
air resistance as troops poured ashore. Allied forces quickly drove eastward
British and U.S. Navy Carrier forces into Tunisia only to be stopped by
stood offshore to counter enemy air if Rommel within 20 miles of Tunis.
it appeared. U.S. Navy Task Force 34 Here the war bogged down as winter
Air Group, commanded by Rear Adm. storms set in. Hectic airfield construc-
Ernest D. McWhorter consisted of tion got underway to accommodate
four aircraft carriers (Ranger, Sanga- groups and squadrons pouring into
mon, Santee, and Sumnnee) with 108 North Africa with their P-40S, P-38S,
F4FS, 36 SBDs, and 27 TBFs. Aboard B-25 and B-26 medium bombers,
the Chenango were 70 P-40S of the C-47 troop carriers, and B-24 and B-17
AAF's 33rd Fighter Group under Lt. heavies.
Col. William Momeyer destined for At the same time Allied Air Forces
Port Lyautey Field at Casablanca. Be- underwent reorganization for the
ginning on November 10, these Army coming campaign. Anglo-American air
Air Force land-based fighters were units were merged into one opera-
catapulted from the Chenango in one tional force called the Northwest
of the dramatic operations of the cam- African Air Forces (NAAF) under
paign and staged through Port Lyautey Maj. Gen. Carl "Tooey" Spaatz with
Field for combat duty out of a desert subordinate units called Northwest
strip in Algeria. African Strategic Air Force under Gen.
Units of the Twelfth Air Force, Doolittle and Northwest African Tac-
staging out of airfields on Gibraltar, tical Air Force commanded by Air

began arriving on secured airfields Vice Marshall Sir Arthur Coningham,

around Oran on the afternoon of D- RAF. The NAAF was brought under
Day. the overall Mediterranean Air Com-
"Operation Torch" met little re- mand headed by the brilliant Air
sistance. The Vichy-French forces put Chief Marshall Sir Arthur W. Tedder,
up only token opposition. Algiers fell British airpower pioneer.
on D-Day, Oran on D plus 2 and by The Afrika Korps was now caught
November 11 all French Forces in between the giant pincers of the Brit-
Morocco and Algeria surrendered on ish Eighth Army supported by the
orders from the French Commander RAF Desert Air Force and U.S. Ninth
Adm. Jean Darlan, a prisoner of war. Air Force on the East, and the Anglo-
The single air opposition to the inva- British invasion forces supported by
up by four Vichy-French
sion was put the Northwest African Air Forces on
Dewoitine airplanes which attacked the west. Rommel's position was
units of the 31st Fighter Group as it precarious. Resupply and troop rein-
was landing at Oran on a flight from forcement across the narrows of the
Gibraltar. The Luftwaffe was conspic- Mediterranean through the ports of

102
While the Afrika Korps and the LuftwafFe were being beaten at El Alamein, British and American
troops were landed in French North Africa. Here a Martlet takes off from its aircraft carrier during
the landing operations.

Allied air attacks on German airfields in Tunisia continued through December 1942 and January
1943, creating the terrific loss of Axis aircraft which started Rommel on a retreat out of Africa. The
planes shown here were found at Derno Aerodrome in Tunisia.

103
 .

Bizene and Tunis held the onlv hope zerte and Tunis ground into unusable
of sustaining him, and this lifeline ruins. Allied airmen concentrated on
became a happy hunting ground for the beleaguered Afrika Korps with
Allied flyers. more than 2000 air sorties a day.
Allied air attacks on German Tuni- ^Vhile the bulk of the combat tacti-
sian airfields, supply dumps, roads, cal air missions in North Africa were

bridges and troop f>ositions continued direct support to ground forces, air-to-
through the months of December and air combat at times reached high pro-

Januarv creating a terrible attrition of portions, but never on the scale later
Axis air and ground forces, supplies experienced in Europe. This is indi-
and ammunition which Rommel could cated in the small number of aces, only
ill afford. 28 in all of Northwest African Air
On February 14. the cagev "Desert Forces. Top man of NAAF was Maj.
Fox" struck back with a ground offen- Levi R. Chase who knocked down
si\e westward through Tunisia's Kas- 12 Luftwaffe fighters during the cam-
serine Pass aimed at capturing a covey paign. He was tied by 2nd Lt. William
of new and important Allied airfields. |. Sloan of Twelfth Air Force, also
It almost succeeded, but for Allied air with 12 victories. Ninth Air Force
which was quicklv thrown into the fighter pilots destroyed 610 enemy
breach. Fighters, mediums, and hea- fighters in aerial combat, losing 227
\ ies laid down a barrage of firepower, for a i-atio of 3 to 1

halting the breakthrough and initiat- On the night of April 18-19. 9^

ing a counter air attack ^\"hich bv the heaw bombers plastered German air-

end of March had wrested control of dromes in Tunisia and by the 22nd
the air over Tunisia from the Luft- the Luftwaffe was almost non-existent.
Asaffe. It was here the North African \Vhat few planes \\ere left evacuated
Air Forces demonstrated the real mean- to Sicilian airfields.
ing of planned, organized tactical air- Rommel's plight was serious. His
power in a theatre of operations. onlv resupply now was by
and air,

In the east, the British Eighth Armv. slow, lumbering six-engine JU-52 and
spearheaded bv devastating Ninth and ME-323 transports from Sicily and Italy
Desert Air Force attacks, broke through had to run the Allied air blockade to
Rommel's strong Mareth Line fortifi- allow a trickle of men and materiel to
cations and pressed on into Tunisia reach Africa. The most notable of such
driving the Afrika Korps before it. missions was a desperate effort by 100
By day and by night Allied heavv. JU-32S and ME-323S on April 18, 1943.
medium, and fighter bombers pounded Spotted by Allied fighter patrols as
at Rommel's forces locked in the hills they skimmed low over the Mediter-
of the constricting Tunisian bridge- ranean waters, the ill-fated formation
head. With the principal ports of Bi- was pounced upon by Air Force fight-

104
 ^
*

liii.

Mitchell B-25 bombers of the United States Army Air Force and Baltimore bombers of the South
African Air Force flying together in formation on their way to attack Rommel's forces as they moved
toward Tunisia from El Alamein.

A British bomb bursts among Junkers JU-88s at one of the Luftwaffe's Tunisian airfields.

105
 A formation of B-25 bombers with on escort of P-38s engages an Axis air convoy of JU-52 planes
over the Sicilian Straits. The German air transports ore almost at water level and to the left can be
seen a B-25 in the middle of his strafing run. Twenty-six of the JU-52s were shot down.

ers in an engagement known

historic surrendered. Voluntarily, thousands
as the "Palm Sunday Massacre." More from the elite Panzer Divisions
than 70 were blasted into the sea and marched in columns, without guards,
onto the beaches. to the Allied prisoner cages to the tune
By early May the once powerful of German marching songs. Many
Afrika Korps was dislodged from the drove up in their own motorized ve-
Tunisian and driven out onto the
hills hicles for admission to a POW
camp.
coastal plain. Here, on May 6, Allied The timeless desert sands of North
tactical air forces laid down, in devas- Africa had witnessed another conquer-
tating pattern, 2146 individual bomb- ing army meet its rendezvous with
er, fighter/bomber, and fighter sorties fate.

along a 6000 yard front in advance of The "invincible Nazi," whose hob-
the U.S. First Army. This scythe of nailed boots had trampled a Continent
airpower cut a channel of death across into submission had beheld the power
the coastal plane to the city of Tunis. of Allied tactical air warfare. Though
Hopelessly and penned against
split the long, bitter road to final victory in
the sea, 270,000 Axis troops, who had Europe still lay ahead. North Africa
been ordered to fight to the last man, had paced the course.

106
 From the tactical and strategic air considerations of the desert air war to
the flyer's diet of Spam and dehydrated cabbage, an official Air Force cor-
respondent gives this incisive look into the North African campaign.

191 Days of Desert War

Maj. Arthur Gordon

"Operation torch," as the African rons and, even more disheartening,

invasion was called, was dictated by without the P-38 Lightning fighter
the activities of a man known as
then cover originally scheduled to escort
the "Desert Fox" — Rommel. As his the heavies to worthwhile targets in
panzers clanked forward on the dusty Germany.
coastal road that led to Alexandria, in At the time of "Torch," American
1941 the situation in the Mediterran- air power was already represented in
ean grew more critical. To those on Egypt by the Ninth Air Force. At the
the Allied side responsible for the start of the battle of El Alamein, Oc-
conduct of the war, became increas-
it tober 23, 1942, had 164 aircraft con-
it

ingly evident that he must be stopped. sisting of a squadron of Fortresses, a

The worst thorn in Rommel's side was squadron of Liberators, two P-40
Malta. If Malta fell and Rommel's sup- groups, and one B-25 group. These,
ply lines grew stronger, then there was plus British air strength of some 1100
every probability that Egypt would planes, were opposed by about 2000
fall too. With Egypt would go the Suez Axis planes of all types. The Luftwaffe
Canal and the Middle East. The Ger- had its hands full dealing with these
mans would flank the Russians, win guardians of Egypt. It was not equal
the Caucasian oil which they so des- to a heavy assault on its rear. The re-

perately needed and possibly link up sponsibility for that assault was given
with the Japanese in the Indian Ocean. to the Twelfth Air Force which landed
By July, 1942, the consequences of not with the invasion forces on November
stopping Rommel were so obvious and 8.

so grave that earlier plans had to be "Torch" differed sharply from sub-
shelved. Our Britain-based air offen- sequent invasions in that itwas di-
sive would have to struggle along as rected against territory held by a power
best it could, without the services of that was semi-friendly, or at worst only
some of its most experienced squad- half hostile. Adequate air cover, it was

107
thought, could be provided from car- shadows.
riers and nearby Gibraltar. There On the whole, air opposition was
were two operational plans for the in- light. Spitfires from Gibraltar made
vaders, a war plan in case the Vichy short work of such Dewoitines as of-
French forces resisted, and a peace fered resistance. Carrier-ferried P-40S
plan in case they did not. The uncer- swooped onto captured airfields. With-
tainty as towhich plan would be fol- in a day or two some heavy bombers,
lowed persisted until a few hours be- including the "veteran" 97th Group
fore H-hour. from England, were moved in. Medi-
For the invasion, an American para- ums and fighters also arrived to begin
troop force was flown from Britain in the long task of hacking at Rommel's
C-47S in the firstAmerican airborne rear guards and his supply lines.

operation of the war. Their story is Living conditions faced by these air-

worth recalling because it indicates the men were rugged, to put it mildly.
growing pains incident to any new Ground crews performed miracles of
project, in peace or war, and because ingenuity in keeping aircraft opera-
it was the small seed from which grew seemed to con-
tional in a climate that
the great vertical envelopments later sist and bottomless mud.
of dust storms
in Normandy, in Southern France, in Missions were flown on short notice,
Holland, and across the Rhine. with organization improvised on the
The planes took off on the night of spot. Fighter pilots attended bomber
November 7, expecting to receive a briefings to get a picture of the type
friendly welcome in daylight the next of mission they were being called on
day. The flight down was
rough one. a to escort.Troop Carrier dropped the
Most of the planes had been under- paratroops that captured Bone air-

going modification until a matter of drome, flew countless air supply mis-
hours before take-off. In some planes, sions, learned how to operate on a
wingtip lights burned out, making for- shoestring.
mation flying in the wretched weather But even in those early days, the
almost impossible. When the C-47S pattern of tactical support was emerg-
finally reached Africa, they found se- ing precisely as predicted by the logi-
vere fighting in progress. French fight- cians in the pre-war classrooms. First:
ers raked the defenseless transports gain air superiority. Second: iso-

with machine-gun fire, forcing several late the battlefield. Third: provide
to crash-land in the desert. These were direct cooperation with the ground
some of the difficulties, but even so the forces in the liquidation of the en-
the operation had a measure of success emy. The success of the second phase
inasmuch as the scattered arrival of the depended, obviously, on the first.

C-47S thoroughly confused the French Without air control there could be no
air defenses and had them tilting at interdiction of the battlefield. And
108
 The weary B-24 crews who harassed the retreating Afrika Korps faced rugged living conditions on
the desert.

until the battlefield was isolated, close its capacity adequately to supply itself.

cooperation could have no more than Committed to major efforts in both

local effect. All this the air planners Russia and Africa, with the growing
knew already. The African campaign weight of the RAF's night assault
was to teach them how to apply that oppressing its cities and the AAF's

knowledge successfully. Britain-based day offensive already

Air superiority was not gained in
a week, or a month. At the time
the African landings, the embryonic
Twelfth Air Force consisted of
There were 1700 miles
aircraft.
tween it and the other jaw of
Anglo-American pincer. And
Luftwaffe fought hard. But the truth
was that the GAF at this moment
its greatest territorial expansion
simply stretched beyond the limits of
casting an ominous shadow, its doom
of in Africa was sealed from the moment
our landings succeeded. The Germans
551 must have wondered in bitter after-
be- thought whether their African squad-
the rons, pulled out in time, might not
the have tipped the scale at Stalingrad.
At the time, their faith in Rommel
of was so high, and stakes for which he
was fought so glittering, that any such ad-
mission of defeat was out of the ques-

109
tion. So they fought on, until the Eastern Mediterranean, under Air
harbors of Tunisia were choked with Marshall Tedder. It was not until the
ships sunk by the AAF, and the desert end of the year that the solution of
battlefields littered with the skeletons the joint command problem found
of more than looo of their first-line clearest expression in the creation of
aircraft. the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces,
While the North African ground in which the function of air units, not
campaign was slogging through the their nationality, determined where
mud that marked the end of 1942, air they were placed and how employed.
power was slashing at Rommel's over- As the days lengthened and spring
extended supply line, blocking roads, arrived, Gen. Spaatz's forces proceeded
strafing motor columns, sinking ships, with the arduous and necessary task
and shooting down air transports. of whittling down the Luftwaffe. A
Much of the doctrine of tactical air constant problem in those early days
power was being reasserted in action: was how enough fighters to pro-
to find
that to operate effectively in conjunc- tect the bombers against the still
tion with the ground forces, you first threatening Axis air power. The orig-
must have control of the air, that when inal heavy bomber group, the 97th,
you do have such control, the primary found revenge for the pasting it had
role of tactical air power consists in taken from the GAF on its first night
attacking supply lines in the rear in Algiers by plastering Axis shipping
rather than close support in the im- and harbor facilities. In December, it
mediate battle area. New lessons were had been joined by three squadrons of
learned every day about the value of Liberators from the 92nd Group in
up the enemy air force by
softening England, who lived in the desert on
bombing airdromes before launching Spam and dehydrated cabbage, har-
a ground attack, about the importance assed Rommel's rear guards, and struck
of hand-in-glove coordination between across the Mediterranean at Naples
air and ground commanders, about and the Sicilian airdromes. Several
the necessity for integrated air forces groups of mediums, living under con-
that could act as a whole rather than ditions just as rugged, gave the Nazis
scattered squadrons operationally tied a what B-24S and B-26S
foretaste of
to a particular army or navy unit. could do. There were some bad mo-
This principle of unity of command ments in the Tunisian campaign —
was accepted at Casablanca in Janu- as, for example, when Rommel flung
ary, 1943. In the following month, the his Panzers through Kasserine Pass.
converging Twelfth and Desert Air On that occasion everything with wings
Forces were merged in the Northwest was thrown against him, even the
African Air Forces under Gen. Spaatz, heavies flying below medium altitude.
with a second air command in the But there were also red-letter days

110
like the famous Palm Sunday engage- Tunis, when weather grounded the
ment when P-40S of the 57th Group recce boys, the ground commander
caught a swarm of JU-52S and ME- flatly refused to move until his air
323s flying men and supplies to Rom- photo coverage was obtained. Flying
mel's hard-pressed forces and shot 79 P-38S (F-versions) members of the 90th
into the sea in a slaughter reminiscent Photo Recon Wing experimented with
of the Battle of Britain. night photography, and brought low-
Mediterranean Theatre of
In the level photo-recon missions — dicing
Operations (MTO) there was more missions, as they were called — to a
variety of air combat — if not more state of development which was in-
heroism — than was dreamed of in valuable later on in Italy and still later
Northern Europe at that time. High-, in the battles of France and Germany.
medium-, and low-level bombing, They got little recognition for their
bridge-busting, strafing of armored work — photo
recon was strictly hush-
columns and airdromes, skip bombing hush in those days — but they came to
of Axis shipping — all these tactics be acknowledged as the real eyes of the
and many others appeared in the 191 army. To the long-range planners, with
days between the landings in North an eventual D-day in mind, their work
Africa and the collapse of the Axis proved beyond question that complete
forces there. photo-coverage of the invasion area
It was in this period, too, thatan and its defenses would be indispen-
aerial weapon whose had
potentialities sable to successful landings.
never been fully exploited began to be With the final collapse of the Axis
recognized as the indispensable aid to African forces on May 18, 1943, air
modern warfare. In 1939, one of Ger- power was free to turn its attention
many's best generals, Werner von across the Mediterranean to what Mr.
Fritsch, had predicted that the side Churchill had once called the "soft
with the best aerial photo-reconnais- underbelly" of the Axis. The North-
sance would win the war. In Britain, west African Air Forces was, by this
the RAF had skilled photo-interpreters time, a battle-hardened aggregation of
assessing bomb damage in making nearly 4000 aircraft, with 2630 Amer-
target selections based on high alti- ican airplanes, 1076 British, and 94
tude photos brought back by unarmed French. The first Axis target to feel
Spitfires or Mosquitoes. A squadron of the weight of its blows was Pantelleria.
American Lightnings, profiting by Between May 30 and June 11, this
RAF experience, was almost opera- heavily-fortified Italian island rocked
tional. But it was in Africa that tactical under more than 6000 tons of bombs
reconnaissance proved itself invaluable and finally capitulated without a
to the ground forces. At one point ground assault — the first territorial
during the final stages of the drive on conquest to be achieved solely through

111
air power. It was a great victory, and a while gaining fighter fields indispen-
relatively cheap one: we lost 63 air- sable for the invasion of Sicily. It was
craft and claimed 236 of the enemy's a great victory. . . .

Tobruk, key port on the North African Coast between Bengali and the
Nile River, was overwhelmed on June 20, 1942 by Rommel's Afrika Corps
in the final all-out attempt to seize the Suez Canal. The British garrison of
2^,000 soldiers were captured and imprisoned, and the Rommel forces
rolled to a stop before El Alamein, high point of the German advance.
All the northern Mediterranean shore and all of the southern shore up
to Alexandria, Egypt was now in enemy hands, and Rommel's supplies
could flow straight across the Mediterranean without interruptions. Main
bases for German supply ships were the Libyan ports of Tobruk and
Bengazi. The fall of Egypt was imminent, in fact many of the hotels in
Cairo already had their menus printed in German and Rommel had stated
he would make his headquarters at the Shepherds Hotel.
Bengazi and Tobruk immediately became prime targets for RAF twin-
engine Wellington bombers and American B-24S and B-iys which were
hastily sent to the Middle East. The whole Western Mediterranean, from
Greece to Crete and down to Africanow became hunting grounds for
Allied flyers ranging out of Egypt and Palestine. In four months every
single tanker trying to reinforce Rommel was sunk in those waters; 8 out
of 10 ships bound for Tobruk and Bengazi were sent to the bottom, many
in the port city's harbors.
Tobruk began to feel the weight of Allied air bombardment shortly
after its capture by the Germans. So vital was it to the Germans that the
heaviest possible anti-aircraft artillery and fighter plane defense was
thrown up against the nightly British and American raids. So vital was it
for the British to deny Tobruk's port facilities to Rommel that on the night
of September 1^-14, 1942, commandos were sent ashore in a vain effort to
block the harbor and disrupt the city.
That night the port city and its harbor were turned into a ghastly in-
ferno. Twenty to thirty British "Wimpys" (Wellingtons) wove into and
out of the target area dropping flares while overhead U.S. heavies unloaded
tons of TNT. The violent explosion of an ammunition dump was felt by
American flyers five miles up. Offshore naval warships added heavy streams
of shells into the city.
From the cockpit of a B-ij five miles above the holocaust of Tobruk
that night a B-iy pilot describes this unearthly scene.

112
 Midnight Raid on Tobruk
Capt. Rowan T. Tliomas

Our crew looked like weird creatures compartment is glass and from certain
from Mars or fictional characters out angles these lights may be seen by a
of the pages of Jules Verne or H. G. fighter above us.

Wells trussed up in their oxygen When I took the controls I recog-

masks, heavy fleece-lined leather jack- nized the high altitude feel that a plane
ets, and large flying boots. Maj. Fennell gets flying at 25,000 feet. Our air speed
and I had only masks and safety belts indicated 140 and I knew that by add-
on, as we needed freedom of move- ing two miles an hour for every 1000
ment to meet every emergency. feet of true altitude I could approxi-
The stars seemed so close that we mate my speed at 180, although more
felt we could reach out and grasp them. accurate computation is left to the nav-
This is a common illusion over the igator. We must rely on the navigator's
desert. The
angular distance down to instruments and take no chances. Noth-
the city ofTobruk was only 5° or 10°, ing is what it seems to be to the naked
but we knew it was probably 40 miles eye. We cannot completely trust our
— or 13 minutes — before we would mental and physical reactions in high
be over it. Our only indication there altitudes.
was an earth beneath us was the bril- Maj. Fennell again took the wheel
liant bursts of bombs and gun fire. and kept up a continuous conversation
Maj. Fennell spoke to Bombardier with Bombardier Taulbee as we neared
Taulbee over the interphone: "How's the target. It certainly looked red-hot
the visibility. Sergeant?" Taulbee, who beneath us.
had been with the major since he left A furious battle was being waged
the States, replied, "Visibility not good, down below where the peninsula of
sir. I cannot distinguish enough of Tobruk jutted out into the Mediter-
the ground to bomb." ranean. We could not tell water from
"Judge, take the controls," the major land, but we could see terrific fire we
exclaimed, as we skirted to our right, knew was coming from British and
east of the town. He checked his light- American naval units at sea. From the
ing and adjusted his panel light lower intensity and regularity of the flashes
so enemy fighters above could not spot we could determine about where our
us from the glow. The top of the pilot's naval ships were. Seven or eight quick

113
flashes a split-second apart ran down tail and
roes of combat, the tough little
the line of the ships' guns. bottom gunners, freezing at their posts,
The ships had closed in a few miles where there is no engine heat.
from shore and were pouring broad- Tonight we had been ordered to
sides into the peninsula. On land, the stay over the target at least 30 minutes.
German artillery fired from three sides, Thirty minutes hanging between life

setting up a deadly raking crossfire. and death!

The whole area beneath us was a seeth- "Let's make the run," snorted Maj.
ing inferno. Fennell. "And make it short."
God be with the commandos tonight, I called Bombardier Taulbee. "Co-
I thought. If those poor devils can live pilot to bombardier: prepare to make
through this, we haven't any right to bombing run!"
be afraid. We're much safer than the Our aerial fleet was not in formation j
boys who are landing from those ships — it was every man for himself. We ^
in marshy mud, in the face of steep were flying singly but had instructions
cliffs blazing hellfire. as to our direction of flight so we
I wondered if the commandos had wouldn't collide in mid-air. ^

fought their way into the city. Would We spotted a red glow. Was it a fire 1
it be possible for them to take the or a searchlight? One mistake might
heavily-fortified stronghold? Would mean our lives. We it was a
decided
they be able to reach the 20,000 Allied flare dropped by English low-altitude
prisoners held by the Germans and "Wimpys" for us to bomb by. They
give them arms according to plan? were flitting below us like flies around
Our Flying Fortress was now in the a drop of molasses.
zone of intense AA fire. Something was "Whew!" whistled the major.
wrong with our props; then I remem- "Look! Look!"
bered we had desynchronized them to "Thar she blows!" I shouted, as a
deceive detector devices. Bingo! here ring of searchlights encompassed our
we were, hanging over the boiling entire zone.
cauldron. Seven or eight searchlights Flaming onions left behind by the
leaped into the black night, searching British filled the sky. Hundreds of
the skies near us. The fireworks we guns thundered and blazed at the
had been observing so calmly were planes below us. Big balls of dazzling
now meant for us. Every second might brilliancy came up in long, slightly
bring a fighter, pouring cannon and arching courses and exploded a dis-
machine-gun fire into our sides. tance from us.
We jerked up our oxygen masks and "Drop your bombs on that flare!"
talked quickly, instantly clamping Maj. Fennell called to Bombardier
them down again. The crew were at Taulbee. "This is it!"
their battle stations, those unsung he- I glanced at the PDI — it was flicked

114
on. When the PDI (about the size of or middle mark and at last we heard
the hour hand on an ordinary clock) the voice of our bombardier.
flicks on, you are in your greatest dan- "Bombs away, sir!"

ger. If you can stay on that straight We dropped three 500-pounders.

course for just a few seconds without Flashes came back to our eyes. Glanc-
being hit, you probably will make the ing down to my right I gazed, fasci-
raid okay. when you fly this
It is nated. Almost five miles below us I

straight course,which is necessary for could see a pattern of red objects. They
bombing, that your life is at stake. were about the size of red cannon balls
This is the time when the enemy tries coming up in a perfect square pattern.
to hit you. He knows where you will As they came higher each missile got
have to be to make a bomb run on his hotter and farther apart. This was the
most valuable positions, so here he enemy's answer to our bomb.
concentrates his fire. Unless you live "Turn left," I said to the major,
those few seconds safely the target is tapping him on the shoulder. He raised
lost. This is and the pay-off. If
the test out of his seat to see what I was point-
the enemy doesn't do something he is ing at and then turned swiftly to the
a gone duck. This is the flier's most left. A barrage that looked like an acre
anxious moment — the moment before of melting explosives zoomed right up
he drops his bombs. where we were a few seconds ago.
Our target was a land area tonight. Molten steel in square patterns, each
We could bomb the flare inside the bullet the same space apart, jarred us
AA ring and be sure of hitting the violently. Powerful rays of a search-
enemy area. I wondered if Taulbee light held us. We squirmed out of that
would do as well tonight as he did in hot bed.
China when he had blown up Gen- Following a path southward for a
eralissimo Chiang Kai-shek's practice short time, and then changing altitude
shacks so accurately that the General- 1000 feet higher, we made the turn
issimo sent a special messenger to plead which would place us on our second
with him to stop. bombing run exactly 1 80° opposite. A
The PDI, instead of going to direct few seconds elapsed before a lurid,
center, needled to the right and left pinkish glow emblazoned the entire
as the bombardier got the range. Two sky.
or three cushioned puffs jarred us. I turned to Harry Schilling, who
Three searchlights cutting through us had now come out of his turret to stand
told us we were nearly hit. I hoped no behind us, and put my thumbs down.
shrapnel had lodged in the motors to He did the same, smiling broadly. We
force us down later. both realized our bombs had hit some-
"Settle down, Taulbee!" called Maj. thing terrific. When bombs burst five
Fennell. The PDI settled in the neutral miles beneath one, they ordinarily

115
look like penny firecrackers through one on the top and the other on the
the night haze and clouds. But ours bottom of the hapless "Wimpy." The
had burst likehuge cannon crackers. lights seemed to go right through the
"Sir," calledRadio Operator Mc- plane and make an inverted pattern in
Junkins, "we must have hit an ammu- the sky. He was a white moth being
nition dump. Did you see that hell of caught and devoured by rays of flame.
an explosion?" Suddenly the "Wimpy" burst into a
Maj. Fennell looked at me and ball of fire and plummeted to the
smiled. We now made our last turn for earth.*
the second bomb run. I motioned to "God rest your soul," I muttered.
the major to stay away from the north Then I added, "I hope when you crash
tip as our Intelligence had warned us. you'll take a hundred of the s.o.b.s who
He nodded. I pointed at the clock, and caused this war with you."
then at the gas gauges, showing we had The ruthless raysnow shifted onto
been over the target 25 minutes. He another stray "Wimpy" who had come
nodded again as we changed altitude to the aid of his brother. He fell into
to throw off the AA range finders. the clutches of the beams and went
Just as we got to the edge of the tumbling down from the night skies to
"hot circle," 29 searchlights swept into join him in death. British "Wimpy"
the skies. Behind them were radio- pilots flew in low pattern against the
controlled guns. These 29 guns oper- greatest of odds. They did a heroic
ated automatically with 29 lights, all job this night. After what I saw then I

situated in a circle around one master never wanted to hear again criticism
beam. of the British as fighters.
Simultaneously these rays caught a The searchlightbegan probing
"Wimpy" about 400 feet up in the around us. The ack-ack was coming
clearing — one of those stalwart pilots entirely too close. We slipped away for
who flew delicate, fabric-covered air- a few minutes and then came back at
planes with only one gun turret and a a different altitude. Our given time
top speed of 140! had elapsed, and Maj. Fennell ordered
We saw that stubby, brave, little air- a quick run at the target to drop all
plane scurrying to avoid that formid- our remaining bombs in rapid succes-
able avalanche of radio-controlled, sion. Explosions underneath our For-
beam-synchronized fire. He would be tress raised it ten feet in the air three
written off the books in less than five successive times.
seconds. • It took sheer, raw guts to fly "Wimpy" missions

The searchlights formed a beautiful

geometrical pattern of blue rays,
sembling two funnel spouts together.
This cone of blinding light converged.
and the RAF boys who did it drew highest ad-
miration from friend and enemy alike. At one
re- time a "Wimpy" outfit moved up front with 52
planes. In six weeks, it had 6 left. When asked
how it was, the RAF commander replied in typ-
ical British phrase: "It was a bit sticky."

16
 "The devils are giving us everything the "hot circle." All we had to watch
they've got tonight," I said to the for now were fighters on our trail, cun-
major. He was too absorbed in his ningly scheming to follow us back to
duty to reply. our landing field and pounce on us
Over the target again, we spied a when we were nearly out of gas.
flare justdropped by our boys in me- It was terrifically cold as we turned

dium bombardment below us. As they
scampered away we heard the familiar
voice of Bombardier Taulbee again:
"Bombs away, sir!"
Our entire load hurtled down
stream of destruction. Flames again
showed thatTaulbee had hit the target.
Our run had been straight across
the target, some four minutes for the
run and some six minutes to get out of
homeward. Every time I shut my jaws
they would pop at the hinges. I had to
blow air in my cheeks to keep from
biting them when I closed my mouth.
in a My eyes were streaming tears. Look-
ing down on that 50-mile radius of
fierce combat, which was to continue
throughout the night, I knew these
were the last moments of many brave
men.

An RAF Halifax bomber is readied for a night raid on Rommel's positions.

 By day the RAF Desert Air Force and the American Ninth scoured the
barren desert with their light and medium bombers, dive bombers and
fighter strafing sweeps.
Two air weapons in particular threw fear and terror into the Axis
troops: the Hurricane "Tank Busters" — the famed Battle of Britain
an anti-tank weapon, and the swift, versatile,
fighter specially modified as
deadly twin-engine British Beaufighter used on low-level air strikes deep
intoenemy territory.
Here American war correspondent Gordon Gaskill describes in vivid
prose a "Beau" sweep across 600 miles of desert from Egypt to the Nazi
airdrome at Derna, Libya. To the steel-nerved pilots of the Desert Air
Force it was a routine mission, just another day's work which might draw
a 2yword communique from headquarters.
To Gaskill, it was a ride at . . .

Fifteen Feet Above Hell

Gordon Gaskill

Bertie was commanding to-day's flight. plane, one of the deadliest planes in
But ten minutes before the zero hour the world. And a parachute does you
we were still playing darts. He made no good, because a Beaufighter flies at
two bull's-eyes in six throws; I barely an enormous speed only 15 feet above
hit the board. The radio was playing the ground. You never have a chance
"The Land of Hope and Glory" from to bail out. The Italians call the Beau-
London, and most of the other pilots fighter the "Wrath of God," and the
in the mess were humming and sing- Italians should know, because, for
ing. them, been the curse of Libya.
it's

Five minutes before zero hour Bertie I think it is the most beautiful but

said, "We'd better fix you up with a most murderous plane that ever flew
parachute." Then he grinned and the heavens. It is an all-metal mono-
added, "Not that it willdo you any plane with twin 1500-horsepower en-
good." For to-day I was doing what gines. It's the fastest in the Mideast —
very American correspondents
few well over 300 miles an hour. Heavy
have ever done before — I was flying armor plating turns the machine-gun
into actual battle as the third and extra bullets. Above all, the guns are unbe-
man aboard a Beaufighter mystery lievably powerful. There's a small

18
 Their low-level strafing mission "on," two Royal Air Force Beaufighter pilots run for their airplanes.

button on the wheel, just under the I stood directly behind the pilot,
thumb. When you touch it, six
pilot's hanging on to two tubular pipes above
machine guns and four cannons spit me. I was to stand there nearly five

out a solid sheet of death — irresistible hours. After a while I discovered that
as lightning. The devil himself should I could hunch my shoulders and wedge
pilot a Beaufighter. myself between the pipes, thus leaving
We climbed into the plane. The my hands free to take notes.
observer squeezed past me and inched was a beautiful day, and hard to
It

toward his plastic teardrop in the stern. believe that our four planes were fly-
Then Bertie climbed in. He wore ing off to kill, burn, and destroy. The
shorts, socks, suede shoes, a short- sky was splotched by small, drifting
sleeved shirt, and a blue pullover a clouds, and their shadows mottled the
girl in London had knitted for him. desert.Over our own territory, we flew
He wore a flying helmet, but car-
also 1500 feet. Whenever we passed a body
hand a battered old felt hat.
ried in his of troops Bertie pulled a lever to give
That was for good luck; he always flew the signal that identified us as a friend.
with it. This is important. Three days before,

119
a Beaufighter had been shot down by closely that the rolling hills hid us
British anti-aircraft ack-ack. The plane from ground observers. Flying so low,
hit the ground250 miles an hour
at no enemy fighters could get beneath
and was destroyed, but I had a drink us, and they were afraid to dive at us

that same night with the pilot. He had for fear of hitting the ground.
only a slight cut over his right eye. He We flew at enormiOus speed, and
wasn't a bit sore. still the throttles were not wide open.
"They would have been ruddy fools It was breath-taking and fantastically
not to shoot at me," he said. "I was a dangerous. To a pilot flying so fast
little late signaling." and so low, the desert has a hypnotic
At we got our
battle headquarters effect that numbs his judgment. It is

final orders: We
were to fly 300 miles
into hostile Libya and shoot up an
enemy airdrome next to Derna on the
Mediterranean coast. This is the most
dangerous work of all, because air-
dromes are well guarded. It was past
lunchtime, but we were not hungry.
Each of us ate four biscuits smeared
easy to drop lowerand lower by inches,
then by feet, until you fly into the
ground. Several pilots have done that.
Others have torn off their wingtips on
telephone poles. The merest wrong
touch means instant death. Now I
understood what the other pilots meant
last night when they told me: "Punch

with bully beef. A corporal brought us Bertie in the ribs every once in a while
a thermos jug of hot tea. Then we to wake him up."
were off again. Several times I thought I saw the
A dense tangle of barbed wire sep- sea, but the waters vanished as we
arates Egypt from Libya. Once across winged toward them. The flat desert
it, the Beaufighters went into their dropped away behind us. The ground
unique and terrible battle positions. became rougher and the wadies, desert
Bertie looked back at the other three ravines, deeper. As the land rolled, so
planes, waggled his wings, and edged we flew. We dipped down into each
the stick forward. The plane darted valley and lifted just in time to clear
toward the earth. I could distinguish the next ridge and dip again. Always
every pebble when we finally leveled 15 feet up; I looked out the window and
off not more than 15 feet above the saw the three other "Beaus" winging
ground. We flew at that height, and along close behind. We were like the
often lower, the entire time we were albatross I had once seen in the South
in enemy territory. Atlantic, almost dipping his wings in
When low were almost in-
flying so the sea. We were birds, too — birds of
visible. An enemy plane above us death.
probably would never see us. Our Once we shot over a herd of camels
camouflage melted perfectly into the grazing in the desert brush. They
desert. We hugged the ground so didn't even look up as we approached.
120
because, by some devilish miracle of eased the stick back, and we shot up to
engineering, you can't hear a Beau- 200 feet. Then he put the nose down
fighter coming toward you. All the gently, and we came diving in at the
noise goes out the rear, and you don't blockhouse. He touched the firing

hear a sound until it is directly on top button. Beneath me a murderous giant

of you. Then it's too late. Camels fled began clearing his throat. A solid sheet
in terror only when we nearly sheared of death spat from our four cannons
them. and six guns. Our
fire plowed up the

We came at last to an arm of the sea. earth. A cloud of choking powder

Our target was only ten minutes away. smoke swept through the plane.
In the alleyway behind me, the sergeant The royal flag of Italy was flying
had been fitting drums of shells into serenely from a staff. On the ground, a
the cannons. He closed bulletproof man was running for safety to the
steel doors at my back. Bertie turned blockhouse. He never got there. I saw
the firing knob on the wheel, so that it his white face turned up, and I could
now read "FIRE" instead of "SAFE," imagine how terror bubbled up within
He was just in time. Suddenly, on him as he saw for the last time in his
the left, we saw an Italian blockhouse, life the"Wrath of God" upon him,
a sort of tiny fort. We had never meant swift and inexorable as doom. I saw
to approach it, but it was too late now our bullets march toward him and
to hide. We couldn't risk having a over him, and I saw him lying motion-
warning telephoned ahead. Our slight less on the ground like a discarded doll

error in navigation was fatal — but not as we roared over him.

for us. Our shells marched up to the block-
The "Beaus" were four dark angels house, where they were still firing at

wheeling sharply toward the block- us. Sixteen cannon and 24 machine-
house. Bertie didn't look like a clerk guns of the four "Beaus" tore at the

now. Those blue eyes that a few white walls. The firing ceased. Bertie
months ago were scanning columns of gunned the engine. The plane leaped
figures were now pressed to sights. The forward as we fled away. Barely in
hands that used to work an adding ma- time, he jerked back the stick to clear
chine were ready at the firing button. the hill beyond the blockhouse. We
Puffs of smoke broke out from the were sure no one would give the alarm.
blockhouse. They'd seen us, but we We sped on. We crossed two more
never saw their shells. All my in- ridges, and there, dead ahead, was the
stincts cried out for greater speed, but airdrome, with tents shining white in
Bertie didn't touch the throttle. If we the sunlight. We banked sharply and
our fire would be too
flew too fast stole away to the east, following a con-
widely on the ground. It
spaced cealing valley up to the very edge of
wouldn't do enough damage. Bertie the drome. Once again we darted up
121
to 200 feet. Once again we nosed again, and again our guns belched out
down. Once again Bertie touched the death irresistible. Bullets and incen-

firing button. diary shells, explosive and solid. Three

The Germans and the Italians on grounded planes, two German and
the ground never heard us coming. one Italian, were destroyed. The tents
They never had a chance. I saw about were cut to ribbons. A gasoline truck
eight of them lounging about the tent, vanished in a spurt of flame. A column
and we left them still lounging — in of black smoke spread and began rising.
death. Our shots fell just to the right We fled for home then, our throt-
of a large truckful of men. They be- tles wide open, darting back into the

gan running, but the Beaufighter on valley for They followed us

safety.

our left cut them down. The truck we saw tracers smoking
with guns, and
burst into flames and overturned. over and under us. Some hit us, we
We were nearly past the drome now. found later, but did no damage. A
We saw on the ground the bones of Beaufighter can take it.

the planes already destroyed, for Beau- I looked out and back to see how
fighters had been here before. Away the flight had fared. The other three
from the drome, the four of us banked were there, safe and beautiful, one on
again sharply and beautifully to the the right, two on the left. We skipped
left, like lazy birds, and headed back over rude Italian fortifications built
again. This time, they were better pre- into cliffs and wadies, all apparently
pared for us. I saw a gunner on the untenanted. Once Bertie thought he
side of a plateau with a machine-gun, saw a gunner aiming at us, and he
and his tracer bullets spat at us. A bul- touched the firing button for the last
let smashed against the windshield, 18 time that day. A spot on the ground
inches from my face. Thank God, it burst into dust, but when we winged
was bulletproof! The pilot tapped the over we saw no one was there. In all
button and the man with the
lightly, the 600 miles of Libya, except for the
machine-gun fell down. I do not think blockhouse and airdrome, we never
he saw our wings or heard our thunder saw a soul. Only the desert — barren,
as we flashed over him. cold,and lifeless, like the face of the
Now we were over the airdrome moon.

122
 There was none better loved by the fighting man of World War II than
Ernie Pyle, war correspondent, friend of generals and privates.
Ernie traveled the war fronts of the world, always up where the fight-
ing was. His stories expressed what most men could feel, see, and think,
but could not say.
During the North African campaign Ernie Pyle did a stint with a B-iy
squadron at an airbase somewhere in the desert. His moving description
of a mission return has become a classic in the literature of air war.

Miracle at Sunset
EJrnie Pyle

It was late afternoon at our desert but the thought of ten lost friends cast

airdrome. The sun was lazy, the air a pall over us. We had already seen
was warm, and a faint haze of propeller death that afternoon. One of the re-
dust hung over the field, giving it soft- turning Fortresses had released a red
ness. It was time for the planes to start flare over the field, and I had stood
coming back from their mission, and with others beneath the great plane as

one by one they did come — big Fly- they handed its head down-
dead pilot,

ing Fortresses and fiery little Light- ward, through the escape hatch onto a
nings. Nobody paid a great deal of stretcher.
attention, for this returning was a The faces of his crew were grave,
daily routine thing. and nobody talked very loud. One
were all in — all, that
Finally, they man clutched a leather cap with blood
is, except one. Operations reported a on it. The pilot's hands were very
Fortress missing. Returning pilots said white. Everybody knew the pilot. He
it had lagged behind and lost altitude was so young, a couple of hours before.
just after leaving the target. The last The war came inside us then, and we
report said the Fortress couldn't stay felt it deeply.
in the air more than five minutes. After the last report, half a dozen of
Hours had passed since then. So it was us went to the high control tower. We
gone. went there every evening, for two
Ten men were in that plane. The things — to watch the sunset, and to
day's accomplishments had been great, get word on the progress of the German

123
 As described by Ernie Pyle, many B-17s returned to their bases in North Africa with engines out
and otherwise badly damaged. The crew of this returning Flying Fortress was lucky. They had to
feather only one engine — number three.

bombers that frequently came just after Men talked in low tones about the
dusk to blast our airdrome. dead pilot and the lost Fortress. We
The sunsets in the desert are truly thought we would wait a few minutes
things with souls. The violences of more to see if the Germans were com-
their color is incredible. They splatter ing over.
the sky and the clouds with a surging And then an electric thing hap-
beauty. The mountains stand dark pened. Far off in the dusk a red flare

against the horizon, and palm trees shot into the sky. It made an arc
silhouette themselves dramatically against the dark background of the
against the fiery west. mountains and fell to the earth. It

As we stood on the tower looking couldn't be anything had to be.

else. It

down over this scene, the day began The ten dead men were coming home!
folding itself up. Fighter planes, which "Where's the flare gun? Gimme a
had patrolled the field all day, were green flare!" yelled an officer.
coming in. All the soldiers in the tent He ran to the edge of the tower,
camps had finished supper. That noise- shouted, "Look out below!" and fired
less peace that sometimes comes just a green rocket into the air. Then we
before dusk hung over the airdrome. saw the plane — just a tiny black speck.
124
It seemed almost on the ground, it would help the Germans if they came
was so low, and in the first glance we on schedule with their bombs. But
could sense that was barely moving,
it nobody cared. Our ten dead men were
barely staying in the air. Crippled and miraculously back from the grave.
alone, two hours behind all the rest, it And what a story they had to tell!
was dragging home.
itself Nothing quite like it had happened
I was a layman, and no longer of the before in this war.
fraternity that flies, but I could feel. The Tripoli airdrome, which was
And moment I felt something
at that their target, was heavily defended, by
close to human love for that faithful, both fighter planes and anti-aircraft
battered machine, that far dark speck guns. Flying into that hailstorm, as
struggling toward us with such pa- one pilot said, was like a mouse at-

thetic slowness. tacking a dozen cats.

All of us stood tense, hardly remem- The Thunderbird, for that was the
bering anyone else was there. With all name of their Fortress, was first hit

our nerves we seemed to pull the just as dropped its bomb load. One
it

plane toward us. I suspect a photograph engine went out. Then a few moments
would have shown us all leaning later the other engine on the same side
slightly to the left. Not one of us went. When both engines went out on
thought the plane would ever make the same side it was usually fatal. And
the field, but on it came — so slowly therein lay the difference of that feat
that it was cruel to watch. from other instances of bringing dam-
It reached the far end of the air- aged bombers home.
drome, still holding its pathetic little The Thunderbird was forced to
skimmed over the tops of
altitude. It drop below the other Fortresses. And
parked planes, and kept on, actually the moment a Fortress dropped down
reaching out — it seemed to us — for or lagged German fighters
behind,
the runway. A few hundred yards were on it The boys
like vultures.
more now. Could it? Would it? Was it didn't know how many Germans were
truly possible? in the air, but they thought there must
They cleared the last plane, they have been 30.
were over the runway. They settled Our Lightning fighters, escorting
slowly. The wheels touched softly. And the Fortresses, stuck by the Thunder-
as the plane rolled on down the run- bird and fought as long as they could,
way th€ thousands of men around that but had to leave or they
finally they

vast field suddenly realized that they wouldn't have had enough fuel to
were weak and that they could hear make it home.
their hearts pounding. The last fighter left the crippled
The last of the sunset died, and the Fortress about 40 miles from Tripoli.
sky turned into blackness, which Fortunately, the swarm of German

125
fighters started home at the same time, along. Once I almost wanted to reach
for their gas was low too. a foot down and sort of walk us along
The Thunderbird flew on another over the pass."
20 miles. Then a single German fighter And the navigator said, "If I had
appeared, and dived at them. Its guns been on the wingtip, I could have
did great damage to the already crip- touched the ground with my hand
pled plane, but simply couldn't knock when we went through the pass."
it out of the air. The air currents were bad. One
Finally the fighter ran out of ammu- wing was cocked away down. It was
nition and left. Our boys were alone hard to hold. The pilots had a horrible
with their grave troubles. Two engines fear that the low wing would drop
were gone, most of the guns were out clear down and they'd roll over and go
of commission, and they were still into a spin. But they didn't.
more than 400 miles from home. The The navigator came into the cock-
radio was out. They were losing alti- pit,and he and the pilots navigated
tude, 500 feet a minute — and then the plane home. Never for a second
they were down to 2000. could they feel any real assurance of
The pilot called up his crew and making it. They were practically rigid,
held a consultation. Did they want to but they talked a blue streak all the
jump? They all said they would ride time,and cussed — as airmen do.
the plane as long as it was in the air. Everything seemed against them.
He decided to keep going. The gas consumption doubled, squan-
The ship was completely out of dering their precious supply. To top
trim, cocked over at a terrible angle. off their misery, they had a bad head-
But they gradually got it trimmed so wind. The gas gauge went down and
that it stopped losing altitude. down.
By then they were down to 900 feet, At last the navigator said they were
and a solid wall of mountains ahead only 40 miles from home, but those 40
barred the way homeward. They flew miles passed as though they were driv-
along parallel to those mountains for a ing a horse and buggy. Dusk, coming
long time, but they were then miracu- down on the sandy haze, made the vast
lously gaining some altitude. Finally flat desert an indefinite thing. One

they got the thing to 1500 feet. oasis looked exactly like another. But
The lowest pass was 1600 feet, but they knew when they were near home.
they came across at 1500. Explain that Then they shot their red flare and
if you can! Maybe it was as the pilot waited for the green flare from our
said: "We didn't come over the moun- control tower. A minute later it came
tains, we came through them." — the most beautiful sight that crew
The co-pilot said, "I wasblowing on had ever seen.
the windshield trying to push her When the plane touched the ground
126
they cut the switches and let
For it had no brakes. At the end of
the roll the big Fortress veered off the
side of the runway. It climaxed
toric homecoming by spinning madly
around five times and then running
backwards for 50 yards before it
stopped. When they checked the gas
gauges, they found one tank dry and
the other down to 20 gallons.
it roll. more minutes and they never would
have made it. The weary, crippled
Fortress had flown for the incredible
its his- time of four and one-half hours on one
pair of motors. Any pilot will tell you
it's impossible.
Perhaps the real climax was that
during the agonizing homeward crawl
that one crippled plane shot down the
fantastic total of six German fighters.

Deep dusk enveloped the field. Five The score was officially confirmed.

Adversity has produced some of the best humor of the air war. Such is
the case with a B-24 crew who absorbed a giant share of flak over the
German stronghold of Bizerte on the Tunisian coast in December, 1942.
Bizerte was what U.S. flyers called a "dirty run." Its defenders were "flak
happy" and well they should be for this key port was the main entry point
for Axis troops and supplies which funneled down through the Italian
peninsula and On this occasion, the B-iy had already lost two en-
Sicily.

gines and three feet of wing when a stray flak fragment shorted the elec-
trical circuit of the bail-out buzzer, causing the buzzer to go off acciden-
tally. Crew members in the rear compartments lost no time hitting the

silk. There was one, however, whose posterior was so large he could not

slip through the small escape hatch.

Have 'Chute, Can't Jump!

Lt. H. M. Locker

It was the day after Christmas. Swinging north and back west for
We took our regular place, number our run on the target we could see the
three in the last element of the forma- flak hopping all around the planes in

tion, and off to Bizerte we went. We the first element. I knew it would get
flew east past docks south of the town worse as element after element of three
just far enough to miss the flak. ships came up to the bomb release

127
line. And our B-24 was the last of the flak,but we were too busy to turn and
group. began to fall back fast.
Every plane was leaving a beautiful Right down flak alley we flew. The
vapor trail to flak and fight-
guide the constantly bursting shells and shrap-
ers to us. Now we were in the stuff. It nel hitting the plane reminded me of
was bursting all around in those greasy a sudden hail storm heard from the
black puffs. Many times the ship inside of a tin shed. I managed to get
bounced from an explosion. Someone the fire out of number four, but num-
in the rear called out, "We're hit," but ber three was stubborn and burned
we could feel no difference on the more fiercely. I finally feathered it.

controls. It was time for the bombs to Number four still was running, but
go. We were loaded with six 1000- it was not much use. The vibration

pounders. I watched the bomb release shook the whole ship. The blaze com-
light blink six times. ing out of the trailing edge of the
I turned then for a look at Tom wing grew larger and larger. I knew it
Borders, flying number two in the was burning around the gas tank and
"Birmingham Blitzkrieg," letting his would soon cause an explosion.
bombs go. I've always had a mania for About that time all hell popped
watching those beautiful golden eggs loose. All our guns were blazing at
come sliding out. This time I wish I seven FW-igos that had just attacked
had curbed my curiosity, for just as right through the flak. Suddenly a hole
my eyesfound him there was a blind- about two feet square appeared in the
ing flash and the loudest explosion I've wing where number-three gas tank is
ever heard. I saw the tail of Tom's ship located, and flames shot out. It must
fly backward, then down toward the have been a hit from the bottom be-
ground five miles below. It was the cause the fire in number three gradu-
only visible piece of the ten-man crew ally dwindled to the burning of oil. We
and airplane. A direct flak hit in his called for the P-38S to come up and
bomb bay had set off three tons of help us, but the message probably
TNT. When the flash and smoke never went through. Enemy fighters
cleared there just wasn't anything left. kept hitting us in the rear,
But right now we were having our Harry Lawrence, our pilot, hadn't
own troubles. I remember saying, said a word so I told the crew to put
"Poor boys, God bless them," and, in on and then go back to
their chutes
the same instant I saw our right wing- their guns. Just then one fighter got
tip curl up. About three feet had been our instrument panel and windshields
broken off by the explosion. Number- with a 2omm shell. It exploded right
three and number-four engines were in front of Harry, and for a second I

just starting to burn. The rest of the thought his face was bleeding as he
formation turned north to avoid the looked toward me. I knew I was hit

128
too because blood was running into ruptly. I knew we had an elevator
my eyes and oxygen mask. I jerked off knocked Harry and I were shoving
off.

my glasses and threw them to the floor. forward with all our might making for
I thought my right eye had been the clouds still below us. Though our
knocked out. guns were going constantly, we were
The same shot had shorted the para- almost helpless. The fighters kept com-
chute bell so Fozzy bailed out. ing in raking the ship from one end to
After Fozzy Buck was going to
. . . the other.But the flak had stopped.
follow, but with his broad beam and At last the clouds closed around us,
seat-pack chute he couldn't quite and the men cheered up.
squeeze through the escape hatch. He But instrument flying without in-
tried so desperately, however, that he struments is no fun when you have
. . . came crawling out of the nose only two engines and a rudder to help
with the seat of his breeches torn you. Somehow we came out below
nearly out. Tapping me on the shoul- the clouds and were in a valley, limp-
der, he shouted, "You've got to land ing on and on toward the sun.
this thing because I'm too god-damn Finally she quit flying. A mountain
big to get out." was coming up in front, we were los-
Someone called up and said we were ing altitude, and we didn't know our
afire in the bomb bay, radio compart- speed. Suddenly a little patch of
ment, and in the waist. I told them to plowed ground came into view. I
but keep an eye on the
fight the fire grabbed for throttles and switches and
'190s. Suddenly our aileron controls let her hit. We made it. . . .

went limp, and the tail dropped ab-

129
One of the last dramatic chapters of the North African air war took place
off the Tunisian coast in the latter days of the campaign.
The Germans had made use of air transport for resupply of their
African forces. In fact JU-^2 transports brought the first German troops

into Africa in November, 1941.

Throughout the winter of that year the airlift to Africa increased as the
Allied sea blockade of North African waters tightened. By late March,
1942 more than ^00 air transports, JU-^2S, SM-82S, ME-^2^s based in
Italy and Sicily made twice daily runs across the narrow Sicilian straits
to Tunisia, acompanied by strong fighter escort.
The Allied air leaders watched this growing traffic much like a cat
would watch a mouse, and laid plans to eliminate it at the propitious
moment. Most flights originated at Naples, Italy, staged through air-
dromes in Sicily. The main terminals were Sidi Ahmed and El Aouina in
Tunisia. Flight routes, altitudes, speeds, operational patterns were studied.
By early April the time seemed ripe to "flush the game." The
had traffic
reached such heavy volume that crippling transport would be losses
critical to Rommel now hard pressed by Allied air-ground offensives on
two sides. To cut his one last resupply line would be fatal.
Code name for the Allied plan was "Operation Flax." It called for P-^8
fighter sweeps over the Sicilian strait with bombers and fighters striking
departure and terminal airdromes in Sicily and Tunisia.
"Flax" was kicked off at 0800 hours on April 5. Twenty-six P-^8s inter-
cepted a mixed formation of 7 JU-^2S escorted by 20 ME-iops, 6 FW-ipos,
and one FW-i8y, a few miles northeast of Cape Bon. At the same time
B-2^s hit two ferry boats, sunk an escorting destroyer, and shot down 75
Luftwaffe fighters. Meanwhile Spitfire-escorted B-iys struck Tunisian air-
dromes of Sidi Ahmed and El Aouina while other B-2^s and B-iys blasted
airdromes in Sicily. German losses totalled 210 aircraft (26 JU-^2S and
ME-^2^s destroyed, 6y damaged) while the Allies lost only 8 planes.
In the days following, "Flax" continued hacking at the German air
shuttle runs to Tunisia.On April 10, 25 transports were shot down. The
following day Allied pilots got 5/.
On the afternoon of Palm Sunday, April 18, 1942, the Axis Air Trans-
port to North Africa received the coup de grace. At 1^00 hours that day
the Luftwaffe had run a large aerial convoy to Tunisia. On its return to
Sicily it was jumped by four squadrons of the ^yth Fighter Group (y^
planes) patrolling off Tunisia with a top cover of Spitfires. The event has
become known in history as . . .

130
 The Palm Sunday Massacre
Maj. Richard. Tliruelsen
and
Lt. Elliott Arnold

When a harpy named (Axis)
called a group of American
"the butchers of the 57th,"
one of her regular propaganda broad-
casts from Berlin, she endorsed, by a
typical bit of Nazi vilification,
the most astounding transactions of
the Mediterranean air campaign.
transaction was, simply, the exchange
of 75 airplanes for six. This piece of
Yankee plane-trading required just ten
minutes and broke the arch of the
aerial bridge over which the Germans
were attempting to supply their forces
in Africa. Whatever its other reper-
cussions, this fact alone makes the
deal worth memorializing.
was won when an outmaneuvered army
lost its supplies.
For the 57th American Fighter
Group, which had fought its War-
hawks across Africa from El Alamein
as a part of the British Desert Air
Force, Palm Sunday, 1943, promised to
be just another day in a long campaign.
The German line cutting off the
eastern tip of Tunisia from Enfidaville
to Cap Serrat on the Mediterranean
was a comfortable distance from the
Group's South Tunisian landing strip
Sally at El Djem, the day was April at its
pilots, best and there were rumors of some-
during thing special for Sunday dinner. And
there was always the chance that they
might was known
hit the jackpot. It
one of that the German Command was using
large convoys of tri-motored transports
That — the dependable Junkers 52s — to
bring essential supplies and personnel
to the African battlefronts. These
planes flew from supply bases in Sicily,
crossed the narrow neck of the Medi-
terranean now denied their surface
vessels by the vigilance of medium-
bomber patrols and the Allied fleet
and landed at one of several airdromes
Tunisia in the Tunis area. The cutting of these
regular supply flights and the destruc-
tion of any considerable number of
the transports would put the Germans
squarely on the spot. This job was
given to the fighters and a watchful,
patient patrol was added to their daily
sweeps over the enemy's lines.
Day after day went by, patrol after
north- patrol. Occasionally, a small convoy
of transports was sighted and chased
and a few planes shot down. The bag
of JU-52S grew slowly and surely. On
April 10, a sea sweep of B-25 medium

131
bombers and their P-38 fighter escort 244 Wing RAF. They will meet you
met a convoy of gasoline-laden Junkers north of Sousse, over Hergla. Proceed
flying low in the Sicilian channel, to the Gulf of Tunis and patrol east-
headed for Africa. Bombers and fight- erly and westerly off Cape Bon. Come
ers went down to 50 feet to attack "on back when gas supply dictates. Capt.

the deck." More than 20 of the JU-52S Curl will lead the formation.
were shot down. But the real blow, The order in which the squadrons
the kill which would sever the serv- would fly was given and the pilots

ice, continued to evade the Allied pa- walked out. There was a few minutes
trols. Somehow the convoys continued of aimless talk before the jeeps started
to slip in and out of the African air- for the dispersed planes. The sun was
fields, bringing precious gas and am- lowering, the tents were pleasantly
munition and troop reinforcements. warm and Sunday feeling of de-
the
Somehow, the big one always got away. tachment, which somehow pervades
They continued to get away during even the most active scenes of war,
the early hours of Palm Sunday — if, hung over the preparations for the
indeed, they flew at all. The morning mission. As usual, there was a little
patrols,droning over the blue sea on last-minute trading. Pilots who had
saw nothing. The
their off-shore vigil, chores or something better to do looked
57th went out that morning. The 79th around who wanted to
for substitutes
American Group went out. The 239 build up combat time. A veteran
their
Wing RAF went out. And 7 Wing, who had fought his way across Africa,
South African Air Force. Several hun- found an eager newcomer to take his
dred Warhawks watched the Tunisian place. Six months later, the old hand
mouseholes and came back empty- still suffered when he recalled that de-
handed. Early in the afternoon the cision:
79th Group, the English and the South "I was reading a book. I'd been out
African Wings went out again and re- on the morning patrol. And now this
turned with nothing to report. It do was going out. More of the same
looked as though the trap was to re- old stuff, I thought. Lots of sky and
main unsprung for yet another day. lots of water and no Jerries. I wanted

At 4:30 the four squadrons of the 57th to get along with that book. So I got
— the Black Scorpions, the Fighting this eager beaver who wanted to go.
Cocks, the Exterminators, and the Yel- And I read my book. Think of it!

low Diamonds — prepared for the final Think of it —I should be back there
patrol of the day. reading a book when that happened!"
The briefing was perfunctory — by The group took off a little before
this time the pilots could have recited 48 planes climbed out of the El
five.

their instructions from memory. Pick Djem airfield for altitude. One turned
up Spitfire cover to be provided by back shortly after take-off, with engine

132
trouble. The other 47 planes flew Zembretta. The formation was now
north, following the road to Sousse. spaced up into the sky like a flight of
There they slid over the shoreline and, stairs, each line of four planes abreast
somewhere around 8000 feet, they met making a step. The bottom of this
the 12 graceful Spitfires which were to flight of stairs was at 4000 feet; the
accompany them as top cover — the Spits at the top were at 15,000.
Spits being much better at altitude Twenty minutes passed while the
than the Warhawks. Turning north- formation slid back and forth along
westwards, the formation flew over the its patrol line. The shadows of Zem-

sea —a long column of planes flying bra and Zembretta grew on the sea and
four abreast, with the mothering Spits the folds of the hills on Cape Bon
just a little higher than the rest. Across were purple and the Tunis Gulf took
the Gulf of Hammamet they paraded, on a dark and metallic sheen. Off the
still climbing. At 16,000 feet, their tip of Bon they turned into the sun
beedrone must have come out of an again. Fifteen minutes of patrolling
apparently empty sky. The Cape Bon left. Gas for just one more run and
peninsula, splotched with evening then it was home and another unevent-
shadow, slid up out of the sea and ful patrol would be done.
near Korba, where they crossed the No one, probably, will ever know
coastline, there was a little flak. It who saw the enemy first. It is generally
spent itself below the 59 ships. From agreed, however, that the formation
the middle of the peninsula more flak was Cape Bon shore-
six miles off the
came up and then they crossed the line, midway between Ras el Ahmar
shoreline on the other side, near Ras and Ras el Fortass and heading south-
el Fortass. There was water beneath east into the setting sun when the
them again now. This time it was the leading and lowest element sighted
Gulf of Tunis. two German fighters 1000 feet below,
Everything had been quiet. The coming straight at them. The two ene-
squadron and the flight leaders had my planes apparently saw Curl and his
watched the earth and the rest of the element at the same time, for they
pilots had watched the sky around both made steep diving turns. Watch-
them. But there had been nothing said. ing them carefully, alert for a trap.
Now Capt. Curl broke the radio si- Curl suddenly saw a sight which
lence: "Left turn. Exterminators, left brought him up straight in his seat.
turn." Off to the right, flying a parallel
They swung into the sun, losing al- and opposite course in a perfect V
titude. Off thepromontory upon which formation, were 30 tri-motored trans-
the cathedral and the ruins of Carthage ports. Behind them was another V of
stand they turned about and headed 30 and behind that still another. As
out toward the islands of Zembra and one pilot described them later: "They

133
were flying the most beautiful forma- What followed was too confused,
tion I've ever seen. It seemed like a too concentrated in time and space, to
shame to break it up. Reminded me be described from a single point of
of a beautiful propaganda film." view. It is better to take a few of the
The Junkers were flying low, not parts and get from them an idea of
more than a few hundred feet off the the general whole.
water. Painted in dark hues of gray The pilot flying on Capt. Curl's
and green and blue, they blended with wing, in the first element of the
the dark sea. Above and around them Exterminators, the squadron which
were weaving 25 or 30 single and twin- headed the formation, reported:
engined German fighters, acting as a "After Curl gave the warning we
protecting escort. Upstairs there might went down, the two of us, full gun.
be more. Curl searched the sky. His The transports, meanwhile, must have
own squadrons were stepped up above seen us, for they went ahead wide
him. The watchful Spitfires were weav- open. This sudden spurt left 12 or 15
ing specks. Every eye was on the quar- stragglers behind the last V. Curl and
ry. I hit those. I fired on the first plane
The last V of the transports, head- which came into my sights. A short
ing seawards, was opposite the first ele- burst left his port engine burning.
ment of the Warhawks, flying east, The flame trailed the whole length of
when Capt. Curl intoned over the ra- the plane. The center or nose engine
dio: was also on fire. The Warhawks have
"Juicy, juicy. Let's go get them, three fifty-calibre guns in each wing
boys. Watch for the fighters." and throw a lot of lead. I lost Curl
In the headphones, humming slight- during this pass. As I pulled up I saw
ly with the carrier wave, you could the Junkers stall and hit the water
almost hear the vast, collective excite- with a big splash. I made a quick
ment in those 59 American and Eng- climbing turn and got on the tail of
lish planes. A squadron leader some- another transport — and then pulled
where in the formation said, in a away suddenly when I mistook another
matter-of-fact voice, "Stay in pairs, Warhawk for a Jerry.
boys," and somebody gave and a yelp "All three Vs of the transports were
then there was a high-pitched howl as turning toward land by now. I got my
the first line of four Warhawks split second Junkers near the beach — it
into pairs and went down in a long, crashed into the surf and exploded.
sweeping turn to the right. The sec- Another crashed near it at the same
ond element followed. The German time and I saw a Warhawk hit the
fighters, turning into the attack from water. There weren't any chutes in the
all directions, came at the Warhawks. air. I don't think the transports carried
The Palm Sunday Massacre was on. any. I turned off the radio about that

134
time. There was so much yelling and one Me- 109 destroyed; one JU-52 and
yammering that it didn't make any one Me- 109 damaged.
sense. I had an inconclusive scrap with Lt. Richard Hunziker, another
a Me- 109 before I ran out of ammuni- Fighting Cock Pilot, was on his second
tion and found myself low on gas. That combat mission and had never seen an
ended my part of the scrap." enemy aircraft when he spied what
Capt. Roy Whittaker was leading an looked like "... a thousand black
element of the Fighting Cocks, the beetles crawling over the water. I was
second squadron to go down into the flying wing ship on Maj. Thomas, who
melee: "I attacked the JU-52S from was leading our squadron. On our first
astern at high speed and fired at two pass I was so excited I started firing
planes in the leading formation. The early. I could see the shorts kicking up
bursts were short and the only effect I the water. Then they hit the tail of a
saw was pieces flying off the cabin of JU-52 and crawled up the fuselage.
the second ship. I pulled away and This ship was near the front of the first
circled to the right and made my sec- V. As I went
after it I realized I was
ond attack. I fired two bursts into two being shot from transports on both
at
more 52s — again in the leading for- sides. It looked as though they were
mation. They both burst into flames. blinking red flashlights at me from
The second flew a little distance and the windows. Tommy-guns, probably.
then crashed into the water, I lost sight The ship I was firing at hit the water
of the first and didn't see it hit. I then in a great sheet of spray and then ex-
made a third pass and sent a good ploded. As I pulled away I could see
burst into the left of the formation, at figures struggling away from what was
another Junkers. As I pulled away it left of the plane.
crashed into the water. By that time "I'd lost Maj. Thomas. There were
the Me- 109s were among us. As I so many Warhawks diving, climbing
pulled up to the left I saw a 109 dive and attacking that it was difficult to
through an element of four Warhawks keep out of the way of your own
and I tagged on his underside and planes. I made a circle and then heard
gave him a long burst in the belly. He someone say, over the radio: 'There's
crashed into the sea from 1000 feet. Me- 109s up here — come up and help
"I then joined up with some War- us.' So I climbed to 5000 and flubbed

hawks which were luffberrying with around among the dog-fights, not
six Me- 109s. I met one of these fighters knowing just what to do. Finally I got
with a quartering attack and hit him on the tail of a 109. As I was closing
with a short burst. Pieces flew from I noticed golf balls streaming past me
the plane and he started smoking, but on both sides. That meant there was
he climbed out of the fight." Capt. another enemy fighter behind me, fir-

Whittaker claimed three JU-52S and ing at me with his 20 millimetre

135
cannon. Off the tip of the Cape, the War-
"So I took evasive action. That hawks, ammunition gone and gas dan-
brought me over the shoreline, where gerously low, gathered for the home-
I hooked on to another enemy fighter. ward flight. Overhead the faithful
My first squirt hit near the nose of the Spits, after disdainfully shooting down
ship. Pieces flew off and he went into one and chasing off sev-
Italian fighter
a steep dive. I followed him closely, eral Me- logs which had ventured into
still firing, until he crashed in a green the area, continued their vigil. The
field with a big splash of smoke and Spits, by their 22-victories ace,
led
flame. Then I heard them giving in- Squadron Leader Neville Duke, could
structions to reform." claim only one enemy destroyed that
From two score of these individual day, but they had played their part
stories the pattern of the action can be well in keeping a friendly umbrella
assembled. The go or so transports, in over the Warhawks below.
their three arrowhead formations, Back at ElDjem the news of the
turned for the beach in the vicinity of massacre began trickling in through
Ras el Ahmar after the first rushing the radioed reports of the homecom-
attack by the Warhawks. Half of the ing planes. By the time the last strag-
convoy fell flaming into the sea and glers had landed the station was a
never reached the shoreline. Another bedlam. The accepted greeting was:
score crash-landed on the beach itself "How many did you get?" The return-
or in the open fields nearby. Most of ing pilots, deafened by the roar of
these planes burned when they hit. their guns and engines, began shout-
Another dozen Junkers made belly ing the minute they tumbled out of
landings further inland. A few of the their ships. Everyone else, wildly ex-
transports probably escaped in the gen- cited, started shouting, too. Dinner
eral confusion. Meanwhile, the enemy was forgotten and a party laid on. The
fighters were flying madly around in 57th will never forget that party.
what was later described as "a con- It took the intelligence officers un-
fused and inferior fashion, possibly til midnight to sort out the claims of
due to the low altitude at which the that epic ten minutes. The startling
engagement took place." Half of these total was: 5g JU-52S (transports), 14
fighters were shot down. Me-iogs (fighters),and two Me-iio's
Ten minutes after the first shot was (fighters) destroyed; one JU-52 and
fired the air over that part of the Gulf one Me- log probably destroyed; 17
of Tunis was cleared. Off Ras el Ahmar JU-52S, g me-iogs, and two Me-iios
the sea burned red and a great circle damaged. Six Warhawks were lost.
of debris bobbed in an oil scum; from Twenty-five days after the Palm
the beaches rose the tall black columns Sunday Massacre the Axis gave up in
of a dozen funeral pyres. Africa.

136
Editor's note

On the following day, a small fleet of entire fleet of 21 ME-323S were shot down
ME 323s tried again to make the African over the Gulf of Tunis by Spitfires and
coast: 12 out of 20 were shot down. De- P-40S, along with 10 German fighter es-

spite these high losses the Germans would corts. In desperation, meager flights were
not give up. Rommel's situation was be- tried at night only to meet British night
coming untenable. His dire need was fuel Beaufighters. By theend of April, Rom-
for his mechanized forces and air trans- mel's last line of supply had been cut off
port was his only source of supply. On entirely. The great surrender of the
April 22, the Germans made another at- Africa Korps began within several weeks.
tempt to run the air blockade, but their

Three Boobies to Cairo

Maj. Ricliarci Tliruelsen, A. C.
and
Lt. Elliott Arnold, A. C.

The RAF man was short and dark He walked for hours. Finally he
and wore a small mustache. He sat on reached a river and walked along the
the terrace of the Hotel Continental- bank, tramping heavily in his weari-
Savoy in Cairo and sipped a drink. ness.Suddenly on the other side of the
Someone asked him about his most river,from behind a rock, a soldier
hair-raising experience and he thought appeared and pointed a tommy-gun
for a while and said: at him.
"You probably think it was in the "Halt," the soldier shouted across
air. Actually it was on the ground, in the 30 feet of v/ater. "Who the hell
Tunisia." are you?"
He was flying a Spitfire out of an RAF flier," the pilot said.
"I'm an
airfield at Souk el Khemis in April, —
"RAF my God! Don't take an-
1943, serving as part of an escort for other step, sir. You're in the middle of
bombers. His plane was shot down a Jerry mine field!" the soldier
east of Medjez el Bab. He bailed out shouted.
and then started to walk back. The pilot stood still. The soldier

137
thought for a few moments and then pulled himself back. The soldier con-
yelled, "See that boat in the water? sidered the situation and then called
Try to make your way down the river out:
bank, get on the barge, and then pad- "Better just dive in and swim
dle your way across." across."
The walked gingerly down the
pilot The pilot nodded and took off his

bank. Carefully he placed one foot shoes. He got ready to dive in.
after another. Finally he reached the "When you get to the middle, be
boat. He prepared to jump the three careful," the soldier continued, lean-
feetfrom the bank to the boat, when ing on his rifle and watching, quite
another soldier appeared on the other interested. "There's a trip wire in the
side of the river. middle that sets off the entire mine
."
"Hey," he shouted. "Don't touch field . .

that boat. It's a booby-trap!" The pilot finished his drink and got
The pilot, poised for the leap, up and left.

138
 PART FOUR
AIR ASSAULT
FROM THE SOUTH
Sicily and Italy
1943-1945
A German fighter, one of 85 shot down during the first three days of the invasion, burns near
Gelo, Sicily.

140
 Introduction
With the surrender of the Africa wiping out nearly 1000 enemy planes
Korps in Tunisia in May, 1943, Brit- in the process. Between July 1 and
ish and American leaders turned their July 10 alone. Allied flyers flew over
full attention to Hitler's Fortress Eu- 3000 combat sorties forcing evacua-
rope.Here the intensity of the air war tion of the Luftwaffe to bases in Italy.
had mounted during the past year. So effective were these air operations
The offensively-designed Luftwaffe that on Sicilian D-Day, July 10, 1943,

had been forced into fighting a de- the 3000 ship armada carrying the
fensive air war on all fronts. American Seventh and the British
At this point the combined Chiefs Eighth Army to the beaches encoun-
of Staff gave the British-based U.S. tered no serious air attack.
Eighth Air Force and the RAF The airborne phase of the Sicilian
Bomber Command the go-ahead to invasion, the first such operation tried
pursue the Combined Bomber Offen- by the Allies in the war, was a different
sive against German war production story. Transports of the Twelfth Air
resources with all possible vigor. Force's 51st and 52nd African-based
In the Mediterranean, plans got Troop Carrier Wings, were set up to
underway to invade Sicily, the step- drop paratroopers and troop-laden
pingstone to the assault on the soft glidersbehind the beaches during the
underbelly of Europe proper. night preceding the beach landings.
Thus the main Allied military Fate intervened. Smoke from pre-in-
spotlight of the coming year would be vasion bombing raids rose in great
shared jointly by air-ground-sea in- clouds a mile high, cutting visibility
vasion of Southern Europe and the for the low-flying transports to zero.
strategic air offensive against Ger- Strong winds carried the transports
many. For air forces the task ahead was off course, scattered a paratroop regi-
the destruction of the Luftwaffe and ment far and wide. Fully-loaded glid-
its industrial base, capable of pro- ers, scheduled to release off shore and
ducing 17,500 planes per year. glide in the silent darkness to fields
Prelude to the Sicilian invasion was behind the enemy-held beach fortifi-
the destruction of the Luftwaffe based cations,were mercilessly dispersed.
there and in southern Italy. During Some 50 gliders came down short and
the month of June the Northwest landed in the sea and on the beaches
Africa Air Forces destroyed most of with many of their battle-garbed glid-
the 3 1 Luftwaffe airfields on the island er troops helplessly drowning before

141
 Bound for Gelc. Paratroops adjust their packs and parachutes before entering the C-47 that wi
take them across the Mediterranean for the air drop on Sicily.

rescue could be effected. Trigger hap- The Sicilian invasion succeeded but

py gunners of our own sea invasion it added up to grand scale confusion.

armada mistook the low flying Sicilian Nevertheless, valuable lessons were
bound transports and gliders for Nazi learned: the need for coordination of
planes as they passed in the darkness plans with all units involved, better
low over the fleet. They opened fire, aircraft "distinctive markings" and
increasing the mayhem of the night. identification codes, more efficient nav-

Eight aircraft went down to friendly igational aids, larger drop zones, and
gunfire. While the Luftwaffe offered proper release points for gliders. These

no resistance, German anti-aircraft fire bitter lessons were to make later large

was particularly heavy on the beach ap- scale airborne operations in Normandy
proaches and on July ii, 23 Allied and Southern France successful ven-
transports were shot down. Again, two tures.

days later, gunners on an Allied con- During the invasion. Allied Air
voy misidentified U.S. C-47S for Ger- Forces ranged the Italian peninsula
man transports and shot down 7 more. and even up into France, striking

142
enemy rail and road communications, On September 3, the British Eighth
marshaling yards, supply dumps, port Army poured across the three-mile
facilities, and targets of opportunity. wide Straits of Messina onto the toe of
By July 13,Twelfth Air Force Fighters Italy, preluded by a strong air attack
were operating out of Pachino, Sicily, on German airdromes, especially the
and under cover of darkness the Ger- massive complex of airfields at Foggia,
man forces slipped across the Straits Italy on the Adriatic Sea. On Sep-
of Messina to Italy in a move rem- tember 9, the U.S. Fifth Army under
iniscent of Dunkirk. Lt. Gen. Mark Clark went ashore at
On July 25, with Allied forces a few Salerno on the east coast, bent on quick
miles from his shores, Dictator Musso- capture of Naples and link-up with
lini resigned. The Italian government the British forces driving northward.
secretly sued for peace but the Ger- When a vicious German counterat-
man armies took over the country. tack, on September 12, threatened to

General Dwight D. Eisenhower and General Henry H. Arnold plan air strategy for the invasion of
Italy.
drive the Salerno beachhead back into Air Command into the Mediterranean
the sea, NAAF heavies, mediums, and Air Forces (MAAF) under
the com-
fighterbombers were called in. In mand of Gen. Eaker (formerly
Ira of
four daysmore than 3400 air sorties Eighth Air Force in England). Major
were thrown against the German components were Twelfth Air Force
ground forces around the beachhead (now a tactical air force) under Maj.
with bomb concentrations averaging Gen. John K. Cannon and Fifteenth
760 tons per square mile. Air Force under Maj. Gen. Nathan
On the night of the 13th and 14th, F. Twining (later to become Chair-
Twelfth AF Troop Carrier planes man of the JCS). Back to England

dumped two regiments of paratroopers went Generals Eisenhower, Spaatz,

accurately behind the German lines. and Doolittle and Air Chief Marshall
Two days later the Fifth Army broke Tedder to begin the great job of pre-
out and connected up with the British paring for the cross channel invasion
driving north along the Adriatic Sea. to Normandy in spring, 1944.
The combined forces moved north- By the end of December, 1943, the
ward up the peninsula. big Foggia airbase complex had been
Allied flyers now turned on the repaired in a herculean engineering
Luftwaffe airfields around Rome, de- feat,and onto the steel-matted run-
stroying more than 300 aircraft in two ways moved the rapidly growing Fif-
days. Operating from Italian bases teenth Air Force with its B-24S, B-17S
around Salerno, Twelfth Air Force and its P-38 and P-47 fighter units.
wrested control of the air over all Italy From airfields around Naples and
and held it from then on. Salerno, the tactical Twelfth prepared
On October 1, the Fifth Army for the coming offensive.
moved into Naples and the British Several unsuccessful attempts had
captured the vitally important com- been made during January and Feb-
plex of airbases at Foggia on the west ruary, 1944, to pierce the Gustav Line.
coast, from which heavy U.S. strategic Most dramatic was the January 22 at-
bombers could now hammer at targets tempt coordinated by a landing south
in all of Central Europe, of Rome at Anzio — aimed at captur-
Here the ground campaign bogged ing the Italian capital. Despite strong
down as the bitter winter set in and air support from Twelfth Air Force
the ground forces ran up against a and five U.S. carriers off shore, the
string of fortifications across the pen- Germans were able to contain the
insula called the Gustav Line. Anzio beachhead. Through the bitter
It was about this time that air forces weeks ahead the Anzio foothold,
in the Mediterranean underwent an- backed up by continual air support,
other reorganization with the merger held out though it was continuously
of the NAAF and the Mediterranean raked from end to end by German

144
 ?^ \-iT

'^'i'^%*'-
•
-» ,~f »
•
%
I » • If

The ruined abbey of Monte Cassino

artillery fire. On March 15, a major Four days later, on March 19, the
effortwas made to break through the MAAF kicked off a coordinated air
Gustav Line at Cassino, the center offensive called "Operation Strangle,"
anchor. In a spectacular series of raids, aimed at choking off supplies reaching
483 heavies of Fifteenth Air Force the German forces. "Strangle" targets
pulverized the town of Cassino and were the limited number of north-
the historic monastery overlooking it south railroad lines and roads over
with 1205 tons of bombs. Unfortu- which ammunition, food, and troop
nately, the Fifth Army failed to follow reinforcements funneled to the Ger-
up the attack immediately, giving the man front from North Italy. Bridges,
Germans time to recover from their tunnels, intersections, freight yards,
stunned condition and regroup. When even coastal shipping, became prime
the Fifth Army did move, it was objects of Twelfth Air Force medium
stopped cold. bombers, fighter-bombers, and fighters.

145
Between March 19 and May 13, ing the Germans into the mountains
Twelfth Air Force tactical planes flew south of the Po River where they were
more than 5000 Within the
sorties. pinned to their positions, besieged
first few days rail lines were badly and hammered from the air until they
damaged and by May 8 rail traffic had collapsed in April, 1945, victims of a
practically ceased moving south, forc- terrible winter of starvation and at-

ing the German logistics to the high- trition.

ways. But motor transport failed them Long before their surrender, how-
too as the Twelfth turned the road- ever, nine Allied divisions, numerous
ways of Italy into highways of death. Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Force units,
In desperation the Germans tried along with American and British air-
coastal shipping. It shared the same craft carriers, had been withdrawn to
fate. By early May only 400 tons of prepare for the invasion of Southern
supplies a day were reaching 15 Ger- France. When Allied forces poured
man divisions facing the Fifth and ashore in Southern France, on August
Eighth armies at the Gustav Line, 15, 1944, proof of our complete mas-
most of it slipping through at night by tery of the air in the Mediterranean
truck. "Strangle," brilliantly conceived was forcefully demonstrated. Only one
and executed, lived up to its name. Luftwaffe plane appeared to oppose
The Germans could not sustain their nearly 3000 Allied air sorties on that
positions and their strength without day. It was a far cry from the beginning
adequate supplies. of the Sicilian campaign when the
When the Allied Offensive of May Mediterranean-based Luftwaffe com-
1 1 underway, the Gustav Line
got prised over 1500 fighters, bombers,
quickly crumpled and the beleaguered and dive bombers and Allied combat
defenders of Anzio were relieved. air strength measured 856 bombers
Where land offensive had failed, air and 670 fighters, including carrier-
interdiction had succeeded. borne aircraft. The air battle had been
Rome fell on June 4 — two days be- decisively won, and Italy confirmed
fore the Normandy invasion of France. the North African lesson that defeat
Supported by 50,000 tactical air of enemy air forces is the essential pre-
sorties in Jime alone, elements of requisite to victory on the ground.
Allied ground forces swept north driv-

146
Nazi dive bombers blow up a munitions ship bound for Sicily.

147
"Ladhroke" is a word Troop Carrier pilots will not soon forget, the code
name for one of four separate airborne operations in the invasion of the is-
land of Sicily-a pleasant land a few miles across the Straits of Messina
from the toe of Italy.
It was capture of this key island in the narrows of the Mediterranean

that would open the Mediterranean to unrestricted sea commerce be-

tween Gibraltar and the Suez Canal, and provide the Allies their stepping-
stone to the first assault on Fortress Europe.
The main forces planned for the capture of Sicily were the British
Eighth Army and the American Seventh, both of which would be dis-
gorged on the beaches by naval surface craft — the Eighth under Gen.
Bernard L. Montgomery (tlie hero of El Alamein) on the east coast, and
the Seventh led by Gen. George S. Patton, Jr. on the southern coast.
In order to neutralize the enemy beach defenses and prevent the Ger-
mans from pinning down these two major invasion forces, airborne at-
tacks were scheduled to precede them on the night of July g-io: "Husky
I"—a parachute drop five miles northeast of Gela and "Ladbroke," a glider
mission to a point south of Syracuse.
On July g, 194^ the joint British-American force of ^000 ships steamed
across the Mediterranean from North Africa carrying the invasion armies.
On African bases airborne forces were preparing for an evening takeoff:
226 C-4ys of the ^2nd Troop Carrier Wing loaded ^40^ paratroopers of
Gen. Jim Gavin's 82nd Airborne Division for the "Husky I" drop, while
the "Ladbroke" force of 144 C-4'js and C-^^s of the ^ist Troop Carrier
Wing attached their tow ropes to CG-4A gliders containing 1200 men of
Landing Brigade.
the British ist Air
The unarmed "Ladbroke" force was to fly to Sicily from fields in the

Enfidaville-Kairouan-Sousse area of Tunisia at altitudes less than ^00 feet

and approach the island from the south under cover of darkness. The
glider troops had one mission, to capture the Ponte Grande bridge over
which Highway 11^ crossed two canals about 7i/2 miles southwest of
Syracuse. Flight path of the formation was to be a "cleared corridor" be-
tween the converging British and American sea invasion armadas.
It was the first big airborne operation by the Allies in World War II
and before it finished there would be terrible mistakes and casualties. But
this evening, they were unforeseen.
Here is the story, told for the first time by one of the pilots who towed
a glider to Sicily on this eventful night.

148
 Ladbroke at Syracuse
Maj. Dennis E. McClendon, USAF
"Ladbroke is tonight," he said. "We all dressed up in paratrooper battle
will take off beginning at 7:30. I am gear capped by a silly maroon beret.
going with you boys as a co-pilot." What Hopkinson told us in his dry,
Nods and applause met Col. Aubrey indirect British way, really amounted
Hurren's opener.* to a pre-game pep talk. First he ran
"We are to release our gliders 3000 through the long successes of British
yards offshore, south of Syracuse, so arms, including Wellington at Water-
the gliders will have a chance to sneak loo and battles we had never heard of
in over the pillboxes and anti-aircraft before. About the time British suc-
fire before they are noticed. We will cesses were getting a little thick he an-
not cross the shoreline at any point." nounced that in his small way he
The tow were pleased, much
pilots intended to add a little bit to the his-
preferring suicide in forms other than tory of British indomitability tonight:
pulling loaded gliders at low altitudes he was going with his men in one of
and slow speeds over enemy beach the gliders. Then came his clincher:
defenses. "This be the first time in history
will
Then the mission briefing began in that the Americans have had to pull
earnest. The intelligence and opera- the British into battle!" That remark
tions officers in turn uncovered a myr- sold him to the American pilots and
iad of detail: routes, altitudes, winds, he got a round of cheers.
possible flak guns and searchlights, Despite assurances to the contrary,
nearest enemy fighter fields, friendly some of us had misgivings about
still

fighter escort, clouds, landmarks iden- the navy over which we would fly en-
tifiable in the quarter-moonlight. The route to Sicily. Several times during
homework seemed in apple-pie order. the African campaign navy gunners
Next Col. Hurren introduced Maj. fired on Air Force transports in broad
Gen. G. F. Hopkinson, the commander daylight. The word had gotten around
of the British 1st Air Landing Brigade, the Air Force that our seaborne breth-
ren would fire first, check identity sec-
• Col.Aubrey Hurren was commander of the
62nd Troop Carrier Group, 51st TC Wing, based
ond. It was not a comfortable feeling.
at Goubrine in North Africa. After the briefing we were given a

149
hot meal and driven to our aircraft on think about in the few minutes before
the line. There our crewmen, Minnie going into battle. I looked up and

and Herb.i joined Grad^ and me and down runway choked with air-
the

and we all lovingly inspected our C-53. planes and people and a quick shiver

"Old 381" wore a big "88" in white of anticipation ran through me. Even

chalk on the fuselage. Further down the least imaginative among us felt

the strip, a 15-passenger CG-4A glider some sort of fatalistic identification

was branded "88." A

long, snaked with the making of history.
nylon tow rope connected the two. It was impossible to note all the

The numbering system used for "Lad- last-minute turmoil on the deceptively

broke" started in the 6oth Group, the quiet, sun-drenched, dry dusty runway
first to go. They ran from "1 through and not project oneself ahead a few
54." Our Group, the 62nd, picked up hours. As a tow pilot, with luck I

with "55" and continued through could expect to be back in a relatively

"109." This meant Grad and I would short time, have a hot meal, and tell

be in the middle of the second group big war stories to the ground crews
of aircraft and gliders. and staff officers. But the spectacle of
Our glider crew came high-stepping what would happen to the glider crews
over to 381 soon after our arrival on bothered me. The thought of those

the line. Someone had arranged for frail tube-wood-fabric-and-glue craft

the tow plane crews and the glider hissing softly into the dark strange

pilots to convene a few minutes before land with the pilots peering below at
takeoff. This was our only contact the faintly visible ground, trying to

with them. The glider pilot, Sgt. pick out their small landing areas, was
Evans, was a British soldier surpris- not at all pleasant. We had studied
ingly cheerful and literally breaking aerial reconnaissance photos of the
out with "jolly good show," "old glider landing areas on Sicily. The ter-

chap," and all that. We took an im- rain, well broken up and laced with
mediate liking to him. His co-pilot, tiny Sicilian farms, divides itself with

also a sergeant, and the 15 men who loose-rock fences. The prospects of

were to ride the glider were English landing in those postage-stamp patches
enough tohave stepped out of a movie in the dark didn't seem as cheerful to

lot. After introductions all around, we me as it did to Sgt. Evans and his men.
sat down on the hot dirt and ran They took it all with typical British
through the mission's details. stoicism. If they reserved any fear it

When the business end of our pre- didn't show through.

takeoff meeting finished, we ran out "We do expect to get rid of this

of things to say to each other. Still a

1 Tech. Clarence Minneman, crew chief, and
Sgt.
few minutes remained and everyone's Staff Sgt. Herbert Glass, radio operator.
mind turned inward. There's a lot to 2 Second Lt. Burgess Gradwell, co-pilot.

150
great beast of a glider you've given us," tion after dark. If a pilot dropped back
said Sgt. Evans, "right into the trees or more than 300 feet, he would lose the
fences. But you won't mind it will you, dim blue formation lights of the plane
with your great busy production lines ahead. Once out of formation, he
and all?" could never hope to get back in the
Luckily, just thensomeone down the dark. Moreover the had to be
gliders
line gave the wind-up signal. We shook kept close to each other. Without a
hands all the way around again. The concentration of firepower after land-
British trooped off to their squatty- ing, the glider troops would be
looking gliders while we climbed into doomed for their airborne weapons
our scalding-hot C-53 and took up our were woefully small.
crew positions. Old Doc Bagley, our After much maneuvering we finally
squadron flight surgeon promised us headed out from the Kuriate Islands
a double shot of "combat crew" bour- just off the Tunisian coast near Sousse.
bon when we got back from Sicily. A beautiful sunset painted the lower
Right about now the idea began to sky. Stretched out in front eastward as
sound real good. far as eye could see from "Chalk 88"
The sun was slanting low in the was a long, slow-moving line of C-47S,
west as our lead ship began to roll. C-53S, and CG-4A gliders. It resembled
When the last one left the ground, all a mammoth snake. At last light, the
but those standing by as spares were northwest wind whipped up huge
headed toward Sicily. The field be- waves on the Mediterranean Sea below.
hind blended into the empty desert. The air, extremely bumpy at our
Grad and I were flying Number 12 250-foot altitude made formation fly-

position in the 51st Squadron, which ing must have been man-
difficult. It

in turn was Number 4 of a four-ship killing in the glider — bouncing at the

echelon led by our Squadron Opera- end of an elastic tow rope stretched to
tions officer, Capt. Johnny B. Blalock. 300 feet. To worsen our situation the
Assembling the large, slow, un- interphone wire to the glider (it was
wieldy formation of the Ggnd's 50-plus taped to the tow rope) broke soon
tow ships with gliders took time and after takeoff. We would not be able
much juggling. The four-ship eche- to talk to Sgt. Evans for the rest of the
lons flew in trail, one element directly mission.
behind the other, all elements aligned Malta rose out of the Mediterranean
according to chalk numbers. This was 200 miles from the Kuriates, and our
necessary since the cargo in the gliders first checkpoint. Capt. Johnny Blalock,
was arranged in landing order, accord- leading our four-ship echelon, had the
ing to its use by ground troops. navigator aboard and in his hands
Close spacing between elements re- rested our destiny. As the night grew
quired we keep a semblance of forma- blacker, Grad and I became increas-

151
ingly concerned, for the most skilled for the probable wind drift the course
navigator,we thought, could only looked about right. Johnny's navigator
make an educated guess at wind drift must have made a dead-reckoning
correction. The wind seemed nearer turn. We hoped he knew what he was
40 m.p.h. than the forecasted 25. But doing for it was only about 70 miles
we couldn't ask Johnny Blalock and (45 minutes with our crossed head-
his navigator up ahead because we had wind) to Cape Passero and Sicily. Long
to keep strict radio silence. In a little since, we had lost sight of the other
while the air became so rough Grad Group planes ahead of us. Our small
and I spelled each other at 15-minute echelon bored through the night sky
intervals on the controls, resting our alone.
leg and arm muscles between turns.
in The cockpit seemed to get warmer
What it was like in the glider behind and quieter as we got closer to the
could only be imagined. target. Up ahead in the blackness
After dark, things changed. The air somewhere was enemy territory. And
cooled Our
cylinder-head and oil
off. on each side of us, invisible to our
temperatures, which had been run- eyes, were Allied ships with quick-
ning in the red warning zone — even fingered gunners. At 250 feet, moving
with the engines' cowl flaps partly over the water far less than 100 miles
opened — gradually ran down and the an hour into the headwind, we felt

needles on the gauges dropped to almost helpless to do anything.

within the safe limits marked by green Grad said nothing. I said nothing. A
lines. In the 100° temperature, the old few gutteral grunts passed back and
C-53S just plainly balked at pulling the forth about time, speed, altitude, and
heavily-loaded gliders at slow speeds. other purely mechanical matters. They
After all, we were cruising at only required no thought. Outside on the
105-110 m.p.h., ten to fifteen miles an wings, the engines vibrated evenly.
hour below the normal climbing Every now and then the hydraulic
speed. system would "wheeze" to break the
Grad and I estimated Malta's prom- tomb-like silence in the cockpit.
ised beacons at an hour and forty-five Back in the crew compartment,
minutes from the Kuriates. The time Minnie and Herb were equally inar-
came and passed. No Malta. We never ticulate. Herb busied himself with his

did see it. A few minutes

Johnny later radio. Minnie changed the "Colors
turned the formation to the As left. of the Day" recognition flares in the
we straightened out, concerned about Very pistol at 2000 hours, (8 p.m.)
our four gliders colliding during the spending the rest of the time staring
turn, either with each other or with at the engine gauges in the cockpit —
us, Grad and I rechecked the new leaning on the arm rests between
course on our gyro compass. Allowing Gradwell and myself. Occasionally he

152
would climb up into the astrodome, All of a sudden I was cold. I felt a
look back at the gliders; then back to great shiver. I jerked. I looked at
the cockpit, bending low to peer out Gradwell staring ahead at the fire-

the windshield between us. His must works, then peered again through the
have been the hardest sweat with noth- windshield like a frightened little boy.
ing to occupy his mind. If we got in Ice water suddenly poured through
trouble, so would he. How helpless my arteries. Seconds before I had been
could one feel? burning up with heat. Now I was cold
"Here's your helmets," Minnie said, and could feel sweat beads gathering
thrusting two tin hats into the cockpit. on my forehead. Then I sensed my
"Thanks," I said apologetically, em- heart thumping and could count each
barrassed at putting on a ground-troop- beat distinctively. So this is what it's
type helmet in an airplane. Then I like to be scared, I thought!
found I couldn't get my radio headset Out of the corner of my right eye
over or under tried hanging the
it. I satGradwell like a stone monument,
top piece around the back of my neck looking ahead, silhouetted in the dim
with the ear-cups jammed under the cockpit light. He showed no emotion
helmet. Every time I moved my head, at all — just a sort of fascination. I

the headset fell off. couldn't see Minnie without making

"Throw the stupid thing away," I it obvious, so I didn't try. I wondered
told Minnie, not meaning to hurt his about my own appearance. I felt they
feelings. were watching me for some sign of
Closer, closer we inched through the fear. I broke the spell.

sky toward Sicily. Still we saw noth- "There it is."

ing. Johnny Blalock led the way on a "Yeah. Flak."

though he was flying
straight course as "Right on schedule."
down home. Ha-rum-
a civil airway at "Unh, hunh."
rum-rum, ha-rum-rum-rum went the It was an hypnotic sensation to
engines. Every now and then Herb watch the stuff come up into the sky,
turned up the volume on his radio and but the danger of our diverted atten-
we could hear di-di-di, dah-da- di- tion toit could be deadly: gliders, tow

dah-dah-dah or some other signal in
code coming from his headsets. Minnie
paced up and down the crew passage,
throwing the plane out of trim with
each walk. But no one said anything.
ships, tow ropes all tangled up and
end-over-end. We had to hold in tight
formation.
"Keep an eye on me and be ready
to take over," I yelled at Grad.

Red Dead ahead. Anti-air-

streaks! "Yeah. keep looking too," Min-
I'll

craft fire! Maybe 15 miles ahead. And nie said from behind my shoulder.
then the wandering finger of a lone Roman candles! That's what the
searchlight. flak looked like at first. A tremendous

153
volley of tracers spraying up at us from and tracer fire on the shore of Sicily.
dead ahead, slightly left, and almost The whole coastline was beginning to
below. We could easily make out the light up with gunfire farther to the
dim form of an angry ship right on northeast just as it should. Checking
our course in the cleared safety cor- the line of land-fire and searchlights
ridor! To make things worse it was against our compass, we guessed the
flying a barrage balloon low over its had come from Cape Grani-
first flak

stacks. tola or Cape Passero — both on the

The good old trigger-happy navy southern tip of the island. We had to
was at it again. be on course! But why was there a ship
Johnny Blalock's reaction came in- in our cleared corridor? Something
stantaneously. He turned right, into had gone wrong. Our confidence in
the echelon, to keep from angling the the entire invasion plan was shaken.
formation over the ship and into the My reflexes began to get less certain.
balloon. But a right turn into a left Confusion and fear saturated my
echelon is pure murder, especially to thickening head. We had flown on our
number four ship on the slow inside new course to the northeast for about
of the turn. three minutes when, ka-flooey, up
Violently I wrenched 381 to the came those red lines of light again!
right, barely avoiding a collision with Right up from the water and straight
Lt. Jimmy Hayes who was flying num- in front. We were so close this time,

ber three directly in front and I we couldn't even see the tracers curve.
chopped the throttles to keep from Slam, bam, we went — up on our
overruning him. There was nothing right wingtips again. This time it was
else left to do. At 250 feet we had no just too sudden for us. I never knew
room maneuver. The old plane
for where the others went, but Grad and
shivered and shook but she held in. I broke off violently. Jimmy's plane

"Mac," Minnie mumbled as we was about to come through my cock-

straightened up, "you got down to 85 pit, and closing fast, when I dumped
miles an hour in a 60° bank!" His the nose with all my strength and
voice was low, broken and full of re- skimmed under the other planes and
proach. There had been no time to gliders with full throttle. It was enough
watch the instruments. It was either to make an atheist pray.
throttle,wheel, rudder and luck, or Coming out we were less than 100
oblivion. With no power in a 60° feetabove the water. How
Evans Sgt.

bank, old 381 should have stalled out kept his glider behind us I'll never
at 85 and spun in but she didn't. We know. What prevented a tangled mess
all knew it had been a close call. of four planes and four gliders is a
Now we were headed out on a new mystery. I wouldn't give 1 chance in
course. We could see the searchlights 10,000 to come out of that maneuver

154
in wide open sunshine. "Gradwell," I shouted. "Take it!"

Grad and I were on our own. Where Old ever-ready Grad seized the con-
to we did not know. And where were trols and deftly righted the plane.
the ships? Fortunately we had lost The instruments settled back to nor-
them, but we had also lost our forma- mal. The searchlights and anti-aircraft

tion. This meant we were minus a fire on the shore looked reasonable
navigator. Now what? again, but I felt tilted even after every-
Sensing we must be in the middle of thing else straightened up. I was tired
the whole British-Greek invasion ar- and cold, and dripping with sweat.
mada hauling Viscount Montgomery I suppose all pilots have experienced
to Sicily, I turned to sea hoping to get vertigo occasionally. Once before,
outside of what would be a line of while flying in clouds, it had hap-
ships several miles deep — all flying pened to me. This time the intense
those blasted balloons. After five min- strain on my eyes in the dark, plus a
utes we headed northeast, parallel to liberal dose of fear, brought it on. My
the coast. I pulled up to 500 feet to fuzziness was over in a minute, but I

clear our own aerial fleet in case other asked Grad to fly for another quarter
formations were cruising in the vicin- of an hour until I was sure of myself
ity. One thing sure, we wouldn't and could become completely unhyp-
surprise the Germans on Sicily — not notized.* I was thankful for a sharp
tonight. The enemy obviously knew co-pilot. Without Grad we would have
where we were, so hugging the water "bought the Mediterranean."
didn't seem so important as avoiding We were now completely lost. A
a mid-air collision. quarter-moon lighted up the area and
I strained my eyes through the we were approaching the island from
windshield to recognize something, the east. If we eased in close to shore
anything, and constantly glanced we might chance upon some promi-
back to my flight instruments in the nent points along the coast — silhou-
cockpit. Suddenly it seemed we were etted against the dimly lighted western
in a right-hand steep turn. With a sky. We recalled on our maps how
sharp pull on the wheel I leveled the Augusta, to the north, and Syracuse to
wings, but the pattern of searchlights the south (just a few miles apart), hung
and flak-fire along the shore slanted down pendant-like on little peninsu-
strangely. I felt very heavy in my seat las into the north side of the little

and my artificial horizon indicator in

the cockpit showed a steep left turn,
• In flying school we had been warned of the
while the rate-of-climb needle began
temporary loss of orientation which causes a pi-
dumping. The altimeter was winding lot to believe momentarily that his senses are
right and his flight instruments are wrong— that
down.
he is turning while flying straight or climbing
Vertigo! when really diving. This is called "vertigo."

155
bays which made their harbors. So we Syracuse. It was immediately south of
headed toward land to hunt for them. this Cape that northbound C-47S were
The panel clock read 10:45 ^^^• scheduled to pass after releasing their
when we spotted the lights of a city gliders. It followed that if we went in-

from four miles out. The little bay land directly over the Cape, we would
and pendant peninsula stood out clear- avoid flak, smoke, and mid-air colli-

ly in the dark water, and the space be- sion. We hoped Evans had
silently
tween looked very still and quiet. We studied his maps and would recognize
couldn't be sure which city we had the prominent landmarks on the way
blundered onto. Then we remembered in. We had no way to communicate
that Syracuse was to be bombed by with him.
B-17S from 10,000 feet at 11 o'clock. The decision was made. We headed
So we simply circled outside the har- toward the Cape at 500 feet. About
bor until, promptly at 11 o'clock, the half a mile out an enemy gun position
little city we were watching began to opened up and curving red fingers
explode and searchlights and tracers arced gracefully into our flight path. I
fanned upward from every direction. racked the old plane in a tight turn to
Our navigation problem was settled. the left and went back out to sea.
It was Syracuse. The glider landing Grad and I conferred. We decided
zone was directly inland, just to the to try it again only this time at water
south. level. We didn't think the enemy gun-
Now our thoughts turned to Sgt. ners could get much of a shot at us
Evans in the glider. We concluded he that way.
must be thoroughly confused and it Down we went, picking up speed,
would only be right and fair to take throttles forward.
him inland to his landing zone, even The sinking moon ahead silhou-
though we had been ordered to cast etted the shoreline making visibility
him loose offshore. We couldn't pass good. We came in low, leaving prop-
over Syracuse harbor at low altitude wash wakes in the water, aiming dead-
without getting shot down: we had Our tactic worked.
center at the Point.
seen the flak thrown at the B-17S. Be- The gunners heard us coming but
sides billows of smoke from the burn- could not determine from what exact
ing city were blowing out to sea, cut- direction. They opened up but not
ting visibility in the harbor to zero. until we were on top of the gun posi-
On the other hand, if we cut in farther tion. We got by with no hits. (Later
south, we would risk running through we learned the glider got by unscathed
C-47 formations still northbound. too.)
That left us one alternative. Over land, we used our extra speed
A finger of land called Cape Murro to get back up to altitude. By the time
di Porco jutted out into the sea below we spotted Evans' landing zone sev-

156
eral miles inland, we had reached 1500 shouted excitedly, "tracers started
feet and leveled off. Not a single search- swinging around to follow us and all
light or gun broke out, not one. We of a sudden they stopped dead — about
wagged our wings and blinked our halfway around the circle."
formation lights. Evans cut off the tow The spectacle of our tow rope wrap-
line like a shot. That boy was on the ping the gun crew in and its coils

ball! After all the wandering and heavy hooks was gratifying. We had
roller coastering he took, he knew been flying about four hours under
where he was. tense and rugged conditions, and the
We said a silent prayer for Sgt. rope bombing victory was the psycho-
Evans and his men, now loose without logical lift we needed to get home*.

power in the black night over Sicily,
and made a 180° diving turn toward
Cape Murro di Porco, intending to
buzz the unfriendly gun at about 200
miles an hour. Then I remembered
that damned tow rope still dangling off
our tail. I told Gradwell to release it.
"Mac," he said, "let's keep the rope
and drop it on the gun! I'll aim it. You
keep the speed down."
I throttled back a bit and set the
nose right on the Point.
proached the gun from a shallow glide
at about 100 feet; Gradwell glued his
eyes down the nose while his fingers
clutched the rope release lever.
within 500 or 600 feet horizontal
tance when the gun swung around
shooting directly at us.
At about 300 feet Gradwell pulled
the knob and I rammed the throttles
all the way forward. The tracers swung
close. I waited for the bullets.
"We him!" Minnie shouted
got
Old 381 leaped upward with the
throttles forward, half-empty of fuel
and with no load dragging behind.
We reached 6000 feet in a very few
minutes and headed south for Malta,
passing over hundreds of ships driving
in toward the island. From 6000 feet
they looked like so many water bugs
in the fading moonglow.
Turning west from Malta toward
our base at Goubrine, we encoun-
We ap- tered a monstrous crosswind. Oddly it
was from a direction opposite that on
the way in. It took a full 30 minutes
correcting our course south to get on
We got the old-fashioned four-quadrant radio
dis- beam that would lead us back home.
Either the beam was on the wrong
bearing (our compass was out of or-
we were getting some sort of
der) or
unknown magnetic interference.
We didn't worry much until we
crossed the Tunisian coast and could
not identify the port city of Sousse or.

from behind me. I nearly jumped

through the windshield. • Tow pilots became quite skilled at spot-drop-

Minnie had been standing up in ping their nylon tow ropes. With a heavy steel
clamp on each end, the long rope could cause
the astrodome, looking aft.
much damage hurtling down at more than 100
"When we passed the gun," he miles an hour.

157
for that matter, anything else that was sarcastic about transport pilots in gen-

supposed to be there. Puzzled, we con- eral and lost ones in particular. To

tinued on the beam, gradually losing save face we got out flashlights and
altitude, until the dim runway lights looked old 381 over from stem to
of an airport popped on directly under stern.We were sure she had picked
us. We could see a plane landing. Low up holes — but no luck. There wasn't
on gas, we turned sharply, followed it even a dent in her old aluminum
on in. To our amazement it was a hide; not a bit of evidence to show we
British Bristol Beaufighter, one of our had been anywhere near combat.
escorts.There were no night-fighters At that point, about 2:30 a.m., we
around on bases at Sousse or Goubrine! were completely disgusted and de-
A jeep came out to meet us. I pulled flated. We cursed radio beams, intelli-

off the runway, throttled the left en- gence briefings, navy ships, trigger-
gine back and yelled from my cockpit happy sailors, and bad luck. When we
window. had exhausted the subject, we rolled
"What airport is this?" up on the ground under the wing and
"Sfax," came the G.I. answer. went to sleep. My last thought was
Sfax! 80 miles south of Goubrine! about Sgt. Evans, whom we released to
How did we end up here? fate somewhere over Mussolini's hos-
It was some consolation to learn tile rock-strewn island of Sicily.

40 crews from our 51st Wing

later that And then it all came back into per-
were asking themselves the same ques- spective. Worse things could have hap-
tion. We figured a German U-boat pened to us this night than being
had set up a false beam to lose us. stuck at a friendly but unhospitable
Luckily it took us right over another fighter base in North Africa.
airfield instead of out into the barren,
forbidden stretches of the Sahara Des-
ert, from which we probably would Editor's note

never have returned. The fate of Sgt. Evans and his airborne
Old showed 40 gal-
gSi's gas gauges troops was recounted in an intelligence
lons when we landed and we were debriefing report of one of the glider
stuck until morning. troopers: "On the way into our landing

No hero tales to the ground crews zone Sgt. Evans hit a telephone wire, and

tonight, I thought. No homecoming then a stone wall. The crash sheared off
most of the glider's nose and broke both
welcome that is so great a part of aerial
legs of Evans and his co-pilot and injur-
combat. Worse yet, someone else was
ing a third man so badly he couldn't
getting old Doc Bagley's post-mission
walk. The rest of us had a job to do on
issue of"combat crew" bourbon. some pillboxes so we gave the injured
To crown our misery we found the men first aid and some rations and laid
ground crews of the fighter field rather them under the wings of our crashed

158
glider. We set off to do our job and but missed, fortunately,
promised the men we would be back "With the help of a medical team, I
during daylight. got the three men to a hospital ship in
"We got our pillboxes that night, and Syracuse harbor before dark. That night
some more too, even though not many of German JU-88s bombed the hospital
us made it to the rally point. By the time ship and sank it. The next day I found
I got back to the glider in the afternoon, out that our three men were rescued .and
Evans said that German fighter planes put on another ship bound for the hos-
had strafed them twice during the day — pital in Tunis."

The upper left while the mainland of Italy appears at lower

Strait of Messina. Sicily lies to the
right. Photo has caught Ninth Air Force B-24s blasting ferry docks which helped supply Sicily.

159
 Across the slim peninsula of Italy, south of Rome, i8 German divisions
dug in behind a string of fortifications called the Gustav Line. Various
Allied ground force attempts to break through these fortifications in the
winter and early spring of 1944 had failed, including the all-out drive
sparked by the spectacular aerial destruction on March 75, 1944, of the cen-
ter anchor, the town of Cassino and its historic monastery perched nearby
on a mountaintop and occupied by German forces. Four days later air
forces began a maximum effort to choke off supplies, ammunition, and re-
inforcements coming down to the Germans from the north via rail, high-
way, and coastal ship. It was called "Operation Strangle," and in six
weeks it had reduced the southward flow of supplies from ^000 to 400
tons per day. On May 11, when the Allied ground forces hit the Gustav
Line, it crumbled.
Here is the story of this tactical air tour de force, a new art for destroy-
ing land armies.

Working on the Railroads

Maj. Richard Thruelsen
and
Lt. Elliott Arnold

Take any railroad tunnel, unless
has a mountain on top of it.
two P-47 Thunderbolts, each carrying
a loo-pound bomb under each wing.
The two Thunderbolts ride fast and
low down the railway line toward the
tunnel, one about 50 feet above the
other. Just before the mouth
the lower Thunderbolt pulls up sharp-
ly and releases his two bombs. If the
pilot is good at this sort of business,
the bombs will plunge into the tunnel
at a speed of something over 300 miles
it ond Thunderbolt has zoomed over
Then take the ground covering the tunnel and
dropped its two bombs somewhere be-
tween the two entrances. With 2000
pounds of explosive blowing up and
2000 pounds blowing down, simul-
taneously, that tunnel takes a terrific
is reached beating.
Or take the P-39 Airacobra fighters,
which found their cannon and ma-
chine guns could generally set fire to
schooners carrying Germans supplies
along the west Italian coast, but sel-

an hour, bounce into its depths and dom sank same. One bright lad de-
explode when the time fuse goes off a cided he'd fly low, drop his empty
split second later. Meanwhile the sec- 75-gallon belly tank (which is releas-

i6o
 B-24 Liberators fly over the Adriatic on their way to bomb targets in Italy.

able and always contains some gas were strung along a line across the
when it's dropped) on the schooner peninsula roughly connecting Pescara,
deck and then strafe the tank and see on the east coast, to Sulmona, Cassino,
what happened. The tank, filled with and Gaeta. Another 9 divisions were
gas vapor, exploded with a mighty drawn up in a semi-circle facing the
roar and the schooner foundered. Allied bridgehead at Anzio. Both of
Both of these improvisations in the these German lines of position made
art of destruction were developed in exemplary use of the terrain, being
Italy during a tactical tour de force well dug in and heavily fortified on
called "Operation Strangle." high ground, facing our only lines of
The Problem: On March 15, 1944, approach. To cut the human cost of
the Germans had some 18 divisions breaching these lines was the job given
facing the Allied forces in central the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces.
Italy. Approximately half of these The best way Air could do this job

161
was by cutting the enemy's lines of The interdiction would
planned
supply. To maintain themselves on have four consequences. (1) It would
the two fronts during normal condi- cut German supplies to a point where
tions (that is, while no concerted Nazi ground forces would be starved
Allied land offensive was being prose- for war materials. (2) It could destroy
cuted) the 18 German divisions re- some of the material actually in trans-
quired an average of 4000 tons of port. (3) It would destroy rolling

supplies every day.During the winter stock, already a cause for German con-
and early March they were receiving cern. (4) It would force upon the
just about what they needed. enemy a vastly increased use of motor
It was estimated that in the event of transport and motor fuel — not only
an Allied ground offensive, the Ger- straining his sources of supply but also
man requirement would rise from burdening his already hard-pressed
4000 5500 tons a day. All these sup-
to railroad facilities with the increased
plies had to come from Germany or importation of these necessities.
northern Italy. On March 15, it was The Method: Strategic's responsibil-
thought the Germans had about 10 ity in the plan was the crippling of the
days' reserve of ammunition and two marshaling yards of northern Italy and
days' supply of fuel in dumps imme- the installations in the Alpine passes.
diately behind their lines. The half-a-dozen ports which served
Of the 4000 tons the Nazi forces the German water-borne traffic were
were receiving, 700 tons reach the to be considered targets of opportunity.
front lines by sea — 500 tons by the These communications attacks were
west coast and 200 by the east. The to be made by the Fortresses, Libera-
other 3300 tons reached the fighting tors, and the night-flying Wellingtons

sectors via the four railroad trunk whenever the force was not busy on
lineswhich traverse Italy between the targets of higher strategic priority.
Rome area and the Pisa-Florence- The Coastal Air Force was given
Bologna-Rimini network to the north. the task of pounding at harbors and
By the middle of March plans had the destruction of shipping off both
been laid for a general Allied offen- coasts north of the battle zone.
sive later in the spring. To the Stra- The participation of the Tactical
tegic and Tactical and Coastal Air Air Force was more involved. Design-
Forces was given the task of throttling ers of the plan drew a line across Italy,

German communications during the connecting Pisa, Florence, and Rimini.

several months preceding the ground Then they drew another line across
operations and keeping them cut dur- the breadth of the peninsula just north
ing the offensive. This program of of Rome. Between these two lines, they
interdiction was called "Operation said, Tactical will squeeze and squeeze,
Strangle." until the main arteries are choked and

162
the flow of supplies is cut down to a During those two months 12,372 tons
trickle. of bombs splattered the communica-
This is a simple directive. The job tion system of central Italy. Strategic
was in no wise so simple. Railroad dropped another 6650 tons of bombs
lines and railroad installations are dif- on the communications targets in the
ficult targets to knock out. They are north.
hard to hit, they are in most cases eas- The skill Tactical's dive bombers
ily reparable and the enemy, of course, and bombers acquired in destroying
always has the alternative of bridging their tiny targets was impressive.
any gap in his line with motor trans- While the dive-bombing Thunder-
port — off-loading on one
the freight bolts tossed bombs into tunnel
side of the break and reloading it on mouths, one wing of medium bomb-
the other. The answer was to concen- ers set an April record of one direct
trate on those spots which would be hit on a bridge for every 22 sorties.
hard to repair and to effect so many Six months before it had taken this
breaks that German reconstruction same wing an average of 59 planes
could not keep pace with Allied de- over the target to insure a direct hit
struction. on a bridge. Oddly, the mediums
The most vulnerable portions of found that the law of probabilities
any railway line are its bridges and was wrong — they could be more sure
viaducts. Then come tunnels, marshal- of hitting a span if they bombed
ing yards and maintenance, and re- across it and not along its longitudi-
pair installations such as round houses nal axis. The spread of the formation
and machine shops. Last on the list took care of any errors in range and
are stretches of tracks, which are easily bridges can be picked out much eas-
reparable. Tactical picked its targets ier when approached from the side.
in that order. Luck helped skill sometimes. A for-
Fighters, fighter bombers, dive mation of British Wellingtons went
bombers, light bombers and medium out one night to bomb an important
bombers were all used. First priority bridge by the light of flares which they
on all operations was given to the ac- dropped. The first Wellington over
tual support of the ground army, both dropped a 4000-pounder. It was seen
before and during the offensive, but to hit the bridge, from 7000 feet —
the major portion of Tactical's effort but nothing happened. The bomb's
was confined to the great squeeze play. fuse had failed to work. This was a
Between March 15 and May 11, the sad moment, for a direct hit on a
opening of the land offensive. Tacti- bridge at night is almost a miracle.
cal made 10,200 attacks — 5900 on The second Wellington over dropped
bridges and tunnels, 1600 on marshal- several smaller bombs. One of them
ing yards, and 2700 on trackage. also hit the bridge — close enough to

163
^ -^-•
^=««»^

B-25 Mitchells of the Tactical Air Force knocked out the rail junctions that fed German supplies
down into the Rome area. Here, B-25s are bombing the railroad yards at Terni, north of Rome.

164
 This B-24 received a direct hit by flak while bombing rail yards in northern Italy.

the first hit to explode the big bomb. "Operation Strangle" was set in mo-

The Wimpys' bombardiers were sat- tion on March 15. By March 29 the
isfied they had been living right. three lines leading to from the Rome
The Results: The rail facilities and north, and the east-coast line, were
harbor installations in central and blocked. It was calculated there were
northern Italy had been under attack nine effective blocks, which would re-
ever since the beginning of the Sicilian quire a matter of weeks to repair,
campaign and much destruction had eleven temporary blocks which could
been inflicted. Particularly, the at- be repaired in several days, and eight
tacks on the Rome yards had already doubtful blocks which were based on
deprived the enemy of a large amount pilot's claims or bomb-strike photo in-
of storage track and forced him to terpretations. The enemy was working
back his waiting cars up the lines far feverishly at all breaks and using mo-
to the north. tor transport to relieve the situation.

165
 On April 6, all through lines re- 53 blocks existed: 21 of these were
mained blocked (though supplies bridges which would require one to
were moving via the motor transport several weeks to repair.
shuttle system) and the number of Reconstruction at breaks — which
confirmed blocks had risen to 23. appeared in new places almost hourly
There were four additional, claimed. — was particularly noticeable in the
Repair efforts were everywhere in evi- Florence-Chiusi segment and the Ri-
dence. Photo reconnaissance and secret mini-Ancona stretch of trackage. Re-
ground reports brought back informa- pair efforts in some areas continued to
tion that trans-shipment was most en- lag, but there was no tendency to
ergetic between Chiusi and Rome, abandon lines. On some by-pass
where trains were being off-loaded to tracks, badly cratered by our dive-
road transport at all possible points. bombers, the Germans neglected re-

At Stimigliano, where the railroad and pairs for several days and then the
the road run along the bank of the multiple cuts would be quickly and
Tiber, the Germans had built a num- simultaneously repaired. At Cecina,
ber of piers into the river. This sug- three spans an important rail
of
gested they might be planning to float bridge had been demolished early in
supplies down the Tiber to their "Operation Strangle." The Germans
dumps around Rome — a desperate worked six weeks and finally repaired
expedient. the breaks; 18 hours later two spans
On April 21, there were 31 con- were again demolished, and they gave
firmed and 12 claimed blocks. All it up as a bad job.

through lines had remained cut in a Ground reports indicated that the
number of places. Repair efforts con- pressure of trans-shipping and long
tinued, although it was noticeable that distance motor transport haulage had
on some of the less important connect- strained the German gasoline, tire and
ing lines the enemy repair activity truck situation to the breaking point.
was sporadic. Above Chiusi, station Destruction of marshaling yards at
sidings everywhere were full of cars. Bologna, Verona, Bolzano, Treviso,
Flak guns on railway cars began to Udine, Padua and other north Italian
appear, a testament of the enemy's junctions had been continued by Stra-
concern. Group reports brought news tegic B-24S. There were stories of
of wholesale German impressment of long, loaded truck convoys crossing
Italian labor, carts, mules, and motor the Alpine frontier from Germany to
transport in both the repair and trans- Italy.

shipment efforts. By May 18, seven days after the

On May 8 all through lines from land offensive had started, the lines
the north and the front lines had been were cut at 92 points. Although serv-
blocked for seven weeks. On this date ice had been restored temporarily on

166
some isolated segments — such as be-
tween Empoli and Chiusi, and Fano
and Foligno — no through railroad
traffic was able to approach closer than
50 miles above Rome. A number of
road bridges had been knocked out,
complicating the motor transport sys-
tem. For the first time during "Opera-
tion Strangle" the enemy showed a
tendency to abandon considerable
stretches of rail line north of Rome.
Shuttling, due to the large number
of cuts, had fallen off sharply and a ing of the ground action,
high percentage of the German mili-
tary transport on the peninsula was
now on a through motor transport
basis. This motor transport was hard
hit during the general German with-
drawal. Over two days. May 24 and
Brenner Pass line in several places.
Did "Operation Strangle" succeed
in the job it set out to do? An Ameri-
can airman who lived behind the ene-
my lines for some months returned
with news that in the front line area
the German army rations, during the
spring, were cut by one-third. And
most of this was drawn from the
countryside. The offensive, on all parts
of the line, progressed ahead of sched-
ule. Twenty-five days after the open-
Rome was
taken and the German armies were
withdrawing to the north along the
whole of the Italian front.
Testimony to the destructive effects
of "Operation Strangle" was found on
all sides by the advancing Allied

25, Tactical 's fighters and fighter- troops. Rail lines, bridges, and via-
bombers destroyed 1000 Nazi vehicles ducts were blown to bits by bombing.
on the roads immediately behind the Nazi attempts to move supplies and
front. They damaged 1000 more. equipment by truck had also suffered
On the east coast, reports indicated one 25-mile stretch of road
severely; in
the Germans were depending for the north of Frosinone, Eighth Army
most part on horse-drawn transporta- troops counted the hulks of 175
tion along the mountainous roads 15 trucks and supply vehicles burned or
or 20 miles inland. In the central sec- blasted by bombing and strafing. Just

tor, an informant reported, "the Ger- south of Subiaco, on the German re-

mans are forcing thousands of Italians treat route from the Cassino sector,
to prepare trenches and foxholes along there were 102 burned-out wrecks in
main highways leading north
sides of one mile. Nazi prisoners reported that
from Rome. These to be used by for the two weeks ending with the cap-
truck drivers in case of air attack." ture of Rome all branches of the
Strategic, during this period, con- Wehrmacht on the Italian front had
tinued its on the Po Valley
attacks been short of fuel, ammunition, and
marshaling yards and blocked the rations.

167
"«*

PART FIVE
THE STRATEGIC AIR
OFFENSIVE: A FLAMING YEAR
June, 1943 -June, 1944
 Introduction
While the Allies were enveloping With reinforcements arriving, pros-
Sicily and driving the Germans north- pects now brightened and Eighth's ob-
ward up the Italian boot, another jectives were three-fold: to destroy the
kind of war — the strategic air war — German aircraft, ball-bearing and oil
unfolded in the skies over France and industries — three vital target systems.
Germany. Loss of any one could be fatal to the
By the spring of 1943, Eighth Air Nazis.
Force, operating with only two to six To do this would require long, un-
combat groups of B-17S, had doggedly escorted missions, deep into Germany.
wrung itself out in a variety of day- Complicating the problem was the
light strategic strikes over Germany doubling of German fighter strength
in conjunction with the RAF night in Western Europe from 500 to near-
missions. ly 1000. Then, too, new Luftwaffe
This Combined Bomber Offensive aerial armament included a mortar-
(set in motion by the January Casa- type rocket with lethal radius of more
blanca Conference of top British- than 100 yards and fused to explode
American leaders) awaited only the at 1000 yards, far outranging the .50-
high priority of the Combined Chiefs caliber machine guns on the B-iys.
of Staff, a nod that was given in May The appearance, about this time, of
when the North African campaign the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was
ground to a stop. heartening. Equipped with loo-gallon
bomb groups were added
Six heavy belly tanks the "Jug" pilots could ac-
to the Eighth by June, 1943. More company the formations all the way
were coming. With these the Eighth across France to the German borders.
began to develop the muscle eventu- And well did this sturdy new fighter
allyneeded to blanket targets with perform, driving the rocket-throwing
mass concentration and follow-up. Nazi fighters to desperate ends of fly-

Hitherto its strikes had been sporadic, ing fighter cover for fighters, much as
follow-up raids impossible. The de- they did during the Battle of Britain.
structive effect of air bombardment Then, too, added range was given to
had not been cumulative. The ene- the P-38 by external fuel tanks.
my's power to recoup was efficient and But the German border wasn't far
quick as in the case of the campaign enough. An "all-the-way" superior
against the German rubber industry fighter was urgently needed. Unfor-
in early 1943. tunately it would not be available un-

170
til late 1943and early 1944, when the dislocation and damage to the Ger-
P-51 Mustang would begin arriving mans, it was were oil and ball-
felt,

innumbers. America's neglect of fight- bearing works. Oil was critical to

er development during the 1930s Luftwaffe operations and shortage of
would exact a heavy price in the first ball-bearings promised to be the best
months of the flaming year. bottleneck in aircraft production.
Defensively the B-17F was an im- Thus were planned two of the most
provement over the "E" of early days. important and tragic missions of the
New nose guns filled an open spot in early strategic offensive: Ploesti of
its defensive armor and crew flak suits August 1, 1943, and Regensburg
promised reduction of combat casual- Schweinfurt of August 17. Both were
ties. The tight 18-plane combat box to be fairly successful but unbearably
and the stacking of two or three boxes costly, and sadly, each had to be a
vertically in a combat wing formation one-shot effort for lack of reserves at
proved a defensive breakthrough this time to follow up.
against swarms of enemy fighters. The The Rumanian oil fields of Ploesti

establishment of tight and strict air-
crew discipline which permitted no
evasive action enroute to target bor-
dered on incredibility in the
mind. American formations became
produced one-half of all German oil
and were within range of Allied bases
in North Africa. The Ploesti force
German accumulated on airfields around Ben-
gasi, Libya. It consisted of two Ninth

"Ramrods" that would not be deterred Air Force B-24 Groups and three from
by flak or fighters. It took raw courage Eighth Air Force. After comprehen-
to hold formation position through sive mission training, the 177 Libera-
dense fields of flak and hordes of rock- tors fought their way to Ploesti through
et-throwing German fighters coming flak and fighters in one of the fiercest,
in from all quarters. It was a simple most dramatic air battles in all of his-
matter of hold together or be slaugh- tory. Fifty-four of the big LIBS were
tered individually. lost. First results indicated 40 per
First stage of Combined Bomber cent of Ploesti's cracking and refining
Offensive's flaming year got off with capacity were wiped out. Air leaders
a series of shattering daylight aerial were jubilant, but the elation was
assaults on varied Nazi industry in short-lived.Within three months the
July, 1943. The intensity of enemy Germans had the plant back into full
fighter oppositionsoon had the Eighth production. Inability to mount a fol-
hanging on the ropes. It was all too low-on mission had made Ploesti a
evident that the Luftwaffe had to be Pyrrhic victory.
stopped before deep penetration mis- The Regensburg-Schweinfurt mis-
sions could be undertaken. Two in- sion followed in quick order. Schwein-
dustries that would cause the greatest furt produced half the ball-bearing

171
output of Germany while the Messer- air crewmen), while the Germans lost
schmitt factories at Regensburg and only 35 fighters. New Luftwaffe fight-

Wiener Neustadt built nearly half of er tactics had met the bomber box
the Luftwaffe's single-engine fighters. formations. In alternate waves FW-190
Destruction of these factories would and ME- 109 single engine fighters at-
appreciably reduce the Nazi's war- tacked the front and ME-iio twin-
making effort. engine fighters in the rear with rockets.
To reach Schweinfurt the bombers The Luftwaffe pilots succeeded in
had to penetrate 200 miles into Ger- breaking open the tight boxes as the
many. Regensburg lay 100 miles flaming Forts fell from the sky. Once
farther on. Plans called for a twin- the formation came apart, packs of
pronged mission with the Regensburg fighters ruthlessly attacked individual
force leading the van, and upon com- planes. Despite the losses, the strike
pletion of the bomb run fly on to caused such destruction that the Ger-
bases in North Africa. Immediately mans immediately began dispersion
following, the Schweinfurt force of their ball-bearing industry and re-
would strike the ball-bearing works quisitioning large quantities from
and turn back for England. The bold Sweden and Switzerland.
mission got underway on the morning Through the early winter months
of August 17 with 146 B-17S in the the Eighth continued its strategic bom-
Regensburg force and 230 in the bardment mainly with the use of Path-
Schweinfurt force. Battling through finder planes equipped with H2X air-
furious Nazi fighter attacks, the strike borne radar. Rarely did the forma-
accomplished nominal results, but at tions go beyond the radius of their
high losses. Twenty-four of the Re- belly-tank equipped P-38 and P-47
gensburg 'Torts" were shot down, 36 fighter escort.
of those bound for Schweinfurt, with Meanwhile, British Bomber Com-
more than 100 sustaining crippling mand Halifaxes and Lancasters follow-
damage. ing 'Tathfinder" Mosquitoes and
The victories were empty ones, but equipped with H2S radar, pressed
the Eighth Air Force pressed on, hop- their sustained offensive against the
ing for better luck. Deep penetration big industrial centers of the Ruhr Val-
missions followed to targets in Poland, ley. Enormous damage was done to
East Prussia, and Germany and on Essen and the great Krupp Works
October 14 a second try was made to there. Other targets included Cologne,
Schweinfurt. Aachen. Bochum, Duisburg, Wupper-
It was this mission which became tal, Dusseldorf Dortmund, Kassel,
one of the fiercest, most costly air bat- Mannheim. Frankfurt and the port cit-
tles of the entire war. Out of 291 heavy ies of Hamburg, Bremen, Wilhelm-

bombers, 60 were lost (1500 trained shaven and Kiel were pasted in massive

172
area bomb strikes. Special missions in- from 15,055 in 1942 to 17,490 i" i943.
cluded the highly successful 19-plane broken down as follows: 7440 single
(Lancasters) on the
night attack engine, 2555 twin engine fighters, and
Moehne, Eder and Sorpe Dams. This 6155 bombers. Despite mounting loss-
skillful but costly mission breached es to Allied fighters, the Luftwaffe was
the dams sending mountainous tor- stronger in December than it was in
rents of water through the Ruhr Val- June, 1943.
ley, causing high damage and loss of But the Luftwaffe had problems,
German life. too. British-based American mediums
Of special note were the massive in constant daylight raids had driven
night attacks on Hamburg on July the German aircraft from their bases
24-25 and August 2-3 during which near England, farther and farther back
8623 tons of bombs turned the city toward their homeland. The Luftwaffe
into a roaring conflagration, producing had tried every conceivable tactic, yet
comparable to the Tokyo
a fire storm the Allied bomber formations were
fire bomb and the A-bomb drop
raids getting through and heaping terrible
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. destruction on Germany. Irrevocable
During the fall and winter, RAF orders had gone out to German pilots
night bombers continued their runs to ignore escort fighters and attack the
to German cities. It was in August that bombers. The attrition of elite, ex-
the Battle of Berlin began in earnest, perienced pilots had been telling.

and by March 25, 1944, the RAF had Dissatisfied with the results of the
made 10,000 night sorties to Berlin in strategic air offensive, a reorganiza-
20 missions which completely laid tion of the entire effort took place in
waste 6427 acres of the city: 50 per December with the creation of the
cent of Berlin's industrial plants were United States Strategic Air Forces in
leveled, 60 per cent of commercial Europe under Gen. Carl A. Spaatz.
business wiped out. Heaviest attack The new command took over direc-
was on the night of February 15-16, tion of the Eighth and Fifteenth Air
when 2643 tons of bombs tumbled Forces, both of which were now up to
onto the city. Throughout the city- full strength. The Eighth Air Force
busting campaign RAF bombers also Commander, Gen. Ira Faker, was re-

planted thousands of tons of magnetic placed by Gen. Jimmy Doolittle, and

sea mines in the Baltic and German
waters. In 1943 alone, RAF bombers
dropped 25,225 of the deadly eggs.
By the end of 1943 the results of the
American daylight air offensive were
not too encouraging. German
production had actually
transfered to Italy.
The new order issued by the AAF
Chief, Gen. H. H. Arnold was simple:
to destroy the Luftwaffe in the air and
on the ground and in the factories.
aircraft The invasion of Europe could not be
increased imdertaken until this had been done.

173
 And so it was that 1944 began with into high gear. On March 4, P-51
a furious assault on German fighter escorts flew all the way to Berlin for
factories. Fortunately, a new fighter, the first time. It was an ominous sign
the long-range P-51 Mustang, began to the Germans, the fulfillment of
arriving in Europe in November. It something the pompous Hermann
had flown its first all-the-way escort in Goering said would never happen.
December and answered the critical Two days later, on March 6 and again
problem of deep penetration strikes. on the 8th, formations of more than
From the start it proved superior to 1000 hea.y bombers struck the Ger-
anything in European skies. man capital. Throughout March every
On January 11, 800 heavies, with serviceable bomber was thrown into
escorting fighters, hit aircraft factories the offensive and American fighters,
in Oschersleben, Brunswick, Halber- in a switch of tactics, began ranging far
stadt, and other cities. Although 53 out ahead of the bombers to seek out
bombers were shot down, along with and destroy the Luftwaffe defenders
five escort fighters, returning airmen before they came near the formations.
claimed destruction of 292 Nazi fight- By the end of March the Luftwaffe
ers. The campaign now rose in cre- had lost 800 of their first-line home air
scendo with a massive blow at all Ger- defense fighters and Allied air superi-
man aircraft industry in February, ority had been achieved over Europe.
1944. A period of good weather over This period marked the beginning
Europe at that time enabled Spaatz of the rapid decline of the Luftwaffe.
and his staff to launch this series of "Big Week" and the follow-up strikes
concentrated, rapid-fire attacks which had broken the back of the Germans
became known as "Big Week." in the factories, the refineries, and in
Between February 20 and 25 more the air. From now on German fighters
than 1000 heavies of the Eighth Air rose only to protect vitally important
Force, aided by 500 B-24S from the targets.
Fifteenth Air Force, flew more than Meanwhile the Italian-based Fif-

3500 Flanking the formations

sorties. teenth Air Force heavies and its

on their deep penetration missions strategic fighters (which had assisted in

were strong fighter escort. In conjunc- the climactic "Big Week" operation)
tion, the RAF mounted five massive were aiding the Russians by striking
night attacks while our fighters flew targets inGerman-occupied Balkans,
some 3500 individual sorties against denying the Luftwaffe use of Balkan
the Luftwaffe in the air. bases for air strikes against the Eastern
The results were highly encourag- Front, and running "shuttle" missions
ing. German aircraft production was to bases in the Soviet Union. Much of
set back two months. Fifteenth Air Force activities was also
The strategic air offensive now got devoted to dropping supplies to anti-

174
German partisan movementsYugo- in Forces and RAF Fighter Command,
slavia, attacking Axis ports in France with an able assist from the airfield-
and Greece, and pounding the Bren- busting mediums, the B-26S, A-20S,
ner Pass through which German B-25S and their British counterparts.
armies in Italy were supplied. As early as mid- 1942, U.S. fighter
With the rapid decline of the Luft- pilots joined with the RAF Fighter
waffe, the next big target system to Command in the gradual hacking
come under the strategic attack was away at the Luftwaffe in swirling
German oil. aerial combat and low-level strafing of
The campaign got underway in enemy airfields from the French Chan-
April, 1944. Oil targets in northern, nel coast inland. British Spitfires,
central, and eastern Germany were Beaufighters, Mosquitoes, Hurricanes,
assigned to Eighth Air Force. The syn- Typhoons, Tempests, and U.S. P-38
thetic plants in the Ruhr were assigned Lightnings and P-47 Thunderbolts
to British Bomber Command, while fanned out over France and the Low
those in southern Germany, Austria, Countries to the limit of their radius of
Hungary, the Balkans, southern Po- actionon armed reconnaissance patrol,
land, and Rumania— especially Ploesti combat sweeps, and strafing strikes. It
— were given to the Fifteenth Air was also the job of the Spitfire, Light-
Force. By July, 1944, 66 major plants ning, and Thunderbolt to provide
had been attacked with a loss of 400 escort to outgoing and incoming for-
million gallons, and Germany's pro- mations of heavy bombers and at this
duction of oil products had been re- work they became known as the
duced to 20 per cent of minimum "Little Friends."
requirements of the German Wehr- Because of the intense anti-aircraft
macht. The attacks would continue defenses ringing German airfields it

through the spring, summer and fall, was considered as dangerous and de-
following the Normandy invasion, to manding of flight skill to strafe an
the violent end that the German war enemy airfield as to meet the enemy
machine became immobile for lack fighters in the air. And so in the Euro-
of fuel. pean Theatre, fighter pilots were cred-
The destruction of the Nazi aircraft ited for aircraft destroyed on the
industrial base and its production ground as well as in the air. This was
capacity by the Combined Bomber especially significant after February,
Offensive went hand in hand with 1944 when the Luftwaffe refused to
another equally important objective— send up its dwindling fighters except
the extermination of the Luftwaffe in on vital missions— a move which forced
the skies and on the This job
airfields. Allied fighter pilots down on to the
went largely to the fighter wings of deck to pursue the Germans in their
Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air lair with a vengeance hitherto un-

»75
known. enemy kills to its own losses of 241
Until the appearance of the high planes. A close second was the 56th
performance, long-range P-5 1 Mustang Group with 1006 destroyed, to 128
in November, 1943, Allied fighters losses. Third was the 255th with 860
were hampered by their short-range destroyed, 175 lost. All three top units
capability and restricted to areas this belonged to the 65th Fighter Wing.
side of the German border. The Luft- The three wings produced 568 air
waffe had wisely awaited the escort aces, 28 of whom
knocked down 20
fighter "drop-off" point before attack- or more enemy and 9 were aircraft,
ing bomber formations. But all this credited with 30 and up.
changed when Mustangs showed up The roster of the Eighth Air Force
over Germany. Even Luftwaffe Fighter aces reads like a page from air war's
Chief himself would not, at first, be- hall of fame. Top man was Lt. Col.
lieve reports of the P-51. Then one day John C. Meyer (37 victories) follow-
four Mustangs bounced his ME-iio ing by Capt. John T. Godfrey with
and chased him all the way back to 36, Lt. Col. Elwyn G. Righetti with
Berlin. His alarming reports of this 341/4, Lt. Col. Francis S. Gabreski with
superior American fighter convinced 331/4 and Col. David Schilling with 33.
the German High Command to un- Maj. George Preddy (30 kills) shot
dertake a priority jet fighter develop- down 6 enemy aircraft in 6 minutes
ment program. For only the German over Hamburg on August 6, 1944.
jetscould surpass the Mustang. But it Capt. Robert S. Johnson's 28 victories
was the eleventh hour and time would were all air-to-air and the second high-
run out for the Luftwaffe before the est in this category in the Theatre.
jet could be available in numbers that Col. Hubert "Hub" Zemke (28 kills)
would count. was leader of the famed 56th "Wolf-
Starring units of the European pack." He teamed with Schilling and
fighter air war were the three fighter Gabreski to earn from Luftwaffe fight-
wings of the Eighth Air Force, the er pilots the title of the "Terrible
65th, 66th and 67th, each having 5 Three."
combat groups and each group 3 Complementing the Eighth and
squadrons. strong right arm in the fighter air war
The magnificent story of these men was the tactical Ninth Air Force, re-
lies deep within the statistical record constituted on British soil in the fall
they produced. In the last three years of 1943 after a brilliant record in
of the war the three wings were cred- Africa. By the end of the war, the
ited with nearly half (9275) of all Ninth Air Force aces numbered 71,
German aircraft (20,419) destroyed by led by Lt. Bruce W. Carr with 25!/^
the entire U.S. Air Forces in Europe. victories and Lt. Glenn T. Eagleston
Top Group was the 4th, with 1006 1/4 with 23!/^. Fifteen of their aces shot

176
Metallic paper strips dropped from the air proved to be one of the most effective countermeasures
against German radar. Called "window," itis here being dropped during a raid on Essen.

Three famous fighter pilots of the war against Germany. From left: Capt. Robert S. Johnson whose
28 victories made him the second-ranking ace in the European theater; Col. Hubert ("Hub") Zemke,
the leader of the famed 56th Wolfpock who had 19'/2 kills; and Maj. Walker M. ("Bud") Mahurin
who destroyed 19'^ enemy planes in aerial combat.
down lo or more aircraft. cities. Hitler's 1000 year Third Reich
Luftwaffe killer in the south was the could no longer effectively produce
Italian-based Fifteenth Air Force oil, aircraft and ball bearings needed
whose P-38S and P-47S roamed the for its once-powerful armed forces. Oil,
skies of the Balkans, Southern France, the key to modern war, was in short
and Germany. 1st. Lt. John J. Voll supply. The invasion of Europe was
(21 kills) and Maj. Herschel H. Green now possible and for the next three
(18 victories) led their roster of 68 aces. months the task of Allied air forces
While statistics fail miserably in would be devoted to the destruction
conveying the drama of fighter combat of German defenses and communica-
they do set apart the magnificent role tions in preparation for the land in-
played by the U.S. fighters. During vasion of northern France.
"Big Week," for example, Hub Zem-
ke's 56th Group shot down 43 Nazi • Others include: Group Capt. Clive Robert Cald-
aircraft v/ithout suffering a loss. well, Royal Australian Air Force — aSV^; Flight
Leader G. R. Beurling— 31 and Squadron Leader
To the American destruction of the Henry W. McLeod — 21, both of the Royal Cana-
Luftwaffe must be added the envi- dian Air Force; Group Commander "Sailor"
Malan — 32 and Wing Commander Colin F.
able record set by RAF Fighter Com- Gran — 27 V^, both of the Royal New Zealand
mand, and the Australians, Canadians, Air Force; and Maj. Malcolm S. Osier— 12, of
the South African Air Force. French ace Pierre
French, Poles, and other nationalities
Henri Clostermann had 33 victories; Flight Lt.
who flew with the RAF. It is equally Svein Heglund of Norway— 14; Col. Kaj Birk-
sted of Denmark— 10; Flight Officer Vicky N.
impressive. Twice as long in combat
— n.
Ortmans of Belgium
(from 1939 on) British and Dominion Top Luftwaffe ace was Maj. Erich Hartmann
pilots shot down more than 5000 Luft- with 352 victories. Leading aces of other coun-
tries include Maj. Ivan Kozhedub, Russian Air
waffe planes in air-to-air combat alone, Force — 62 kills; Lt. Ilmari Juutilainen of the
with several thousand credited to them Finnish Air Force — 93; Capt. Count Constantin
Cantacuzine, (Rumania) — 60: Maj. Adriano Vis-
on the ground. Top British ace was conti, Italian Air Force — 26; Lt. Dezso Szent-
Wing Commander gyorgyi (Hungary) — 29; Lt. Rotnik Reznak (Slo-
J. E. Johnson, with
vakia) — 32 plus; Lt. Cvitan Galic (Croatia) — 36
42 enemy aircraft to his credit.* plus; Lt. Col. Wirold Urbanowica (Poland) — 19;
By early spring, 1944 the control of Pilot Officer Josef Frantisek — 28, and Wing Com-
mander Karel M. Kuttelwascher — (both Czech).
the air over Europe belonged to the
The aces from the Balkan countries flew with
Allies. The Luftwaffe was in steady the Luftwaffe on the Eastern Front. There were
no aces from the Netherlands or Greece although
decline. Great scars of destruction
their squadrons flew with the RAF. Some Span-
marked all major German industrial ish flyers flew with the Luftwaffe.

178
 "Operation Gomorrah" was the British Bomber Command's ominous code
name for the destruction of Hamburg, the second largest city in Germany.
There were many reasons why it had to be eliminated: its shipyards, the
most extensive in Europe, were turning out submarines which preyed
on British and American shipping; it was a vital port for Nazi Germany
and the most heavily defended city in occupied Europe.
Many raids had been leveled against this luscious target, but all were
sporadic and scattered. By early summer came the order for its complete
obliteration as a "matter of absolute urgency." For Bomber Command,
whose night missions had been wiping out German industrial areas for
over a year, it was a maximum effort and never before had they made such
careful plans.
On
the night of July 24, y4o Lancasters and Halifaxes rose from British
bases and nosed out across the North Sea, on a night mission to Germany,
as they had done many times before. The one difference this time would
be in results which Nazi Propaganda Minister Goebbels would call "a
."
catastrophe the extent of which staggers the imagination. .

Target: Hamburg — Secret.

179
 The Night Hamburg Died
Martin Caidin

As THE LAST HOURS of July 24, I943 Lancasters and Halifaxes taxi slov/ly
slip into the approaching darkness of on the perimeter tracks of their air-
tlie eastern horizon, the crews of near- fields. Nose to tail, the giants rumble

ly 800 four-engine heavy bombers walk along in elephantine fashion, a pro-

to their planes. More than 5000 British cession of death about to take wing.
airmen — pilots and bom-
co-pilots, At each field two lines of heavy bomb-
bardiers and navigators and radiomen ers meet at the head of the active run-
and gunners — prepare to turn Go- way; brakes squeal, and are locked.
morrah from a paper plan into flam- The pilots and co-pilots run the en-
ing reality. gines one by one to full power, check-
The weather this evening is crisp ing magnetos, carburetor and cylinder
and clean, with excellent visibility. head temperature, flaps and trim set-
Within the capacious bays of the Lan- tings, oil pressures and amperes and
casters and Halifaxes hang the bombs; hydraulic pressure reading. When
fat and squat high-explosive missiles they are satisfied as to the operation
and land mines, incendiaries in clus- and the sound and feel of their ma-
ters and singly, all destined for the chines, the engines subside in their
city of Hamburg. great roar and fall back to a massed
Merlin engines cough and rumble, whispering of idling Merlins.
shake through their innards, and then Then comes the signal for take-off—
spit great blasts of smoke from the ex- the rejection of the earth by 791 great
hausts as the propellers spin faster and bombers. Each take-off is a long mo-
faster. The great bombers vibrate with ment of tension. The bomber stands
their power. Across the darkening firmly locked to the runway by her
English countryside there reverberates brakes. In the cockpit the pilot slowly
the song of thunder; a satisfying sound and smoothly advances the throttles,
to all the veterans of the German blitz adding power, spinning the great
who hear the bombers' cry and think blades faster and faster. Then she
of the hell that will be wrought in quivers with the great might of the
some German city tonight. four motors, anxious to roll. The pilot
At dozens of airfields there comes and co-pilot snap glances at the instru-
the sound of squealing brakes as the ments, and suddenly the brakes are

180
released, the giant is free. 100 ... 200, 400, 700, nearly 800 mas-
The bomber lunges forward, pro- sivemachines grimly marching toward
pellers chewing hungrily at the air, Germany. The Channel beckons and
dragging the heavy weight forward. the coast of England slides beneath
The speed picks up in a steady pro- the transparent noses of the bombers,
gression, accelerating as the indicator falls away past the wings, and provides
needle reached around to 40, 50, 60. a murky view for the tail gunners in
The tail comes up, there is less drag, their steel and glass cages, surrounded
and the speed increases even more. by four .303 calibre machine guns.'
70, 80 . . . the wings grasp at the air, It is a good night for flying, and
there is the tugging of lift. With deft they all hope, for bombing. There is
touches on the rudder pedals the pilot majesty in the heavens tonight; the
holds her down the runway, rushing spectacle of 800 giants marching in a
along the paved strip. Then the bomb- great river of wings and engines and
er reaches that instant when lift over- booming thunder is overwhelming.
comes the ponderous weight of the But through all the feeling of this im-
machine and its drag through the air. mense effort, the majesty of flight,
With the gentlest of pressure the yoke there is the grim conviction that some
comes back in the pilot's hand, the of these men will die tonight, that the
wheels lift slightly from the earth, and sleek lines of the Halifaxes and Lan-
the machine of destruction is air- casters willbe punctured and holed
borne. She is in her element now. and blasted by cannon shells and the
The wheels come up, lock into crooked slash of flak fragments.
place with a dull thud that travels the The phalanx of bombers seems al-
length of the fuselage. The engine most overwhelming in its strength, in-
sound is tremendous as the roar domitable in its sheer number. The
smashes into the runway and then opposition, however, is formidable as

the earth, and reflects back again. well; the Germans are and skillful

Then there is even more speed, the courageous and their equipment is
wings bank slightly and the machine outstanding. They have struck before
slides onto her predetermined course. with terrifying results, and they hope
Now the ship is moving fast enough to to do the same tonight. But Gomorrah
dismiss the additional lift of the flaps, still holds hidden its surprises . . .

and the surfaces slide back into the Far ahead of the main bomber force
wings, lock into place, and the wing is the Pathfinders streak through the skies
again clean. of occupied Europe, then venture into
England falls away beneath the the heartland of the Reich, rushing
bomber, as it does beneath a dozen along the northern coastline. All told
great bombers, and then several doz- tonight there are 791 bombers in the
en, and soon the figure is more than heavens, but 51 of these will not at-

i»i
tack Hamburg. Some are assigned Christmas tree clusters that shatter the
diversionary missions, and as the Path- darkness with savage brilliance, drift-

finders race for the target of Hamburg, ing in sputtering and blinding light.
the other bombers fan out on their They also drop bombs that scream
assigned routes. horribly as they rush toward the earth.
Along the German defense lines are All across Germany and in the occu-
great Wiirzburg and Freya detection pied countries the air raid sirens shriek
and warning stations, and tonight their warning. Factories shudder to a
these are a special target for a weapon halt as workers rush for shelter. Peo-
never used before in Europe. It is an and hurry into the
ple clear the streets
innocuous little thing, the tiny strip underground havens, for there is no
of tinfoil, but dropped by the millions doubt about it tonight — the radar
in unbelievable locust swarms, the tin- screens are infallible — Germany is

foil is a great monkey wrench jammed being struck almost everywhere by the
into the heart of the German defense greatest armada of bombers ever to
effort. leave the British Isles.

Small British formations race over The main force of Lancasters and
Holland and Belgium and strike into Halifaxes pushes across the North Sea,
Western Germany. Along their path droning its way into the east, toward

of flight the tiny strips of tinfoil flutter Hamburg. Already the "Window" is
through the skies, drifting slowly to- having its effect, for even as the bomb-
ward the ground. The main bomber ers move out from England the Ger-

force that rushes toward Hamburg man defenses are making their moves
also begins to release its tinfoil cargo, to smash the bombers. But they will
and the result is unprecedented. not do so tonight . . .

On the German radar screens it ap- The Pathfinders are well ahead of
pears that all of Europe is under a the initial wave of bombers. Naviga-
mass invasion of thousands and thou- tors bend to their scopes and instru-
sands of bombers. The warning cen- ments like priests at an altar, and with
ters are in a state of agitation, and the same religious fervor they call out
they report, one after the other, that commands to the pilots. Using their
enormous enemy bombers
forces of complicated long-range electronic nav-
are approaching. They call out cities igational system known as Gee, the nav-
in the Ruhr as targets, they flash igators check at regular intervals the
alarms of "hostiles, many" along all progress of their flight. Each new posi-
points of the coast, the Low Coimtries, tion is reported to the flight deck as
and into Germany itself. the Eancasters rush toward the imsus-
Not only the tinfoil flutters to earth; pecting city of Hamburg, which for
the bombers split open the night sky more than a full year has not felt a
with blinding flares, the famous heavy assault.

182
 A giant German Wurzburg radar antenna on the French beach which sent out its waves 50 miles
to detect approaching enemy planes.

Exactly 15 miles northeast of Heli- million inhabitants of Hamburg. The

goland, the Pathfinders— and later the navigators remain glued to their
main stream — ease
from their estab- scopes, starting intently at the clock-
lished course of flight. The bombers like finger of the timebase as it rotates
are bracketed in the invisible elec- around and around, a perpetual cir-
tronic beams of their navigational cular movement across the face of the
systems, and the moment has come to flickering cathode ray tube.
take up a new compass heading. The All bombers with H2S move toward
pilots ease down on rudders and gently their target on the guidepost of the
move the control yokes. Ailerons and flickering scopes. The navigators see
rudders move ever so slightly, and the along the very bottom of the cathode
Lancasters rush directly toward Cux- tube the first sparkling of green, the
haven, 75 miles from the target city. shimmering line of the enemy coast-
Cuxhaven tonight is especially im- line. As the bombers draw nearer and

portant, for on the radar screens of nearer to their target the coastline
the H2S equipment it is clear and climbs deliberately up the face of the
sharp and absolutely identifiable, a glass. It is a sparkling electronic echo,
marker pointing directly at the two a reflection of radiation probing to

183
the earth and back to the bomber in theChannel coast the German defense
much less than a hundred-thousandth network is a center of wild activity.
of a second. The coastline slides up- The command posts of the Freya
ward until it stretches across the cen- warning apparatus have long before
ter of the cathode tube. As it continues flashed their alert warnings to all the
to move there appears the first echo- night fighter units assigned to duty,
sign of the communities on the land. and the Germans are prepared to ex-
These are the towns on the coastline act a disastrous toll of the British heavy
and slightly inland, revealed nakedly bombers. There isno question, from
to the navigators as a series of bright the first sightings and alert flashes, that
patches of light of varying sizes. a very large-scale British raid is in the
It is almost as if the sky were aligned making and the moment the
tonight,
with invisible guidelines attuned to first definite course of the bombers is

the marvelous equipment within the reported, the pilots signal their me-
bombers. Now
the scopes show a ser- chanics to close the canopies. The
pentine ribbon, dark and seemingly motors of the twin-engine fighters
shapeless— the river Elbe, pointing its roar as the airplanes trundle down
crooked finger all the way to Ham- their runways, lift quickly into the
burg. At first the finger itself lacks dark skies, and disappear into the
definition; it is a wavering blur and night.
the distant city no more than a shape- Each pilot remains in contact with
less, flickering blob on the scopes. But his ground control unit and receives
the bombers chew up the distance at specific vector control— fly to altitude,
several miles every minute, and with take up the ordered compass course,
each passing minute the blur loses its additional instructions will be trans-
electronic mistiness and begins to re- mitted en route as the planes approach
solve into a meaningful pattern. the bombers. But neither the German
Bright fingers begin to show clearly groimd controllers nor the fighter pi-
from the larger mass; these are the ex- lots and their radar operators in the

tensions of the docks. Soon all Ham- Messerschmitts and Junkers know of
burg can be seen on the scopes, and the incredibly effective diversionary
the river and canals, the major areas flights or of the millions and millions
that reflect most clearly leap into of tinfoil strips fluttering invisibly
prominence. This is the electronic in- down through the black night.
troduction, unknown to any of the Because of the ground tracking re-

two million inhabitants below, to the ports that a giant force of hostiles is

ten days of hell of Gomorrah. moving into Holland and Belgium

There are different impressions with and Western Germany, the command
differentmeanings as the Battle of centers order the majority of fighters
Hamburg explodes into life. Along airborne toward Amsterdam, where

184
they will be directed into the armada What transfers normal confusion
of the Lancasters and Halifaxes. As into absolute chaos is that the fighters
the fighters drone through the night, too are reporting the bombers — in all

they continue to receive reassuring parts of the Low Countries and over
reports of the progress of the bomber Western Germany! Virtually every
force— unaware that the fluttering tin- fighter plane that has been vectored to
foil actually constitutes the bombers. the reported positions of the bombers
Then there appear the first cracks is "encountering hostiles," but in a

in the armor of the German defense. fashion perplexing to the pilots and
Several pilots call back to their com- their radar scope operators. Again this
mand stations and complain bitterly is impossible, but it is happening.
that they cannot find the enemy; the From one part of the Continent to
bombers are assuredly heading in an- the other, the pilots report contacts by
other direction. At one moment a heavy radar, and that they are closing in rap-
bomber force is reported en masse idly to attack.
over Amsterdam and within a minute In the command stations, the con-
the ground stations call in excitedly trollers look at one another in com-
that the bombers are actually some- plete bewilderment. The pilot reports
where else over the coastline. Hardly are consistent — but what they report
does this call finish when another sta- is absolutely impossible!
tion in great agitation breaks in to re- The target is picked up on the
port "many hostiles!" west of Brussels, scope, and the operator gives his or-
and afew moments later another ex- ders to the pilot. Fly 10° left, climb
cited voice shouts over the airwaves goo feet, bomber dead ahead. The
that the bombers are actually far out pilots do as they are bid, straining
to sea. their eyes for a glimpse of the giant
With every passing minute the con- four-engine shape they know is ahead
fusion mounts steadily, and before of them. But the rate of closure is too
anyone realizes the true situation, swift! It is almost as if the bomber
Germany is undergoing a deadly crisis. were rushing head-on at the fighter
No one knows for certain exactly . . . the scope reports a target from 1

where the bombers really are. Actual- to 2000 yards out, closing rapidly. It
ly, every radar station on the ground comes down to 7, 6, and 500 yards,
is certain that the bomber force even and the pilot is prepared to blast loose
at thatmoment is roaring through its with heavy cannon and guns. ,

defense area. And this, of course, is But at 500 yards, the target disap-
patently impossible. Yet the flash pears! One instant it is there before
warnings and the demands for fighters the eyes of the operator, a sharp blip
come over the radio channels
still in on and the next instant
his scope, . . .

an unbroken stream. it is gone. But there! Again, directly

185
ahead — another Britisher! And again ing thunder of the massed motors. The
the target closes rapidly, and again it Pathfinders have done their task well,
disappears suddenly at 500 yards! and the marker flares and fires within
In the skies this night there is more the city are gleaming brightly, a burn-
than one team of pilot and radar oper- ing candle beckoning to an immense
ator who argue mightily with each swarm of lethal moths.
other. Confidence and determination By the time most of the fighters
in their maneuvers quickly fade into respond to the frantic orders to fly to

bewilderment, and all across Germany Hamburg at maximum speed, it is too

the ground stations hear the cries of: late. The from more than a
pilots
"I cannot follow any of the hostiles!" hundred miles away notice with ap-
and "They are driving us crazy; they prehension the pale flickering glow
are very cunning!" on the horizon which, as they close the

The precious minutes of bomber distance to Hamburg, assumes an

interception before the target — wher- orange and then an unholy twisting
ever it is tonight, the bewildered con- red. When they arrive over the city
trollers and pilots have absolutely no they are shocked by the sight before
idea— are rapidly disappearing. What- their eyes. The earth has been ripped
ever happens, before long it will be asunder and great crimson flames
too late to interfere with the smashing writhe in agony on the surface . . .

of the target, and bombing is rarely so

effective as when the raiders are free
of the disturbing pursuit and the ac- Editor's note
tual firing runs of the fighters.
For bombing purposes, the city was di-
Then, suddenly, during a momentary
vided in quarters.
lull in the frenzied and contradictory
In one-half hour the 740 bombers
reports from the ground stations, a dropped 2396 tons of bombs on the 1st
voice wild with frustration and rage quarter. Again on the night of July 27-
breaks into the command channel. It 28, 739 British heavies dumped 2417
is a controller, unquestionably hysteri- tons, and on July 29-30, 2382 tons on the
cal, who shouts in a shrill voice over 2nd and 3rd quarters. By August 2, thick
and over that "There are a thousand palls of black smoke still hovered over

bombers over Hamburg, a thousand

the beleaguered metropolis when 1425

of them. They are attacking Hamburg tons more fell from Bomber Command
heavies. The strikes turned Hamburg in-
this very instant!" There is no ques-
to a living hell, with great fire storms
tion now of where the bombers are,
that produced cyclonic winds. For six days
no question that this is the enigmatic a continuous blanket of heavy smoke pre-
force that has driven the defense sys- vented photo recon estimates of damage.
tem crazy. For now the Germans can When aerials were taken the results were
see the bombers, hear the overwhelm- terrifying, even to the British; 75 per

186
cqnt of the city had been completely remainder was uninhabitable. "Opera-
ra^d, lo square miles eradicated. The tion Gomorrah" had lived up to its name.

Next morning the smoke rising from the Hamburg refinery fires could be seen for 100 miles.

187
Oil was the Achilles heel of the German Wehrmacht and the big Ploesti
refineries in Rumania produced one-third of all this precious liquid Hitler
needed to run his "blitzkrieg." It was No. i target on Allied planning
boards.
A stab at the Ploesti works had been made on June ii, 1942 by 12 B-24S,
under Col. Harry A. Halverson, from bases in Egypt. All 12 returned but
little damage had been accomplished.

Orders for a second powerful strike were approved at the Casablanca

Conference in January, 194^. Under a code name of "Tidal Wave," plans
called for an unescorted treetop-level daylight strike. Most of the 2^00-mile
round trip from bases in Africa would be over enemy territory. And since
there were to be no fighter escorts, surprise was all important. The course
ran from Africa across the Mediterranean, up over the 9^00 foot Yugo-
slavian mountains then down the Danube Valley and onto the flats of
Rumania for the final run. If it added up to near-suicide, there was no
other way to sneak in under enemy defense warning system and achieve
surprise.
During the summer five groups of B-24S from Eighth and Ninth Air
Forces gathered on airfields in Tunisia and began intensive practice over
models of the refining plants built on the desert sands. The B-24S were
modified with addition of an extra fuel tank in the bomb bay and rear-
rangement of the top-turret guns in the formation lead planes to fire for-
ward allowed sweeping ahead of the armada. Extra guns were mounted in
the noses of lead planes.
The bold mission got underway at oyio hours on August i, 1943- The
crews knew this one would be rough but little could they know that be-
fore the day was out nearly one-third would go down to German flak and
fighters; thaton this one mission heroism in the skies would remain for-
ever unsurpassed and a grateful nation would award five Medals of Honor
—the largest from any one single military operation in history.
Here is the grim story of "Liberty Lad," one of the 777 B-24S that hit
Ploesti that day and barely made it back, as told by Maj. Kenton D. Mc-
Farland, its pilot.

188
 The B-24s take off from their African base headed for the infamous Ploesti raid.

Ploestl: Hell at Fifty Feet

Maj. Kenton D. McFarland, USAF,
as told to Arturo F. Gonzalez, Jr.

It is only four in the morning, and ignominious label of Site Seven. When
the sun hasn't even poked up over the the 6x6 truck slows down in front of
desert's rim, but the men seem mag- the "Liberty Lad," I hop off; the crew
netized as they drift toward the long chief and a couple of ground-crew
line of fat, full, dull green Liberators members slide out of the darkness to
parked neatly along the northern edge report that the plane is topped off

of our Benghazi field which bears the with a full load of 3100 gallons and

89
ready to go. As I spread out the map our last two max-effort practice runs.

in front of the ship and we squat in It was touch and go whether we'd
the red, gritty sand for a last look, I have something to bomb, I recall; the
what led up to
can't help but think of Arabs kept making off with the oil

thismission— and what still lies ahead. drums during the night.
There'd been mystery. It all began We'd had briefings, and then brief-
in England when the mysterious Field ings about briefings, to boot. Oil ex-
Order 58 came through and sent us perts, photo recon men, the wheels
out flying low-level practice runs in from Bomber Command Headquar-
between our Eighth Air Force mis- ters — they had all told us about the

sions over the Continent. Then, more Rumanian flak crews that weren't go-
low-level stuff in Africa when our unit ing to fire at us, the fighter fields

was transferred. where the would be

interceptors
Rumors had us slated for some dam- caught napping, the Sunday timing
busting, a low-level raid on Berlin, designed to bring us on target when
maybe even a strike at Berchtesgaden everyone else was off duty, about the
itself. When the target turned out to radar stations facing the wrong way
be Ploesti — a place most of us had and how our low-level approach and
never heard of — plenty of money radio silence would catch the Jerries
changed hands. with their pants down. Most of us dis-
There's been some laughs, too, be- counted this pep talk from the wheels;
cause buzzing a fat, dumb, and happy we knew Ploesti was going to be a
B-24 with official approval is every tough one.
bomber pilot's dream. Out on practice For the majority of us, this is the
runs, our planes had knocked over an last raid before Stateside, too: 25 mis-
English church steeple, made dozens sionscompleted and you are rotated
of tractor drivers dive for ditches, home. All but us poor characters
and
killed a couple of strolling camels picked for the Ploesti raid; we're froz-

had even come back with desert sage- en until one last little chore is
this
brush caught in the bomb-bay doors. completed. I have 31 missions myself;
And practice — God, we'd never and even though they tell me I get to
practiced for a mission quite so thor- go home afterward, I'm not looking
oughly. The RAF had rigged up sand- forward to my 32nd.
table models of the 40 square miles of I check my watch. "Let's crank her
refineries. And then the AAF had up," I grunt. Cigarettes flick out, and
filmed the models to show us the tar- laden down with chutes, tin hats, and
get under low-level approach condi- ditching gear, we squirm under the
tions. They'd even laid out 40 miles bomb-pregnant ship through the
of whitewash and oil drums in the hatches to our positions. There is that
desert to give us a target to bomb in one last nervous check: covers ripped

190
off the turrets, red sand wiped off the the "Killer" Kane's 98th, the 36 planes
plexiglass, fuel caps checked and safe- of Col. Johnson's 44th, the 30 ships in
tied, the new N-7 low-level bombsight Col. Wood's 389th. Loose and ragged
examined, bomb load, electrical and as yet, unafraid of fighters or flak, we
hydraulic system checked, the controls shape up into a column of aircraft
tested. Item by item, we go over the five miles long and drone out toward
list of hundreds of final checks, just Corfu and the Albanian coast.
as we have done on the 31 previous "Pilot to navigator."
missions. "Pilot to tail gunner."
Our planes sit in column formation We check out our intercoms. All
on the ground, parked for swift take- okay. There are tracers arching against
off time, the nervous bark of engines the blue ahead of us and I pass the
becomes a sustained roar and the word to the gunners to join the other
planes — "Sad Sack," "Old Baldy," aircraft in checking their fifties. Bursts
"Vulgar Virgin," then finally "Liberty of firefrom above me, in the waist
Lad" — lumber down to the end of and the tail, mark the rounds popped
the taxi strip and rev up for a final off into the sea. For a while anyway,
check of the mags. Then there's a it's easy going as we plod along at 160

surge, a sagging forward, the long, m.p.h. I turn the controls over to
long roll down the desert strip into Podgurski, my co-pilot, and play com-
the billowing clouds of blinding red bat correspondent by snapping a few
sand,and finally we jockey our 65,000 pictures. A nice souvenir for my
pounds of plane, crew, and load into grandchildren.
the blue Mediterranean skies. "I can't see anything wrong with
177 planes and 500,000 pounds of those ships," one gunner cracks to an-
bombs on a strike against Hitler's fuel other over the intercom. There's a
tank. Ahead: 2100 miles and 14 hours trace words as we
of envy in these
of flying, balloon barrages, flak, fight- watch a couple of planes wheel out of
ers— and possible death. formation and head back home. The
We wheel at 2000 feet waiting for commanders have found something
the other squadrons to burst through wrong with the planes and have de-
the clouds of swirling sand and sort cided that they cannot successfully
themselves out into column forma- complete the raid. We hate to lose a
tion. Our outfit, the 93rd— the "Flying single plane on this one; we need
Circus" — tightens up behind Col. Ad- every bomb we can possibly lug over
dison Baker. My eyes are already glued Ploesti,
to thesquadron leader whom I'll have The hours wear on in a continuous
to shadow for the next 14 hours if I'm roar, the plane sucking up her 202
going to hold formation the way I gallons of fuel per hour without a
should. Compton's 376th sweeps up. hitch. The men chomp on their taste-

191
less combat rations with the normal and, wingtip to wingtip, we begin to
amount of complaining about G.I. drop out of the miles of billowing
food. Ahead lies the German-held is- clouds toward relatively clear skies
land of Corfu and we maneuver to pass over the plains of Rumania. Pod points
well west, then north of it to avoid ^v- excitedly to a large river ahead of us
ing the German radar a look at the size and laughs into the intercom: "That
and direction of our formation. Our cant be the Danube, guvs. It ain't
gunners begin to search the sky for blue." But it is the Danube, and we
the Messerschmitt 109s or Focke- circle over the river twice at about
AVulfs, which just possibly might be 4000 feet, squeezing together into
lurking there. tight formational alignment.
We see a plane in the formation Still, there's been no flak, no fi^ht-
ahead swing out of formation. Is he ers, no foul-ups. And no news
good is

in trouble? Strict radio silence freezes news. I figure, as we wheel into com-
us all: no one dares even to ask who bat line and wait for the mission com-
it is or if anything's \NTong. It turns mander to lead his 177 planes toAvard
out to be death in the silence of pan- the target.
tomime. The Lib drops away from We head for Pitesti, the town that's
the formation, plunges seaward and the group's first navigational check-
explodes in a burst of greasy smoke point. We're to fly over Pitesti, then
and spray beneath us. Targoviste, then turn right at Floresti
"Poor bastards," someone mutters — our IP — on a heading of 127 f>er
as we stare, looking for the parachutes cent, making our bomb run on Target
that never blossom. WTien it's all over, White, the Concordia \'^ega lube oil
we shudder and yet think to ourselves. cracking plant in the midst of the
Thank God that this one didn't in- Ploesti industrial complex.
volve us. Streaming over Pitesti, we're right
As we cross the coastline, we come on schedule, radio silence is still in-
to grips with clouds and mountains. tact and we're down to less than 500
A flare p>ops out of Baker's Liberator feet, low to duck in under the German

to tell us he's applying power to climb radar. It's like a Mack Sennett movie
over the cumulus that is settling down all the way. Farm couples down in the
on the mountaintops ahead of us. I streets fall on their knees to pray.
shove the throttles a couple of notches Kids toss rocks at us. Horses bolt, over-
closer to the firewalland painfully, turning wagons full of families. A gal
weary "Liberty Lad" lugs
sluggishly, a bathing nude in a river almost pulls
its 30 tons up a couple of thousand the entire outfit off course.
feet. We clamp our oxygen masks over My men are now talking and joking
our mouths. nenously over the intercom. As we
The mountains are topped finally get closer to Ploesti, though, the idle

192
chatter dies away. flying faster. And a city is ahead of us
Suddenly the 376th is turning right, at last!
following a railroad spur. We're boxed "It's too big for Ploesti," Pod
in, so we wing over gently and slide shouts. "God it's Bucharest! We did
back into formation. Mordovancy, my turn too soon!"
new navigator (four former naviga- The whole group now swings to the
tors had been mortally wounded by left,wheeling away from Bucharest in
flak fragments over Italy) , up fi Dnt search of the target which still is more
in the nose, clicks on his intercom than 14 minutes away. It's not a battle
and says simply, "I think we turned now, planned and precise, but more
too soon." like a barroom brawl with every man
Pod looks agitated, too, as he chimes for himself. Compton's planes sweep
in, "We were supposed to turn on the off to the right, but Baker leads our
third town, not the second. I think group right into the flak barrage.
that was Targoviste we just went We hit Ploesti from the strong side
over!" in — instead of the weak; haystacks
The knot in my stomach's getting open up to sprout machine guns;
even tighter. houses fold their roofs back to unveil
Polka dots of black burst in a row belching flak emplacements. Ground
above us, and fragments platter like crews are running up barrage balloons
hail off the ship. I pull in my neck in- all around us.
and drop the plane another
stinctively I yell at Podgurski once again.
50 feet. The whole squadron seems "Keep your hands and feeton the
to hug the ground just a little bit controls in case I get my head blown
harder with every splatter of flak. In off."
the waists, the guys are opening up at All guns are firing now and the
the flak pits. cow-town gun
It's like a ship shakes convulsively. Everybody
fight at close quarters now, instead of up front calls out targets and the gun-
the impersonal combat at 20,000 feet ners pour fifty-calibre tracers in as we
that we're used to. streak past. I don't see if we're scoring,
"Pick up that flak tower to the but the gunners are yelling excitedly
right!" so I guess we're blasting our share of
"There's another gun emplacement ground emplacements. I notice plenty
coming up on the left!" of German camouflage, dummy tanks,
"I think I can see fire from an and so on. Some of the installations
eighty-eight battery ahead." have blast walls around them. They'll
"Tail gunner, what did we do to be tough to knock out.
those emplacements we just passed Smoke
pots bubble cloudily below
over?" us. We're getting into the heart of the
Now we're dropping lower, lower. target area and the Jerries are trying

193
to mask it, but the smoke is least ef- ly its tail snaps completely off and the
fective at noon — one original reason plane squirts into a fiery trail along
for the timing of our attack. Flashes the ground.
and black, oil columns of smoke re- The turbulence is terrific. Prop
veal where preceding bombers have wash and the hurricane-like gusts of
already come in and dropped their hot air from the exploding oil tanks
load. That knot in my stomach tight- are tossing our Lib around like a leaf.
ens another notch as I realize we'll be The next moments are a crescendo
crossing at 50 feet over gasoline stor- of light and noise. Nine rounds of
age tanks that have already been hit anti-aircraft fire explode against the
with delayed-action bombs timed to fuselage, starting just aft of the cock-
go off at any moment. pit and lacing us from there to the
We're over a target. It's a refining tail — four
rounds smashing us from
area, though, and I begin to look for the left, five from the right. We're
a likely cracking plant to home in on. seared by the odor of cordite, blinded
A Liberator ahead and streams is hit by the smoke of the fires started in
scarlet flame from the waist window. the nose section, deafened by the roar
Still the pilot presses home the attack. of the explosions. We've been chopped
I see the bombs drop. Then he pulls badly by twenty-millimeters, point-
the ship up sharply, trying desperate- blank cross-fire. The ship sags, but
ly to give his men enough altitude to miraculously maintains flying speed.
bail out. One . . . two . . . three rag Pod yells at me, pointing to the in-
dolls pop out, half-open white chutes strument panel: "Number Three is

flowing behind them. The Liberator running away. Shall I feather it?" he
shudders, and drops down in a ball of asks.

fire. The three parachutes drop right I need every ounce of power I can
into the holocaust. get. "Let the son of a bitch wind
Tracers lace the air. A bomb ex- off," I yell.

plodes and a gas-storage tank rises A cracking plant looms up ahead of

1000 feet into the air between two us. The leader is dropping his bombs,
Liberators. I see another ship go into and I head for it, too. Slade the bomb-
a black, oily cloud; it never comes ardier, also sees it, and the plane
out. Baker's plane is on fire; still he slows perceptibly as he rolls the bomb-
presseshome his attack and drops his bay doors open.
bombs. Then his ship somersaults to We pass directly over the plant, and
the ground in a flaming skid. our six 500-pounders and a scattering
A ship from the 93rd hits some- of incendiaries drop behind us.
thing — a balloon cable, I suddenly We crank the bomb-bay doors
realize. The ship slides up the cable, closed. With them shut, the battered
seems to break through, then sudden- plane picks up speed and we maneu-

194
"A cracking plant looms up ahead of us. The leader is dropping his bombs, and I head for it, too."
The Astra Romano refinery, Ploesti.

195
ver better through the curtain flak tains, and the coast.
and oil explosions. Johnnie Brown, in the top turret,
I spot a river and hug it as we try begins yelling, so I know that fighters
to sneak out of Ploesti. We're so low are heading our way. I concentrate on
that our props kick up a feathery keeping the plane low and tucked into
spray. Splashes all around us reveal formation.
the lattice-work of small-arms cross- The German guns wink at us for 15
fire being poured down on us from minutes but we stick together and
the riverbanks. We're alone; I don't only one goes down. Finally, with a
see a single other of the more than 150 last snarling pass, they head for home
planes that went to Ploesti. base.
I'm not thinking at all now about We're flying a shattered aircraft,
our prearranged escape route and nearly 1000 miles from safety. But
rendezvous at Lake Balta-Potelel, 120 suddenly we feel as if we have it made;
miles to the south. I just want to get the worst seems over.
the hell out of the flak and head for Smathers, our radioman, sticks his
home. There's a hill ahead and we head in the cockpit. "Go back and lie
climb slowly toward it. It seems to be down," I order him. Flak fragments
a hundred miles away and our plane have made him a mass of blood from
seems to move only inches each min- head to foot, his khakis blackened and
ute. We finally roar across the crest wet. In back, they patch him up with
and the Ahead? Ahead
flak slacks off. their first-aid kits. Later, he pops his
there are Liberators — one two , . . head in again, and insists he's all right
. . . four ... a half-dozen. Like sleep- and he thinks can get our radio receiv-
walkers they're cruising aimlessly — ers working.
no formation — shocked silly. The cumulus over the mountains
Somehow a formation evolves and has ballooned to 40,000 feet by this
we nestle into it. Dazedly, we make a time and as we climb to breast the
feeble attempt to assess the damage range, we find a comparatively clear
the flak has done to the plane. Our path at about 15,000 — several thou-
radio is smashed, so we can't commu- sand feet over the rugged peaks. Oc-
Our intercom and oxygen sys-
nicate. casional cloud patches down on the
tems have been shredded with shell deck gives us the willies but this seems
Our trim tabs are out,
fragments. too, trivial and pretty risk-free after Ploesti.
but somehow Podgurski and I are Or at least we feel that way until we
managing to fly the plane even with see two Liberators move side by side
the control surfaces chopped up as into billowing cumulus and then
they are. Engine 3 has me worried. watch, horrified, as pieces of airplane
The formation climbs to 1000 feet, — the deadly drizzle of a mid-air col-
heading for the Danube, the moun- lision—rain out of the cloud.

196
 Once over the mountains, I tell the Number 2 engine runs dry?
Johnnie Brown to begin pumping our We don't have long to wait for an
reserve fuel from the two bomb-bay answer. In 15 minutes. Number 2
tanks to our wing tanks. croaks itsBoth Pod and I give
last.

The odor of gas tells me the bad the plane full right rudder and sick
news even before Johnnie clambers Number 3 — and 4, take up the strain.
back into the cockpit to give it to me Down we go, gradually, but down,
himself. "We can't pump into i and nevertheless. The slightest relaxing of
2," he reports. "The fuel lines are cut pressure and the plane tends to lurch
or collapsed." dangerously to the left. She still drops.
Things don't look so rosy any Drops too fast, in fact! I pass the
more. With only two engines, we're word to toss out everything that we
going to have to baby the plane for don't absolutely need. There are going
more than 500 miles if we're to get to be a few surprised fish below. Oxy-
home. gen bottles, fire extinguishers, the
I make the first of several tough de- AAF's beautiful new aerial camera,
cisions. Do we turn back while we ammunition boxes — these stream out
still have power and bail out to be- of the hatches in a hurry.
come POWs, or do we take a chance Johnnie Brown comes forward and
and continue heading out over the asks, "The guns, too?"
Med, where bailing out is usually fa- We're still within fighter range but
tal? I decide I don't want to be a POW. we have to chance it. Ten well-used
There is mechanical sputtering and and a couple of hundred
fifty-calibres
coughing; Number 1 has exhausted pounds of ammunition go over the
itsfuel supply. Podgurski feathers the side, too. Back in the ship, the crew
prop and both of us hit the right rud- pick up fire-axes and start chopping
der pedal a little harder to keep the away at any excess metal or insulation
ship on course. The aircraft begins to they think may be weighting "Liberty
sag slightly, dropping behind and be- Lad" down. The chopped chunks of
low the squadron. I don't even dare metal go out, then the fire-axes.
tamper with our worthiness to the ex- Smathers and Brown huddle over
tent of waggling our wings in the age- the shattered communication equip-
old sign of distress. "I just hope those ment. I pass word back to the rest of
lucky stiffs remember to tell Rescue the men to get into ditching position,
where they left us," someone mutters. sitting on the floor, oarsman-style, with
Below us is the coast of Greece; be- their backs to the forward bulkhead.
hind us, the enemy. Ahead of us is Down the ship continues to drop,
the Axis-controlled Mediterranean the altimeter flicking off the footage as
Sea, and with us, that gnawing ques- we are drawn slowly but continuously
tion: Will the ship stay in the air when toward the sea: 6500 feet . . . 6000 . . .

197
5500 . . dropping rapidly as we strain ahead to
Brown, standing by, stuffs a couple see if indeed we have finally crossed
of extra chutes behind our back to the Med. But then we look again and
give us all the leverage we need to realize the lowering sun has played a
keep full rudder pressure for the fight cruel trick on us. There is no land,
to keep her up and on course. At only the unending gray of the sea into
5000 feet the ship finally seems to which we may have to plunge this ship
level out. Denser air, jettisoning the at any moment. And ditching at night
equipment and the ever-lightening in the sea is almost certain suicide.
fuel load have resulted in equilibrium. Land? This time I think I see it.
Now all Podgurski and I have to do But I dare not disappoint myself and
is fly this crate 700 miles home on the the crew by announcing it. "Johnnie
strength of our leg muscles. Brown, come up for a second," I ask.
The seconds become minutes. Our He pops up and I tell him to take a
thighs and and knot
calves tighten look for me. He stares intently at the
with cramps. The minutes become horizon.
hours. Our legs go to sleep and Brown It is land. He passes the word and
massages them, encouraging us all the this time the cheer we get from be-
time. hind must be audible all the way back
Then we get a break. Smathers sticks to Ploesti.
his banged up old head — bandages, As we cross the coastline in the gath-
blood and all — into the cockpit and ering dusk, we breathe a collective
tells me that he has the radio receiver sigh of relief. Here, at least, it will be
and transmitter operating and can comparatively safe to bail out should
work 3460 KG, the squadron's opera- everything fail. But Lm determined
tional frequency. We can now request now to bring the ship in. Our QDM
and receive QDM's directional fixes tells me we're north of the base and I

from our AAF station 75X at Misuita, gingerly turn the plane to the right. In

Libya. There's at least a chance that a short while, Benghasi is below us.

we'll now be able to find out what Ahead I see an airstrip ... it isn't our
direction to fly toward home base. We Site 7, but the 376th's field. Any port
shift course gingerly at each new fix in a storm. Besides, they've got a hos-
and I shave 10° off every fix just to pital there and Smathers is still bleed-
make sure we don't miss the point of ing and in pretty bad shape.
land we're heading for and spend an Brown reaches above him and trig-

extra hour of flying over the Gulf of gers the Very flare gun, arching a
Sirte. couple of red streaks against the pitch
"Land!" black, Tunisian sky. The base flood-
Podgurski sees it first, a thin black lights the landing strip in return and
line along the horizon. The sun is Brown pumps our wheels down by

198
hand. inexperienced navigator. Once across the
I make my turn into the final ap- Mediterranean high cloud formations
using one-half split the armada. Col. John R. "Killer"
proach at 2000 feet
Kane led his 96th Group under while
flaps. Then everything in the ship cuts
others climbed over the top. This split
out, I lose all my instrument light and
shattered the time factor, so important
am sitting in darkness trying to bring
in surprise. Shrouded in radio silence,
this cripple in.
the formation elements quickly lost con-
Brown flicks on his flashlight and tact with each other and proceeded in-
focuses it on my airspeed indicator. I dependently.
hold it at 120 m.p.h. If it increases, I Well into Rumania, Compton, leading
know I'm diving the ship too much; his 376th Group misidentified a check-
if it decreases, I know I'm approaching point, turned his group for the run to
stall angle. I hold it . . . hold it . . .
Ploesti and ended up over the suburbs
hold it . . . hold it — and then with the of Bucharest, the Rumanian capital.
Blindly following was the 93rd Group.
screech of smoking rubber, we pile
By the time both swung left toward
onto the runway and begin a roll that
Ploesti the cat was out of the bag and
lasts for 6000 feet. No brakes.
alerted German defenses all along the
As we stop, the ambulance, a jeep, final flight path threw up a deadly bar-
and fire trucks surround us. rage of flak. The same reception met the
We sit at our positions with hardly other formations farther north. Air bat-
a word. Slade comes up to me and tle organization and discipline vanished.
shakes my hand. "If I'd known you Time over targets could not be met.
were even thinking of landing this Briefed approaches were impossible and
junk heap. Lieutenant, I would have bombardiers took pot luck. Squadrons off

bailed out twenty minutes ago," he schedule caught the fury of delayed-

says, ^e congratulates me, though, for action explosions. Dense, choking smoke
so nimbly dodging the balloon cables from raging oil fires blacked-out target

over the target area. I don't dare tell

areas. German flak, small-arms fire, dang-

never saw a one of the

ling balloon cables and towering smoke-
him that I
stacks hidden in the pall that enveloped
cables he is talking about.
the target turned Ploesti into a valley of
Our mission to Ploesti is over.
death. Bombers were seen to penetrate
solid of fire, emerge white and
walls
scorched. A few, mortally wounded on
Editor's note the bomb run, deliberately dove their

SliGidy after takeoff, "aborts" began. craft into the targets. Scores of German
Eleven dropped out as the formation fighters craftily waited to jump the limp-
crossed the Mediterranean, including the ing armada on its way home. Out of 194
lead navigation ship. Its place was taken B-24S which took off from Africa, 177
by Col. Keith Compton flying the mis- made it to the target and about one-
sion commander Gen. Uzal Ent, and an third never made it back. Neither did

199
"Dense, choking smoke from raging oil fires blacked-out target areas." These captured German
damage caused by the bombing of Ploesti on August 1, 1943.
films record the intense

200
44© airmen, while 200 more wound up returned to full capacity in a month, the
in German POW
camps and 79 were threat of a repeat performance tied down
interned in neutral Turkey where some large elements of the Luftwaffe for the
of the bombers, short of return flight next nine months. Renewed at-
critical

fuel, had landed. tacks on began in the spring of

Ploesti
While the Ploesti damage (40 per cent 1944 by the Italian-based Fifteenth Air
of production), was repaired and the plant Force and by August, 1944 it was in ruins.

Two weeks following Ploesti, the second great epic in the strategic air
campaign took place in the skies deep over Germany. It was a twin-
pronged strike at industrial targets in the cities ofRegensburg and
Schweinfurt. The Messerschmitt factory at Regensburg produced nearly
half of the Luftwaffe's single-engine fighters while Schweinfurt housed
the Nazis' great ball-bearing works, producing about 50 per cent of Ger-
many's Destruction of these industries would put a dent in Hitler's
total.

capacity to wage war, and appreciably reduce the industrial base of the
Luftwaffe.
Schweinfurt lay 200 miles beyond Allied fighter escort range, while
Regensburg was 100 miles farther on. The mission plan called for two
waves, the first force of 146 bombers to strike Regensburg and the second
of 2^0 heavies to hit the factories at Schweinfurt.
The bold mission got underway on the morning of August ly, with the
Regensburg force in the van.Dropping their fighter escort near the Ger-
man border, the B-ijs were immediately set upon by hordes of Luftwaffe
fighters who were called in by German controllers from as far away as
the Baltic. The ferocious attack continued for an hour and a half— ten
thousand eternities to the crews. But the formations rammed through
despite the violent loss of 24 big craft and damaged every building in the
Messerschmitt plant. While the Luftwaffe waited to bounce the force
again on its way home, the formation blithely turned south and flew over
the Alps to bases in Africa.
The Schweinfurt Force which was to follow immediately on the heels

of the Regensburg bombers, was delayed by weather for 5!/^ hours. Had
it been on time it would have slipped relatively easily into Schweinfurt

while the Luftwaffe was hitting the Regensburg-bound formation. But

being late, by the time the Schweinfurt B-iys dropped their escort and
reached Germany, Luftwaffe fighters had refueled, rested, and rearmed;
and they rose up for the second time in a day to press the attack on the
huge formation during the entire mission to and from target. Out of 2^0
bombers dispatched, ^6 were lost and nearly 100 were shot into crippling
condition. Air crew casualties were atrocious. So ferocious and sustained

201
 was the Luftwaffe attack that crews fought until they were completely
exhausted. Even so, the formation made 80 direct hits on the two hall-
bearing works.
Lt. Col. Beirne Lay, Jr. (today a well-known movie, television, maga-
zine, and book writer) vividly describes how it was in the skies over Ger-
many that day from his co-pilot's seat on a Regensburg-bound B-iy.

I Saw Regensburg Destroyed

Lt. Col. Beirne Lay, Jr.

In the briefing room, the intelligence fellows know what that means to you
officer of the bombardment group personally."
pulled a cloth screen away from a huge There were a few hollow laughs.
wall map. Each of the 240 sleepy-eyed After the briefing, I climbed aboard
combat-crew members in the crowded a jeep bound for the operations office
room leaned forward. There were low to check up on my Fortress assignment.
whistles. I felt a sting of anticipation The stars were dimly visible through
as I stared at the red string on the map the chilly mist that covered our
that stretchedfrom our base in Eng- blacked-out bomber station, but the
land to a pinpoint deep in Southern weather forecast for a deep penetration
Germany, then south across the Alps, over the Continent was good. In the
through the Brenner Pass to the coast office, I looked at the crew sheet, where
of Italy, then past Corsica and Sardinia the line-up of the lead, low, and high
and south over the Mediterranean to a squadrons of the group is plotted for
desert airdrome in North Africa. You each mission. I was listed for a co-
could have heard an oxygen mask pilot's seat. While I stood there, and
drop. on the chance suggestion of one of
"Your primary," said the intelli- the squadron commanders who was
gence officer, "is Regensburg. Your looking over the list, the operations
aiming point is the center of the Mes- officer erased my name and shifted me
serschmitt One Hundred and Nine G to the high squadron as co-pilot in the
aircraft-and-engine assembly shops. crew of a steady Irishman named Lt.
This is the most vital target we've ever Murphy, with whom I had flown be-
gone after. If you destroy it, you de- fore. Neither of us knew it, but that
stroy 30 per cent of the Luftwaffe's operations officer saved my life right
single-engine fighter production. You there with a piece of rubber on the

202
end of a pencil. oiled the bolts. Our top-turret gun-
At 5:30 A.M., 15 minutes before taxi ner lay in the grass with his head on
time, a jeep drove around the five-mile his parachute, feigning sleep, sweating
perimeter track in the semi-darkness, out his 13th start.

pausing at each dispersal point long We shared a common knowledge

enough to notify the waiting crews which grimly enhanced the normal
that poor would post-
local visibility excitement before a mission. Of the
pone the takeoff for an hour and a approximately 150 Fortresses who
half. I was sitting with Murphy and were hitting Regensburg, our group
the rest of our crew near the "Picca- was the last and lowest, at a base alti-

dilly She looked sinister and

Lily." tude of 17,000 feet. That's well within
complacent, squatting on her fat the range of accuracy for heavy flak.

tires with scarcely a hole in her skin Our course would take us over plenty
to show for the 12 raids behind her. of It was a cinch also that our group
it.

The postponement tightened, rather would be the softest touch for the
than relaxed, the tension. Once more enemy fighters, being last man through
I checked over my life vest, oxygen the gantlet. Furthermore, the "Picca-
mask, and parachute, not perfunctori- dilly Lily" was leading the last three
ly, but the way you check something ships of the high squadron — the tip
you're going to have to use. I made of the tail end of the whole shebang.
sure my escape kit was pinned securely We didn't relish it much. Who wants
in the knee pocket of my flying suit, a Purple Heart?
where it couldn't fall out in a scram- The minute hand of my wrist watch
ble to abandon ship. I slid a himting dragged. I caught myself thinking
knife between my shoe and my flying about the day, exactly one year ago,
boot as I looked again through my on August 17, 1942, when I watched
extra equipment for this mission: wa- a pitifully small force of 12 B-17S take
ter canteen, mess kit, blankets, and off on the first raid of the Eighth Air
English pounds for use in the Algerian Force to make a shallow penetration
desert,where we would sleep on the against Rouen, France. On that day it
ground and might be on our own was our maximum effort. Today, on
from a forced landing. our first anniversary, we were putting
Murphy restlessly gave the "Picca- 30 times that number of heavies into
dilly Lily" another once-over, inspect- the air — half the force on Regensburg
ing ammunition belts, bomb bay, and half the force on Schweinfurt, both
tires, and oxygen pressure at each crew situated inside the interior of the Ger-
station. Especially the oxygen. It's hu- man Reich. For a year and a half, as
man fuel, as important as gasoline, a staff officer, I had watched the Eighth
up where we operate. Gunners field- Air Force grow under Maj. Gen. Ira
stripped their .50 calibres again and C. Faker. That's a long time to watch

203
 Over Schweinfurt, an Me-
110 goes down in flonfies
before the guns of Ameri-
can Flying Fortresses.

from behind a desk. Only lo days ago dreamed up the biggest air operation
I had asked for and received orders to to date to celebrate its birthday in the
combat duty. Those lo days had been biggest league of aerial warfare.
full of the swift action of participating At 7:30 we broke out of the cloud
in f^ir combat missions and checking tops into the glare of the rising sim.
out for the first time as a four-engine Beneath our B-17 lay English fields,
pilot. still blanketed in the thick mist from
Now I knew that it can be easier to which we had just emerged. We con-
be shot at than telephoned at. That tinued to climb slowly, our broad
staff officers at an air force headquar- wings shouldering a heavy load of in-
ters are the unsung heroes of this war. cendiary bombs in the belly and a
And yet I foimd myself reminiscing burden of fuel in the main and wing-
just a little affectionately about that tip! Tokyo tanks that would keep the
desk, wondering if there wasn't a Fortress afloat in the thin upper alti-
touch of suicide in store for our group. tudes 1 1 hours.
One thing was sure: headquarters had From my co-pilot's seat on the right-

204
hand watched the white surface
side, I Formed at last, each flanking group
of the overcast,where B-17S in clusters in position 1000 feetabove or below
of six to the squadron were punctur- its lead our 15-mile parade
group,
ing the cloud deck all about us, rising moved east toward Lowestoft, point of
clear of the mist with their glass noses departure from the friendly coast, un-
slanted upward for the long climb to wieldy, but dangerous to fool with.
base altitude. We tacked on to one of From my perch squadron
in the high
these clutches of six. Now the sky over in the last element of the whole pro-
England was heavy with the weight of cession, the air division looked like
thousands of tons of bombs, fuel, and huge anvil-shaped swarms of locusts —
men being lifted four miles straight not on dress parade, like the bombers
up on a giant aerial hoist to the west- of the Luftwaffe that died like flies

ern terminus of a 20,000-foot elevated over Britain in 1940, but deployed to

highway that led east to Regensburg. uncover every gun and permit maneu-
At intervals I saw the arc of a sputter- verability. Our formation was basically
ing red, green, or yellow flare being that worked out for the air corps by
fired from the cabin roof of a group Brig. Gen. Hugh Knerr 20 years ago
leader's airplane to identify the lead with 85-mile-an-hour bombers, plus
squadron to the high and low squad- refinements devised by Col. LeMay
rons of each group. Assembly takes from experience in the European
longer when you come up through an Theatre.
overcast. The English Channel and the North
For nearly an hour, still over South- Sea glittered bright in the clear visi-

ern England, we climbed, nursing the bility as we left the bulge of East
straining Cyclone engines in a 300- Anglia behindus. Up ahead we knew
foot-per-minute ascent, forming three we were already registering on the
that
squadrons gradually into compact German RDF screen, and that the sec-
group stagger formations — low squad- tor controllers of the Luftwaffe's fight-
ron down to the left and high squadron er belt in Western Europe were busy
up to the right of the lead squadron — altering their Staffein of Focke-Wulfs
groups assembling into looser combat and Messerschmitts. I stole a last look
wings of two to three groups each back at cloud-covered England, where
along the combat-wing assembly line, I could see a dozen spare B-17S, who

homing over predetermined points had accompanied us to fill in for any

with radio compass, and finally cruis- abortives from mechanical failure in
ing along the air-division assembly the hard climb, gliding disappointedly
line to allow the combat wings to fall home to base.
into place in trail behind Col. Curtis I fastened my oxygen mask a little
E. LeMay in the lead group of the air tighter and looked at the little ball in
division. a glass tube on the instrument panel

205
 oxygen
that indicates proper
was moving up and down, like
heartbeat, as I breathed, registering
normal.
Already the gunners were searching.
Occasionally the ship shivered as guns
were tested with short bursts.
see puffs of smoke from the
blue
group close ahead and looo feet above
us, as each gunner satisfied himself
that he had lead poisoning at his trig-
ger tips. The coast of Holland ap-
peared in sharp black outline. I drew
in a deep breath of oxygen.
A few miles in front of us were
German boys in single-seaters
were probably going to react to us in
the same way our boys would react,
emotionally, if German bombers were
heading for the Pratt k Whitney en-
gine factory at Hartford or the Liber-
ator plant at Willow Run. In the
making was a death struggle
the unstoppable object and the im-
movable defense, every possible de-
fense at the disposal of the Reich, for
this was a deadly penetration to a
hitherto inaccessible and critically im-
portant arsenal of the Vaterland.
At 10:00 we crossed the coast of
Holland, south of The Hague, with
our group of Fortresses tucked in
tightly and within handy supporting
distance of the group above us, at
18,000 feet. But our long, loose-linked
column looked too long, and the gaps
between combat wings too wide. As I
squinted into the sun, gauging the
distance to the barely visible specks of
the lead group, I had a recurrence of
flow. It that sinking feeling before the take-off
a visual — the lonesome foreboding that might
come to the last man about to run a
gantlet lined with spiked clubs. The
premonition was well founded.
At 10:17, J^car Woensdrecht, I saw
I could the first flak blossom out in our vicin-
ity, light and inaccurate. A few minutes
later, at approximately 10:25, a gun-
ner called "Fighters at two o'clock
low." I saw them, climbing above the
horizon ahead of us to the right —a
pair of them. For a moment
hoped I
they were P-47 Thunderbolts from
the fighter escort that was supposed to
who be in our vicinity, but I didn't hope
long. The two FW-190S turned and
whizzed through the formation ahead
of us in a frontal attack, nicking two
B-17S in the wings and breaking away
in half rolls right over our group. By
craning my neck up and back, I
between glimpsed one of them through the roof
glass in the cabin, flashing past at a
600-mile-an-hour rate of closure, his
yellow nose smoking and small pieces
flying off near the wing root. The
guns of our group were in action. The
pungent smell of burnt cordite filled
the cockpit and the B-17 trembled to
the recoil of nose and ball-turret guns.
Smoke immediately trailed from the
hit B-17S, but they held their stations.
Here was early fighter reaction. The
members of the crew sensed trouble.
There was something desperate about
the way those two fighters came in fast
right out of their climb, without any
preliminaries. Apparently our own
fighters were busy somewhere farther
206
up the procession. The interphone was
active for a few seconds with brief
admonitions: "Lead 'em more." . .
"Short bursts." "Don't throw
. . . ing group for mutual support.
rounds away." ."Bombardier to left
. .
waist gunner, don't yell. Talk slow."
Three minutes later the gunners
reported fighters climbing up from all
around the clock, singly and in pairs,
both FW-190S and Me-109-Gs. The
fighters I could see on my side looked
like too many for sound health. No
friendly Thunderbolts were visible.
From now on we were in mortal dan-
ger. A co-ordinated attack began, with
the head-on fighters coming in from
slightly above, the nine and three
o'clock attackers approaching from
about level and the rear attackers from
slightly below. The guns from every
B-17 in our group and the group ahead
were firing simultaneously, lashing the
sky with ropes or orange tracers to
match the chain-puff bursts squirting
from the 20-mm cannon muzzles in the
wings of the jerry single-seaters.
I noted with alarm that a lot of our
fire was falling astern of the target —
particularly from our hand-held nose
and waist guns. Nevertheless, both
sides got hurt in this clash, with the
entire second element of three B-17S
from our low squadron and one B-17
from the group ahead falling out of
formation on fire, with crews bailing
out, and several fighters heading for
the deck in flames or with their pilots
lingering behind under the dirty yel-
low canopies that distinguished some
of their parachutes from ours. Our
twenty-four-year-old group leader, fly-
ing only his third combat mission,
. pulled us up even closer to the preced-
As we swung slightly outside with
our squadron, in mild evasive action,
I got a good look at that gap in the
low squadron where three B-17S had
been. Suddenly I bit my lip hard. The
lead ship of that element had pulled
out on fire and exploded before any-
one bailed out. It was the ship to
which I had been originally assigned.
I glanced over at Murphy. It was
cold in the cockpit, but sweat was run-
ning from his forehead and over his
oxygen mask from the exertion of
holding his element in tight formation
and the strain of the warnings that
hummed over the interphone and
what he could see out of the corners
of his eyes. He caught my glance and
turned the controls over to me for a
while. It was an enormous relief to
concentrate on flying instead of sitting
there watching fighters aiming be-
tween your eyes. Somehow, the attacks
from the rear, although I could see
them through my ears via the inter-
phone, didn't bother me. I guess it was
because there was a slab of armor plate
behind my back and I couldn't watch
them, anyway.
I knew that we were in a lively
fight. Every alarm bell in my brain
and heart was ringing a high-pitched
warning. But my nerves were steady
and my brain working. The fear was
unpleasant, but it was bearable. I
knew that I was going to die, and so
207
were a lot of others. What I didn't and was set for us. We were already
know was that the real fight, the through the German fighter belt. Ob-
Anschluss of Luftwaffe 20-mm cannon viously, they had moved a lot of squad-
shells, hadn't really begun. The larg- rons back in a fluid defense in depth,
est and most savage fighter resistance and they must have been saving up
of any war in history was rising to some outfits for the inner defense we
stop us at any cost, and our group was didn't know about. The life expect-
the most vulnerable target. ancy of our group seemed definitely
A few minutes later we absorbed limited, since it had already appeared
the first wave of a hailstorm of indi- that the fighters, instead of wasting
vidual fighter attacks that were to fuel trying to overhaul the preceding
engulf us clear to the target in such a groups, were glad to take a cut at us.
blizzard of bullets and shells that a Swinging their yellow noses around
chronological account is difficult. It in a wide U-turn, the 12-ship squadron
was at 10:41, over Eupen, that I looked of Me- logs came in from twelve to two
out the window after a minute's lull, o'clock in pairs. The main event was
and saw two whole squadrons, twelve on. I fought an impulse to close my
Me- 109s and eleven FW-igos climbing eyes, and overcame it.
parallel to us as though they were on A shining silver rectangle of metal
a steep escalator. The first squadron sailed past over our right wing. I rec-
had reached our level and was pulling ognized it as a main-exit door. Seconds

ahead to turn into us. The second was later, a black lump came hurtling
not far behind. Several thousand feet through the formation, barely missing
below us were many more fighters, several propellers. It was a man, clasp-
their noses cocked up in a maximum ing his knees to his head, revolving
climb. Over came re-
the interphone like a diver in a triple somersault,
ports of an equal number of enemy shooting by us so close that I saw a
aircraft deploying on the other side of piece of paper blow out of his leather
the formation. jacket. He was evidently making a de-
For the first time I noticed an layed jump, for I didn't see his para-
Me- 110 sitting out of range on our chute open.
level out to the right. He was to stay A B-17 turned gradually out of the
with us all the way to the target, ap- formation to the right, maintaining
parently radioing our position and altitude. In a split second it complete-
weak spots to fresh Staffein waiting ly vanished in a brilliant explosion,
farther down the road. from which the only remains were
At the sight of all these fighters, I had four balls of fire, the fuel tanks, which
the distinct feeling of being trapped were quickly consumed as they fell

— that the Hun had been tipped off earthward.

or at least had guessed our destination I saw blue, red, yellow, and alumi-

208
num-colored fighters. Their tactics Fortresses, nor save the single-seaters
were running fairly true to form, with from paying a terrible price.
frontal attacks hitting the low squad- Our airplane was endangered by
ron and rear attackers going for the various debris. Emergency hatches, exit
lead and high squadrons. Some of the doors, prematurely opened parachutes,
jerries shot at us with rockets, and an bodies and assorted fragments of
attempt at air-to-air bombing was B-17S and Hun fighters breezed past
made with little black time-fuse sticks, us in the slipstream.
dropped from above, which exploded I watched two fighters explode not
in small gray puffs off to one side of far beneath, disappear in sheets of
the formation. Several of the FWs did orange flame; B-17S dropping out in
some nice deflection shooting on side every stage of distress, from engines
attacks from 500 yards at the high on fire to control shot away; friendly
group, then raked the low group on and enemy parachutes floating down,
the breakaway at closer range with and, on the green carpet far below us,
their noses cocked in a side slip, to funeral pyres of smoke from fallen
keep the formation in their sights fighters, marking our trail.
longer in the turn. External fuel tanks On we flew through the cluttered
were under the bellies or wings
visible wake of a desperate air battle, where
of at least two squadrons, shedding un- disintegrating aircraft were common-
comfortable light on the mystery of place and the white dots of 60 para-
their ability to tail us so far from their chutes in the air at one time were
bases. hardly worth a second look. The spec-
The manner of the assaults indi- tacle registering on my eyes became so
cated that the pilots knew where we fantastic that my brain turned numb
were going and were inspired with a to the actuality of the death and de-
fanatical determination to stop us be- struction all around us. Had it not
fore we got there. Many pressed at- been for the squeezing in my stomach,
tacks home 250 yards or less, or
to which I was trying to purge, I might
bolted right through the formation easily have been watching an animated
wide out, firing long 20-second bursts, cartoon in a movie theater.
often presenting point-blank targets The minutes dragged on into an
on the breakaway. Some committed hour. And still the fighters came. Our
the fatal error of pulling up instead of gunners called coolly and briefly to
going down and out. More experienced one another, dividing up their targets,
pilots came in on frontal attacks with fighting for their lives with every
a noticeably slower rate of closure, ap- round of ammunition — and our lives,
parently throttled back, obtaining and the formation. The tail gunner
greater accuracy. But no tactics could called that he was out of ammunition.
halt the close-knit juggernauts of our We sent another belt back to him.

209
Here was a new hazard. We might run I took the controls for a while. The
out of .50-calibre slugs before we first thingsaw when Murphy re-
I

reached the target. sumed flying was a B-17 turning slowly

I looked to both sides of us. Our two out to the right; its cockpit was a mass
wing men were gone. So was the ele- of flames. The co-pilot crawled out of
ment in front of us — all three ships. his window, held on with one hand,
We moved up into position behind reached back for his parachute, buck-
the lead element of the high squadron. led it on, let go and was whisked back
I looked out again on my side and into the horizontal stabilizer of the
saw a cripple, with one prop feathered, tail. I believe the impact killed him.
struggle up behind our right wing His parachute didn't open.
with his bad engine funneling smoke I looked forward and almost ducked
into the slipstream. He dropped back. as watched the tail gunner of a B-17
I

Now gunner had a clear view.

our tail ahead of us take a bead right on our
There were no more B-17S behind us. windshield and cut loose with a stream
We were the last man. of tracers that missed us by a few feet

The air battles between German fighters and American bombers were replete with tense moments.
In this painting by C. E. Turner a Focke-Wulf FW-190 is making a head-on attack on a Boeing B-17.

210
as he fired on a fighter attacking us his parachute prematurely and nearly
from six o'clock low. I almost ducked fouled the tail. Another went out the
again when our own top-turret gun- left-waist-gun opening, delaying his
ner's twin muzzles pounded away a opening for a safe interval. The tail
foot above my head in the full for- gunner dropped out of his hatch, ap-
ward position, giving a realistic imita- parently pulling the ripcord before he
tion of cannon shells exploding in the was clear of the ship. His parachute
cockpit, while I gave an even better opened instantaneously, barely missing
imitation of a man jumping six inches the tail, and jerked him so hard that
out of his seat. both of his shoes came off. He hung
Still no letup. The
fighters queued limp in the harness, whereas the others
up and let us have it.
like a breadline had shown immediate signs of life,
Each second of time had a cannon shifting around in their harness. The
shell in it. The strain of being a clay Fortress then dropped back in a me-
duck wrong end of that aerial
in the dium spiral and I did not see the pilots
shooting gallery became almost in- leave. I saw the ship though, just be-
tolerable. Our "Picadilly Lily" shook fore it trailed from view, belly to the
steadily with the fire of the .50s, and sky, its wing a solid sheet of yellow
the air inside was wispy with smoke. flame.
I checked the engine instruments for Now that we had been under con-
the thousandth time. Normal. No in- stant attack for more than an hour, it
jured crew members yet. Maybe we'd appeared certain that our group was
get to that target, even with our re- faced with extinction. The sky was
duced fire power. Seven Fortresses still mottled with rising fighters. Tar-
from our group had already gone get time was 35 minutes away. I doubt

down and many of the rest of us were if a man in the group visualized the
badly shot up and short-handed be- possibility of our getting much farther
cause of wounded crew members. without 100 per cent Gunners loss.

Almost disinterestedly I observed a were becoming exhausted and nerve-

B-17 pull out from the group preced- tortured from the nagging strain — the
ing us and drop back to a position strain that sends gunners and pilots
about 200 feet from our right wingtip. to the rest home. We had been aiming
His right Tokyo tanks were on fire, point for what looked like most of the
and had been for a half-hour. Now the Luftwaffe. It looked as though we
smoke was thicker. Flames were lick- might find the rest of it primed for
ing through the blackened skin of the us at the target.
wings. While the pilot held her steady, At this hopeless point, a young
I saw four crew members drop out the squadron commander down in the low
bomb bay and execute delayed jumps. squadron was living through his finest
Another bailed from the nose, opened hour. His squadron had lost its second

211
element of three ships early in the tively inexperienced youngsters, were
fight, south of Antwerp, yet he had preparing tc bail out. The co-pilot
consistently maintained his vulnerable pleaded repeatedly with him to bail
and exposed position in the formation out. His reply at this critical juncture
rigidly in order to keep the guns of was blunt. His words were heard over
his three remaining ships well uncov- the interphone and had a magical ef-
ered to protect the belly of the forma- fect on the crew. They stuck to their
tion. Now, nearing the target, battle guns. The B-17 kept on.
damage was catching up with him fast. Near the initial point, at 1 1:50, one
A 20-mm cannon shell penetrated the hour and a half after the first of at least
right side of his airplane and exploded 200 individual fighter attacks, the
beneath him, damaging the electrical pressure eased off, although hostiles
system and cutting the top-turret gun- were still in the vicinity. A curious
ner in the leg. A second 20-mm en- sensation came over me. I was still

tered the radio compartment, killing alive. It was possible to think of the
the radio operator, who bled to death target. Of North Africa. Of returning
with his legs severed above the knees. to England. Almost idly, I watched a
A third 20-mm shell entered the left crippled B-17 P*^^^
over to the curb
side of the nose, tearing out a section and drop its wheels and open its bomb
about two feet square, tore away the bay, jettisoning its bombs. Three
right-hand-nose-gim installations and Me- 109s circled it closely, but held
injured the bombardier in the head their fire while the crew bailed out. I

and shoulder. A fourth 20-mm shell remembered now that a little while
penetrated the right wing into the back had seen other Hun fighters
I

fuselage system, releasing fluid all hold their fire, even when being shot

over the cockpit. A fifth 20-mm shell at by a B-17 from which the crew were
punctured the cabin roof and severed bailing. But I doubt if sportsmanship
the rudder cables to one side of the had anything to do with it. They hoped
rudder. A sixth 20-mm shell exploded to get a B-17 down fairly intact.
in the Number 3 engine, destroying And then our weary, battered 'ol-

all controls to the engine. The engine umn, short 24 bombers, but still hold-
caught and lost its power, but
fire ing the close formation that had
eventually I saw the fire go out. brought the remainder through by
Confronted with structural dam- sheer air discipline and gunnery,
age, partial loss of control, fire in the turned in to the target. I knew that
airand serious injuries to personnel, our bombardiers were grim as death
and faced with fresh waves of fighters while they synchronized their sights
still; rising to the attack, this com- on the great Me- 109 shops lying be-
mander was abandoning
justified in low us in a curve of the winding Blue
ship. His crew, some of them compara- Danube, close to the outskirts of Re-

212
gensburg. Our B-17 gave a slight lift ing smoke, a chance to rejoin the fam-
and went out on the instru-
a red light ily. We approached the Mediterranean
ment panel. Our bombs were away. in a gradual descent, conserving fuel.
We turned from the target toward the Out over the water we flew at low
snow-capped Alps. I looked back and altitude, unmolested by fighters from
saw a beautiful sight — a rectangular Sardinia or Corsica, waiting through
pillar of smoke rising from the Me-iog the long hot afternoon hours for the
plant. Only one burst was over and first sight of the North African coast-
into the town. Even from this great line. The prospect of ditching, out of
height I could see that we had smeared gasoline, and the sight of other B-17S
the objective. The price? Cheap. 200 falling into the drink seemed trivial
airmen. matters after the vicious nightmare of
A few more fighters pecked at us the long trial Southern Ger-
across
on the way to the Alps and a couple many. We had walked through a high
of smoking B-17S glided down toward valley of the shadow of death, not ex-
the safety of Switzerland, about 40 pecting to see another sunset, and now
miles distant. A town in the Brenner I could fear no evil.

Pass tossed up a lone burst of futile With red lights showing on all our
flak. Flak? There had been lots of flak fuel tanks, we landed at our designated
in the past two hours, but only now base in the desert, after 1 1 hours in
did I recall having seen it, a sort of the air. I slept on the ground near the
side issue to the fighters. Col. LeMay, wing and, waking occasionally, stared
who had taken excellent care of us all up at the stars. My radio headset was
the way, circled the air division over back in the ship. And yet I could hear
a large lake to give the cripples, some the deep chords of great music.
flying on three engines and many trail-

213
 While the Combined Bomber Offensive hammered at German industry
by day and by night from hedgerow level to the thin heights of the at-
mosphere, Allied fighter pilots challenged the Luftwaffe over Europe.
Theirs was a world that could transform instantaneously from the grim
almost hypnotic unrealities of
realities of kill-or-be-killed to the majestic,
the silent eternal universe.
This near phenomena of aerial combat is beautifully captured by Brit-
ain's leading ace of the war . .

Hun In the Sun

Group Capt. J. E. Jolmson, R.A.F.

Every fighter pilot has experienced an opponent. Jockey for position. All
the swift transformation from the con- clear behind! The bullets from your
fused mix-up of a dog-fight to the eight guns go pumping into his belly.
dangerous solitude of a seemingly He begins to smoke. But the wicked
empty world. For the sky is a big tracer sparkles and flashes over the top
place. Its horizons are infinite and a of your own cockpit and you break
man's capacity in its vastness is very into a tight turn. Now you have two
limited. I was to learn from hard ex- enemies. The 109 on your tail and

perience that one moment the air your remorseless, ever-present oppo-
space can be saturated with a hun- nent "g," the force of gravity. Over your
dred twisting Spitfires and Messer- shoulder, you can still see the ugly,
schmitts. Two or three parachutes questing snout of the 109. You tighten
blossom open and drift toward the the turn. The Spit protests and shud-
earth below. The wing of a Hurricane, ders, and when the blood drains from
or is it a 109, spins lazily down like an your eyes you "gray-out," but you keep
autumn leaf. A plume of dark smoke turning, for life itself is the stake. And
draws a parabolic curve against the now your blood feels like molten lead
backcloth of the sky whilst high above and runs from head to legs. You black-
the impersonal sun glints on the per- out! And you ease the turn to recover
spex canopies of the 109s. in a gray, unreal world of spinning
Throughout it all the radio is never horizons. Cautiously you climb into
silent — shouts, oaths, exhortations, the sun. You have lost too much height
and terse commands. You single out and your opponent has gone — disap-
214
peared. You are completely alone in blue vault above and the colored
your own bit of sky, bounded by the drapery of earth below.

It was the second mission to Schweinfurt, on October i^, 194^, which

offered the shocking proof to the high cost of daylight long-range bomber
missions without fighter escort. For on this autumn day 291 bombers,
headed out across Europe from. English bases for another deadly run on
the German ball-bearing works. Spitfire, P-^8, and P-^y fighter escort was
able to reach only as far as Aachen and Duren near the German border.
The Luftwaffe waited and the moment the Thunderbolts broke off nearly
400 German fighters headed into the formation and sustained their attack
to and from Schweinfurt, except for a brief respite during the bomb run
over the city where flak "became so thick it could be walked on."
Waves of single- and twin-engine rocket throwing fighters created deadly
havoc. As the big Forts fell out of their positions and plunged to earth,
the boxes loosened and broke, so determined, so vicious was the attack.
It was on this mission we exchajiged 60 Fortresses and nearly 1^00 trained

crewmen for 55 German fighters, but the big Schweinfurt works were
seriously damaged to the extent the Nazis began re-gearing their ball-
bearing industry.
The epic of Schweinfurt II goes down in air war history with Ploesti.
In the skies to Schweinfurt, bravery was not unique to any one side. Here
is an account of the battle by a Luftwaffe fighter pilot who rose up to
turn back those who were intent on destroying his homeland.

Schweinfurt Skies:
Where Brave Men Met
Sr. Lt. Heinz Knoke, Luftwaffe

At 1315 THE ALERT SOUNDS. Gcigcr except in case of emergency. For the
waves as I taxi out to take off. Over moment I shall have to wait for a
Antwerp we establish contact with chance to attack later.

Fortresses accompanied by an escort I trail the Fortresses, which are di-

of Spitfires. My stovepipes make an vided into a number of groups, all
engagement with Spitfires impossible heading southwest, keeping off to the

for me. I do not wish to jettison them, side and waiting for the moment when
215
The result of one of the Eighth Air Force's fiercest, largest, and most sustained air battles was the
destruction of approximately 75 per cent of the ball-bearing production in Schweinfurt. This is a
picture taken during the October 14, 1943 raid.

2l6
the Spitfires turn about in order to is a pity that most of the pilots are
reach England again. inexperienced. Not a single formation
Eventually have an opportunity to
I leader is among them.
attack in the Aachen area. Before I am The Americans apparently are again
able to open fire, however, my left attacking the ball-bearing factories at
wing is hit and the left stovepipe shot Schweinfurt. They pass overhead at
away. I can hardly hold the unbal- a great height heading southeast.
anced aircraft on an even keel. A large It makes me sick to think- of my
hole gapes in my left wing. I am afraid plane being unserviceable. Suddenly I

that the main spar is damaged. It is make up my mind that I am going to

possible that the wing will come off fly in my damaged plane, nevertheless.

completely under too great strain. I Despite the warning of the inspector,
must avoid sharp turns and shall try I have it refueled and rearmed.
to fire my second rocket enemy.
at the I call together the pilots who have
My pilots have meanwhile dis- landed and tell them to consider them-
charged their rockets to good effect. selves as being under my command.
Fuhrmann and Fest each score direct We all take off in a large, compact
hits. Their bombers explode in mid- group at 1700 hours. The Americans
air. The remainder of the rockets do by this time are homeward bound. I
not have any effect, as far as we can tell. hope to cause them a lot of trouble.
My own rocket also passes through I have to handle my plane like a

the middle of the formation without basket of eggs. Soon we are at an alti-
hitting anything. tude of 22,000 feet. Right ahead of us
I break away and come down to is a formation consisting of about 250

land at Bonn (Hangelar) imme-

. I Fortresses. Gradually we close in on
diately taxi up to the repair depot and them. One by one I send my aircraft
call for a maintenance inspector. He in to attack.
confirms my fears that the main spar I myself remain behind the enemy
in my left wing is in fact broken. That formation and pick off as my target
puts my plane out of action from the a lone Fortress flying off to the left
point of view of any further opera- and below the main body. At
a little
tions. In the course of the night it will a range of 500 feetI open fire in short

be fitted with an entire new wing. bursts. The American defenses reply:
Slowly I wander across the runway their tracers come whizzing all round
to the control tower. Aircraft from the me, uncomfortably near my head. The
battle, Messerschmitts and Focke- usual pearl necklaces become thicker
Wulfs, come in to land all the time. and thicker. Once again there is alto-

There are altogether nearly 30 aircraft gether too much of this blasted metal
being rearmed and refueled. They all in the air.
belong to different Fighter Wings. It I am at a grave disadvantage in that

217
I have behind the massed enemy
to fly forest.

group minutes without be-

for several That is that!

ing able to take evasive action. I keep I cut the ignition and fuel. The
looking anxiously at my wing with the thermometer shows oil and radiator
hole in it. temperatures at boiling. Good God!
Suddenly my poor plane is literally what a mess my left wing looks. It will
caught in a hail of fire. There is a probably break off at any moment.
smell of burning cordite. The engine The flames subside. The fire is out.

still seems to run smoothly, however. I pull the emergency release and jetti-

I bend double-up behind it. It offers son the canopy. The slipstream rush
good enough cover. Closing up to takes my breath away at first. The
within 300 feet, I take aim calmly at wind tugs at my helmet and whips the
my victim. scarf from my neck.
Woomf! My fuselage is hit. The Shall I bail out? My Gustav has
sound is more hollow than that made been shot full of holes, but it still flies.

by the engine or wings. I feather the propeller and start

My own shooting takes effect. By gliding. Heading east, I begin to lose
this time the Yank plane is in flames, altitude. Listening to the whistle and
swerving off to the left as it drops moan of the wind over my wings and
away below the formation. Four para- fuselage, I am drenched with sweat.

chutes mushroom open. Ahead, the River Rhine, a silver rib-

Suddenly my aircraft is hit several bon winding across the sun-baked
times in succession and badly shaken. countryside below. The broad Rhine-
It sounds like a sack of potatoes being land plain is shimmering in the heat.
emptied over a barrel in which I am 12,000 feet: with a little luck I may
sitting. Flames come belching out at still be able to make Hangelar Air-
me from the engine. The smoke is field, near Bonn.

choking me, and my eyes water. 10,000 feet: I seem to be losing alti-
So they have got me now, after all. tude much too quickly. A Messer-
It is a shambles! schmitt 109 is not like a glider.
I slide back my side windows be- Is there any life left in the engine?
cause of the fumes. The smoke grows I turn on the fuel and ignition, adjust
denser. Hot oil from the engine flows the pitch control, and put the nose
like treacle down my left wing-root. down to gain forward speed. There is

In a wide swing to the left I break a clattering and banging, but the en-
away from the enemy formation. I gine starts.

have the satisfaction of observing my It has done it! Not daring to touch
Fortress crash in flames in the Eiffel the throttle, I climb back gingerly up
Mountains. A
huge column of smoke to 12,000 feet. Then it begins to
comes billowing up from the pine smoke and smell of burning again.

2l8
Cut ignition switch and resume glide! trees below.
I cannot coax it to Hangelar. I dare 150 miles per hour: I must touch
not take a chance on that engine again. down.
6000 feet 5000 .3000. I pick
. . . . . 120 miles per hour: my wingtips
out what looks like a large field, and scrape the treetops.
spiral down toward it. The ground The indicator registers 100 miles
comes rushing up at a terrific speed. per hour. I smash through two or
I prepare for a belly landing, and three wooden fences. The splintering
once again switch on the ignition. postsand cross-bars fly in all directions.
The engine starts. I have to make Dust and chunks of earth hurtle into
tighter turns in order to reach the the air. I hit the ground, bounce,
landing field. Suddenly the engine bracing myself for the crash hard
begins to grind and clatter to a stand- against the safety belt, with feet
still for the last time. Cut! clamped on the rudder pedals. A dike
It has seized. The prop is rigid, held looms ahead. Holy smoke!
as if by a vise. My plane becomes C-r ash!!!
heavy and unresponsive to the con- And then a deathly silence. I unfast-
trols. It begins to stall, and the left en the and drag myself out
safety belt
wing drops. of the seat. My Gustav looks like an
Damn! old bucket which has been well kicked
I push the nose down hard and re- around and trampled underfoot. It is
gain control. Houses flash past below a total wreck. There is nothing left
in a nearby village. My airspeed indi- intact except the tail wheel.
cator registers 200 miles per hour. I Blood oozes from my right sleeve.
almost scrape the tops of some tall

219
 The months of jp^^ saw the Combined Bomber Offensive in high
early
The long-range, fast, maneuverable P-^i Mustang now gave massive
gear.
bomber formations a fighter-escort superior to anything the Luftwaffe had
in the sky.
A spell of good weather in late February kicked off a continuous sus-
tained six-day aerial blitz of German industrial resources (mainly the air-
craft industry) from which the Third Reich would not recover.
This week, February 20-2^ became known as "Big Week" and Allied
Air Chiefs, recalling the bitter lessons of the past one-shot missions, in-
stituted a follow-up strike strategy that turned the German cities and
industrial facilities into an orgy of destruction. Through March and into
April the relentless pounding continued, converting German production
capacity into rubble and Luftwaffe into a "blinded boxer with one arm
gone."
By the end of March the long-sought air superiority had been achieved.
Here is the story of the great aerial offensive of early ip^^ and the climac-
tic follow-up that broke the back of the Luftwaffe.

ff
Big Week": Beginning of
the End
Maj. Arthur Gordon

The date was February 25. That
morning heavy bombers from the fif-
teenth Air Force, based in Italy, roared
across the Alps to attack the Priifening
Messerschmitt factory in Regensburg.
One hour later the same
were launched against Germany.
The six days between February 20
and February 25 were most significant
in the history of strategic bombing. In
some 3800 bomber and 4300 fighter
target was sorties, the Eighth and Fifteenth Air

hit by British-based heavies escorted Forces attacked factories whose esti-

by fighters making the longest round mated production was more than two-
trip of the war. Other Eighth Air thirds of Germany's single-engined
Force formations attacked Augsburg, and more than three-quarters of her
Stuttgart,and Furth. The day was a twin-engined fighters. The cost was
landmark in the air war over Europe. high. On February 24 the Eighth Air
More than 2000 American planes, Force alone lost 49 heavies over
operating from bases 1000 miles apart, Schweinfurt, Gotha, and Rostock. The
220
 The long-range P-51 Mustang came into the picture in great
strength in early 1944 and escorted
the bombers to their farthest targets. The result -
greatly reduced bomber losses from air attack.

next day, when two American spear- long a period depended on the re-
heads met at Regensburg, the Eighth cuperative capacity of the Germans
and Fifteenth expended a total of 65 and the ability of precision bombers
heavies over this and other targets. Al- to return to the targets when factory
together, in the cyclonic month of repairs had advanced sufficiently to
February, 250 four-engined bombers make it necessary. Even pessimists
failed to return to their bases. But at conceded that without further bomb-
the end of the month, looking at their ing the crippling effects of "Blitz
PRU (Photo Reconnaissance Unit) Week" would last between one and
pictures and damage assessments, the two months.
chiefs of the Strategic Air Forces knew This was not long but it might be
that the price was not too high. long enough. If the strain on the
They knew without question that Americans had been great, the pres-
during February the wastage of the sure on the Luftwaffe had been al-
Luftwaffe's fighter strength exceeded most unbearable. During February the
its replacement capacity by a substan- American heavies claimed 540 enemy
tial margin. They estimated that the fighters destroyed in combat. Ameri-
productive capacity of the Nazi air- can fighters, whose camera guns made
craft industry as planned for March reliable checking easy, shot down 365.
was down by at least 50 per cent for There was doubt that the Ger-
little
an undetermined period. Just how man Air Force was taking a beating
221
which it could not stand indefinitely. and they went four times within six
This did not mean that the Luft- days. On at least some of the missions
waffe could be discounted as a for- they hardly bothered to conceal their
midable fighting force. Its front line intentions. A fight was what they were
strength was being maintained intact, looking for.

partially at least from stored reserves. Luring the Luftwaffe into combat
Its pilots were still good, still brave. was only one of several valid reasons
Those who read only newspaper head- for daylight blows at the heart of
lines and expected the skies over Ger- Germany. The great ball-bearing
many suddenly to be clear w^ere boimd works at Erkner, in the suburbs of
to be disappointed. Berlin, was high on the list of priority
On February 29, Fortresses and targets. The ferocity with which the
Liberators made the third attack on Germans usually defended Schwein-
Brimswick in ten days. They bombed furt indicated the dependence of their
through the overcast and enemy air Avar economy on ball-bearing produc-
opposition was practically nil. Only tion. The on these plants, co-
attacks
one bomber and six fighters were lost. ordinated with blows at aircraft
There were various possible con- industry, were designed to make the
clusions to be drawn from this. The replacement of aircraft factories more
most probable was that the Germans and more difficult.
were unwilling to expend their dwind- Then, too, there was the psycho-
ling forces when bad visibility ham- losfical effect tobe considered. Berlin-
pered the American effort. Instru- ers were reeling under night attacks
ment bombing had made great strides by the British Bomber Command. If

but was still no substitute for pinpoint they lost their fancied daylight invul-
visual bombing. Bombs dropped nerability the effect on their morale
through the overcast could hurt Jerry could hardly fail to be shattering. In
but not enough to make him risk his any case, Berlin attacks would reveal
precious aircraft. Another possible rea- whether the Luftwaffe would prefer
son for the Germans' reluctance to to accept daylight bombing unop-
fight was weather conditions on the posed by anything except flak or con-

ground. Sending up fighter formations duct combat on a grand scale.

through overcast, under severe icing The first attack on March 4 was not
conditions, was too expensive a pas- a fair test. Appalling weather, with con-
time for the once prodigal Luftwaffe. densation trails that made formation

There was, however, a way to force
the Germans' hand. Every indication
was they would fight desperately to
defend their capital. So the Americans
went to Berlin. They went in daylight
flying virtually impossible, forced the
recall of the bulk of the force. One
formation slipped through escorted by
fighters whose round-trip penetration
of 1200 miles exceeded even their Re-

222
gensburg performance and set a new but others sustained fierce attacks
distance record for the war. Very few from fighters and rocket-carrying fight-
enemy aircraft were seen over the er-bombers: 69 American bombers
cloud-shrouded city. Of
American failed to return to England, the sever-
heavies, 15 were lost but only one as est loss yet suffered by the Eighth Air
a direct result of enemy fighter action. Force. A few cripples landed in Swe-
The cold was intense. One gunner, den. These losses were reported
whose oxygen equipment froze, died promptly with the grim honesty that
of anoxia. The first assault on "Big had characterized Allied air communi-
B," as combat crews called it, was at ques from the beginning. It was an-
best a glancing blow. nounced the next day that gaps in the
Still, it gave jittery Berliners a fore- ranks were already filled with replace-
taste of what was coming. Two days ments.
later, driving straight across northern Proof of this was given on March 8
France and Germany, a great aerial when another very strong force re-
armada fought way through oppo-
its newed the assault on the German
sition of unparalleled ferocity. Amer- capital.Again the Luftwaffe rose to
ican fighters guarding bomber boxes defend but this time its claws were
it,

reported close to 600 enemy aircraft in somewhat blunted and air opposition
the skies over Germany. Living on was somewhat weaker. Our fighter es-
borrowed time, the Luftwaffe seemed cort had another field day, destroying
willing to live — and die — boldly. 83 against a loss of 15. Our bomber
Individually its planes were no match losses dropped to 38.
for our fighters. One Mustang group Visibility was considerably better
over Berlin claimed 20 enemy aircraft than expected. All crews had been
destroyed, 1 probable, and 7 damaged, briefed to hit the ball-bearing plant at
for no loss. Altogether that day escort- Erkner if they could see it. They all
ing fighters knocked down 83 oppos- saw it. The factory and the surround-
ing Germans, losing 1 1 of their own. ing area were literally smothered un-
The score was somewhat equalized by der 350,000 incendiaries and 10,000
the fact that a certain percentage of small HE bombs. A lone American
Nazi pilots could, and undoubtedly photo-reconnaissance pilot who flew
did, parachute to safety. Still, if any over the capital a few hours later,

American fighter pilot wanted to claim brought back pictures that confirmed
that bombing Berlin without long- the story told by strike photographs.
range fighter support would be pro- He nearly failed to bring them back.
hibitively expensive, no bomber man In the 60° -below-zero cold his gas
would disagree with him. gauge froze. As he landed and tried
Losses were heavy enough as it was. to taxi to the dispersal point, his en-
Some combat wings got through easily gine coughed and stopped — out of

223
gas. rauders, supplemented occasionally by
Wlien released to the press, the fig- the heavies, were consistently ham-
ures on the number of bombs dropped mering airdromes, railroad yards, and
caused various British newspapers to rocket sites on the invasion coast. In
go into an arithmetical dither and Italy, heavies of the Fifteenth were
come out with headlines announcing giving a beautiful illustration of the
1100 American heavy bombers over flexibility of air power with alterna-
Berlin, a very considerable exaggera- ting attackson long-range strategic
tion although over looo had been targets such as Vienna and tactical
used in the great attack of February blows such as tlie classic pulverization

20. Still, the actual number repre- of Cassino on March 15. Nor was the
sented a tremendous striking power, RAF idle. It turned in some perfect
especially when concentrated on a examples of night precision bombing,
single target. Veteran crews flew be- dropping its new 12,000-pounders on
side newcomers to the United King- munitions factories in Southern
dom who found themselves, to their France. On the night of March 15.
astonishment, getting a good look at more than 1000 British heavies carry-
Berlin before they had even had a ing more than i]ooo tons, dropped the
glimpse of London. heaviest single bomb load of the war,
On March 9, when another force with Stuttgart as the main target.
approximately the same size attacked In the middle of the month, the
Berlin for the fourth time, bombing dormant Luftwaffe woke up. On
through overcast, enemy opposition March 16, attacking Ulm and Augs-
was practically nil. Only 7 bombers burg, USSTAF bombers met resist-

and 1 fighter were lost. On the 11th, ance: 22 were lost. On the 18th, a
a relatively small force attacked Mun- multiple attack on aircraft factories
sterwhich was also cloud-covered. No in southern Germany cost us 43 bomb-
bombers were lost at all. On March ers, 16 which made forced landings
of
15, only 3 failed to return from an in Switzerland. The Luftwaffe was suf-
attack on Brunswick. The British fering, too: 207 were claimed as de-
pressbegan to speculate rather wildly stroyed in these two attacks but there
on the whereabouts of the vanishing were no signs of imminent collapse.
Luftwaffe. From this confusing pattern of ene-
Meanwhile, USSTAF chiefs warned my no clear-cut con-
fighter reaction
that weather was the main factor in clusions could be drawn except that
curtailing German fighter activity. the Germans were reluctant to risk
Events of the following week were to their squadrons in bad weather. That
prove them right. the Luftwaffe was being steadily weak-
On other air fronts the crescendo ened was certain. Just how far from
was still rising. Ninth Air Force Ma- collapse it was, no one this side of the

224
Rhine could For the Allies, the
say. bombing available wlien necessary.
future held forth the promise of in- Overcast bombing would continue to
creasingly better weather and the op- be carried out whenever bad flying
portunity to raise the tempo of the conditions did not outweigh its effec-

war still higher. To the Germans tiveness.

it offered the bleak prospect of con- For the Luftwaffe, the defense of
stantly waning strength and the con- key industrial targets would remain
stant necessity for concealing that priority number one, with an appre-
progressive weakness, either by sulk- hensive reserve always alert to meet
ing on the ground or by sending into the forthcoming invasion. There
the air every plane that could be seemed little doubt that no matter to
scraped together by stripping trainer what extent he might rely on radio-
and reconnaissance units, converting controlled glider bombs or other de-
bombers to twin-engined fighters and vices to repel landings, Jerry would
reconverting fighter-bombers back to almost certainly try to maintain an
fighters. anti-inv«ision air force.
In the weeks ahead, visual strategic To what extent he would succeed,
bombing would remain the prime ob- time and the course of the war would
jective of the USSTAF, with tactical tell.

B-17 Flying Fortresses unloading their bomb loads on Berlin targets.

 The pompous, arrogant Luftwaffe Chief was often asked by his military
associates what would happen to Germany when American fighters could
fly all the way to Berlin with the bombers. He boastfully derided those

who raised this question, guaranteeing such a fanciful thing could never
happen. The day American fighters appear over Berlin, he chided, "my
name will be Meyer."
On March 4, /p^^ the hefty Luftwaffe leader's hand was called, for it
was on this day the ^th Fighter Group, operating out of Debden Airbase
in England appeared over the German capital for the first time in their
Mustangs.
For the Germans it was the most ominous sign of the entire war, for it
signaled the moment Allied bomber formations got free rein to any spot
in Germany. The historic first fighter mission to Big B was led by the
combat veteran, Col. Donald J. Blakeslee, 4th Group Commander. For
Blakeslee, a brilliant, daring ace, this long-sought moment of triumpli
over the Luftwaffe would turn to bitter gall. Here is that story.

First Fighter to Big ''B

99

Grover C. Hall, Jr.

The chatter stopped suddenly, the As always, he wore the beaten-up,

same cacophony of spar-
as the shrill clay-colored leather jacket he had
rows in a magnolia tree suddenly drawn when he first came to Debden
subsides at the sound of a BB shot per- and the one in which he said he would
forating a leaf. It was Blakeslee. The finish the war. He was champing gum.
pilots popped to. He held a cigarette in his right hand.
Blakeslee strode up the aisle as if it The cigarette was a reliable herald of
wasn't long till press time. He turned what was known as a shaky do.
around to face the pilots. "Well," Blakeslee began in his vi-

He said: "Okay." At Debden that brant, baritone voice, "you've seen

meant at ease. what the show is. We're going to
You couldn't rightly tell whether Berlin."
Blakeslee had a glint or twinkle in He paused. That sentence had a lot
those pale blue eyes,and whether it of punch. He continued:
was excitement or the March bluster "We're going to Berlin. The weath-
that flushed his face. er is not too good. Swope will give you

226
the gen on that in a minute. We'll be mission, waved the next two off.

with the bombers over the target on They circled where

about the field

the bomb run. And we've been chosen the blue ribbon beets once grew until
to lead the first box in over Berlin. the group was in combat array. All 48
Any questions?" Mustangs, plus two spares, were air-
The mechanics, shivering in their borne in eight minutes. The ones and
greasy green overalls and leather jack- twos were joined by the threes and
ets, stood atop the revetment to see fours, making a section of four. A
their motors off on the historic mis- flight of eight joined another flight

sion. The wind was so icy it was hard to make the squadron. Then the
to remember that the mechanics had squadrons, led by Blakeslee with
been burned brown there in the sum- 336th, joined and the group was
mer before. Each speculated whether formed. Blakeslee got over the control
his plane would make it back. tower and set his compass for Berlin.
Blakeslee taxied out on the east- They pointed their noses up for the
west runway and made a radio check climb across the Channel. At the
with the tower. The other 47 planes French coast they reached an altitude
taxied up behind, weaving left and of about four miles and leveled off.
right in order to see ahead. In a way The Forts were already far ahead,
it made you think of the taxi fleets at escorted by Thunderbolts whose range
Pennsylvania Station. Bundled in at that time was not sufficient to take
heavy flying-clothes, their faces ob- them all the way to Berlin. They
scured by helmets and oxygen masks, would turn back when the 4th arrived
the pilots appeared stripped of their in- at the rendezvous.
dividuality and personality. Through "Shirtblue Red 2 to Horseback,"
the glass canopies they looked like said Lt. Woodrow Sooman, of Repub-
brown sacks. When they
shapeless lic, Wash., just after they passed over
moved you couldn't recognize them, Dummer Lake. "Oxygen failing.
save for the plane numbers. Over."
Locking the wheels, Blakeslee "Horseback to Shirtblue Red 2,"
gunned his motor and the plane Blakeslee came back. "Let down and
pranced. He released the brakes and return to base. Off."
the craft moved forward, somewhat Sooman banked out of the forma-
sluggishly at first because of the heavy tion and started back for Debden at
babies under each wing. He and his 10,000 feet, below which oxygen is not
Number 2 were clocking 100 m.p.h. needed. "Red Dog" Norley moved on
by the time they reached the hump in up to take Sooman's place on Blakes-
the runway. The flagman beside the lee's wing.
runway, a pilot thus disciplined for Others called up for permission to
breaking R/T silence on a previous abort on account of this kind of en-

227
gine trouWe and that. Soon Blakeslee ii^ to Berlin.
and "Red Dog " vrcne the <mly <Kies Shortly after nocm, at the appointed
left of Shiirblue (536ch) Sqoadnxi. time, Blakeslee caught sight of the five
Lt. Charles .\iiderson. a sallow, Uack- combat wings of B-17S. He toc^ his
haired ace from Gary. Ind.. flying with place some distance in front of the first
335th Squadron, called Blakeslee: bomber box to sweep way 2Lnv Huns
"Greenbelt Blue 4 to Horseback. in path of the bombing run.
the
Roogfa engine. Don't think I can make Wea\ing bacJL and forth \dth high
it to target. Over." speed skids, Blakeslee scanned the
"Horseback here," lespcxided Blakes- dirty biUows for specks that would
lee. "Okay, Blue 4, return to base." grow into 190s and logs.
The reM ccmtinued on toward the The sf>ecks were ^potted just before
lendezvoos with the bombers. They the Forts discharged their bombs, sin-
were tense and uneasy, but e\en so. gle and double a»trails appearing in
flying in the larified atmo^^ere fr\ e all directioos. Fifteen-plus logs and
miles up left them dioi%3y and listless. igos came in for a frmtal attack <»
But flak buists prevented any from the btHnbeis. Green flares, fired two
noddii^. at a time, rainbowed out of the Forts
Sooman fdt lonesome as he scooted to signal for fighter intervention.
back akM>e over the heart of Germany. "Horseback here. There they are.
He sighted a JU 52 (transjx)rt ) at Stick together aiKl dear your tails . .

1500 feet. Sooman worked himself up- Here we go!"

sun and attacked the transport from The pUots caD^t the eagerness and
the ride. As he was about to break off. For a moment
zest in Blakeslee's voice.

fMeces from the sfdinteied transport he lammed the throttle forward and
flew off and bounded off the metal side ^Nuted ahead of his squadrons, kink-
<rf his Mustang. The transport spiraled ing his craft fran side to side to dear
down in such fashion as to suggest that himself. Blakeslee always did that be-
Socman's bmst had killed the pilot. fore attacking. Millikan used to say:
Meanwhile, Anderson was fretfully "That's whv been here so IcMig."
he's
cruising toward Debden. The diow <rf Blakeslee whipped his plane over to
shows, the first attack on Berlin, story initiate the split-ess di^Tiig down on
enough for a hundred grandchOdren the Huns in a violent bounce. All
— and he was going in the opjxjsite Blakeslee's bounces were \-iolent. He
direction. His hankering to see Berlin was hea\y with the reins and spurs in
was keen, es|>eciall v where the RAF had racking his Mustang about. The air
{Mastered iL His motor sounded a lit- ipeed needle popped the whip toward
tle better now. Why not try it? Ander- the red line, which line was the fac-

son kicked the rodder, completed a tory's means of sa\ing that the wii^
port turn and resumed the vector lead- might not stay cm be\'ond this speed.

2f8
 Blakeslee positioned himself astern and turned his back as the pilot
one of the logs and flew right up his gunned it. Tired and aching, the pi-
slipstream forsome of his garden hose lots signed Form 1 and got out of their

shooting. The 109 racked it this way ships stiffly. Their knees were too stiff
and that, but he couldn't shake Blakes- to bend. They just sat on the wings
lee. "Red D02:" was following on his and smoked, so numb the icy wind
rio^ht win^, ri2:id and excited. "Red went unnoticed. They looked like
Dog" fidgeted in his cockpit and football players on the way to the
shouted, "Let'im have it, Colonel, showers, or miners emerging from the
let'im have it!" shafts at the end of the day.
Blakeslee flipped the gun switch on Blakeslee was a little different. He
and trimmed his kite up to get set for whammed the canopy back and there
the kill. He pressed the red button on was a sulphurous cascade of four-let-

the stick to water the flowers. Nothing tered words, followed by:
happened. He got the 109 in the ring "Can you beat it?"
again and pressed down. "Red Dog" As if the mechanics crowded about
kept watching the leading edge of his ship could know^ what he meant.
Blakeslee's wing to see the orange "Beat what, sir?"
power puffs. But Blakeslee's guns "I'll — my goddamn
be a sad sack
wouldn't fire. He was a hornet with- guns wouldn't Not one of them.
fire.

out a stinger. There we were — I had him right in

"Goddamn sad sack!" roared Blakes- my sights and my guns jammed!"
The Hun was flat out, w^ondering
lee. "Jesus, that's tough."
why the American hadn't fired. In "I pulled right up beside him,"
angry frustration, Blakeslee pushed Blakeslee went on, "and looked at the
the throttle to the firewall and pulled dumb sap. He must have thought I

up abreast of the 109. He looked over was crazy!"

the Hun. He waved with mocking Blakeslee signed Form 1 with a right
sweetness.The Hun didn't remember hook, got out and flailed his legs with
anything in the book about this, but his gauntlets ashe entered the 335th
what did he have to lose? He acknowl- interrogation room. He unloaded his
edged Blakeslee's wave with a waggle chute pack and let it crumple on the
of his wings. concrete floor.He slumped in a chair
Later Blakeslee came in with the and bit a chocolate bar in two as if it
others. Each crew chief sprinted out were the Jerry's head.
to the hardstand where his kite parked

229
 Nothing could plunge a "gung ho" aircrew into the psychological abyss
of gloom quicker than having to turn back home from a combat mission
because of a mechanical failure. When it happened it was called "abor-
tion," and it brought with it a sense of personal guilt, of let-down to your-
self, your buddies, your outfit. If it didn't, there was no place for you in

the air war.

Lt. Bert Stiles, B-iy co-pilot, whose pen created some of the classic prose
to come out of the air war, puts it this way.

Abortion
Bert Stiles

We were so tired we didn't get up they weren't clean.

for breakfast, just stayed in the sack
until the last possible minute.
In the rush to get to briefing
got to wear my G.I. shoes. Sam
hisdog tags. When we got to the ship,
Beach couldn't get his guns installed
in the turret.
"Call the turret man," Sam
"Doesn't anyone ever get anything
done around here?"
There was a little oil dripping off
Number i engine, but the crew chief
I almost wrenched my shoulder out
of jointon the primer and started to
I for- rave slowly under my breath. There
forgot wasn't any armor plate.
We took off into a blue mist. When
Benson called up to give me the head-
ing, I had to ask for a repeat. The in-
yelled. terphone was fuzzy. We were flying
the high squadron for another group,
forming over another field. We climbed
out through the heavy haze.The cylin-
der head temperature on Number 1

guessed it would be all right. engine was way high. I opened the
We were flying an old ship, one cowl flaps. The prop was throwing a
that had 24 missions with no engine wash of oil on the cowling.
back
changes. For three days we'd been fly- "Number 1 is smoking a little," Crone
ing a new airplane with big bullet- called up. "We ain't on fire, are we?"
proof windows. It was supposed to be "We might be soon," I said. "Keep
our own. an eye on it."
"So we get this crate today," Sam There was no horizon, no sky, no
said. "Look at those goddamn win- England, just the soft gray mist. The
dows." They weren't bulletproof and group leader shot his red-green flares.

230
and called his airplanes. The squadron horizon to go by, nothing at all to go
leaders fired their flares and called The oil pressure kept on
by, just mist.
their wing men and second-element and the cylinder-head tem-
falling off,
leaders. perature kept on rising.
"My goddamned heated suit is "You tired old bastard," I said soft-
shorted out," Sharpe said. ly. I could see Number 1 engine giv-
"Something's wrong with this oxy- ing up after we got across the Zuider
gen in the ball," Beach said. "The in- Zee,and Number 2 and 3 throwing in
dicator doesn't indicate." the towel on the bomb run in the
The formation was lost all over that Leipzig flak area. I could feel the
part of England, wandering around whole ship slowly coming apart. Com-
in the haze. bat fatigue.
The fuel pressure was slowly rising. The formation was climbing. I

The oil temperature on Number i jacked up the rpm and turned the su-
was on the climb. Nobody salted off perchargers on full. She wasn't in the
over interphone. The tension in the mood. We were about a mile behind
ship was growing into a threat. and 200 feet low, and getting more
"This is a sad goddamn crate," Sam behind and further below.
said. "Why did we have to draw it?" Sam shoved the nose down, jerked
The wing started out across the off his oxygen mask, and swore all the
Channel. Eight hours till chow time; way around the 180°.
45 minutes till flak time at the Dutch "We're not taking this airplane any-
coast. We were headed for Leipzig. where," he said.
Number i nacelle was covered with The relief washed through the ship
oil now, the oil pressure had dropped in a cool wave.
five pounds, the fuel pressure was still Maybe we'd get it today, I thought.
rising slowly. The air-speed indicator Maybe the igos would be waiting
froze up, and we stalled out, hanging there. I could see the flak puffing up
in the blue mist. Sam punched the there, reaching for us.
nose down and we came out 500 feet None of that for us.
below the rest of the formation. We never aborted before, I thought.
"That was close," was all he said. The taste of the word was bad. Maybe
It isn't a very bright play to stall out we could have made it. Maybe that
with a maximum load. wagon would have held together. I
Crone was having oxygen troubles, was glad I wasn't Sam. I was glad I

too. "I think I got a leak," he called didn't have to decide.

up. "The gauge is falling off." Maybe Doolittle would be sore.
The throttles wouldn't slide easy. I Maybe Spaatz would call up and give
couldn't keep in position and stay in. us ten extra missions. They wanted
Neither could Sam. There was no those bombs delivered, those boys.

231
They wanted to hear about black tow- through the mist.
ers of smoke, and plumes of flame, and "She wouldn't have took you there."
flattened cities. The crew chief came over after he'd
It was just a trucking job, but that looked at the engines. "Number i is

airplane didn't feel like trucking. all through."

Grant found the field. The crew brightened up a little

We could have feathered Number i then, and there was some chatter on
to make it look good, but we didn't. the truck going back.
The ground crew was all out there "It ain't natural, us being here this
when we taxied in. The crew chief time of day," Crone said.
was something on the
looking at "Why did they give us that crate?"
ground. The squadron jeep was out Sharpe said. "I thought we owned that
there. Maj. McPartlin had on his other one, that new one."
squadron CO look, ready to start "We will, after today," Sam said.
chewing. "I'm going to tell those guys a thing
I knew what they were all thinking. or two."
No guts. A rough one, so they come He had to report up to headquar-
home. ters with his story.
Nobody looked at anyone else while I felt as beat-up as if we'd gone all

we unloaded our stuff. Nobody made the way.

much noise. The sun shone wanly

Disregarding tremendous danger, an Eighth Air Force Republic P-47 fighter is shown here swooping
down on a flak tower located on a German airfield in occupied France. Picture was taken from a
motion picture gun camera.

^•Wttfi>W|-^""T--
v^yxi'^i
'--lyfe-^ ift.
 Pilots of many nations, defeated by Germany, flocked to the Allies for
another chance to fight the Nazis. Wherethey came from, how they came,
was of small concern. Most important, they held a burning desire for
revenge.
They were taken in, retrained in Allied equipment and assigned to
combat units, either individually integrated or as a national unit. The
role they played in the destruction of the Luftwaffe was tremendous.
None were more vicious, more determined, more fearless of the Ger-
mans than the Poles. They fought with a cunning, revenge, and vindic-
tiveness that was without measure.
One such was Michael Gladych, former Polish Air Force fighter pilot
and here is that story.

The Amazing Michael Gladych

Robert S. Johnsoii witli Martin Caidin

Early in 1944 the operations of the like a madman in an obsolete PZL-11

56th Fighter Group were "imperiled" fighter and managed to shoot at least
by a single fighter pilot. The amazing five German planes out of the air be-
thing was that he flew in a Thunder- fore his country collapsed. With sev-
bolt instead of fighting against them. eral other pilots Mike then fled to
So fiercely desperate was Flight Lt. Rumania where he was thrown into
Michael Gladych to kill Germans that jail by pro-Nazi police. The Polish fly-

often we feared for his life as he tore ers escaped and, barely one step ahead
after enemy aircraft. Prior to his "tem- of the Gestapo, reached France. But
porary visit" with the 56th Group, the Gestapo never gave up its quarry
Mike Gladych had flown in combat that easily,and one night in a dark
with the Polish, French, and British Lyons alley a trained German killer
air forces. went after Mike. In a savage hand-to-
We did not envy Gladych his past hand struggle Gladych killed the Ger-
experience. When Mike joined our man, but paid heavily for his victory.
ranks for temporary flight duty, he He fell unconscious — blind.
had just completed five years of close He came to in darkness, bound hand
brushes with death. When German and foot, a captive in an insane asylum.
troops assaulted Poland, Mike flew For five days and nights the horror-

233
stricken Gladych endured the tor- In a fantastic flight his fighter droned
mented shrieks of the inmates. He felt in a gentle glide to England. With
he, too, was going mad. Five days after Mike unconscious at the controls
his capture a French doctor explained the airplane touched ground at high
that his commitment to the asylum speed, in almost level altitude. It tore
had been in error. In his towering itself to pieces as it skidded out of
anger Mike felt pain stabbing his control and came to a stop — two hun-
blinded eyes. dred yards from the hospital! After
"Go ahead!" the doctor shouted. repairing his skull, which was laid
"Open them; open them!" and Mike open to the bone, the doctors told
Gladych, miraculously, could see. He Gladych he'd never fly again. Mike
owes a tremendous debt to that doctor, just didn't believe them; several
who had wisely diagnosed Mike's months later he was in a Thunderbolt
blindness as acute strain on the optic over Berlin.
nerves, which could be cured only by On February 26, the boys went to
a sudden and great shock. Happy Valley, our name for that
After his recovery Mike flew obso- charming area known as the Ruhr,
lete French fighters in a courageous where it seemed possible to step out
but lost battle against the Luftwaffe. of your airplane and walk on the flak
He fled England and with other
to bursts. I stayed at home and sweated
Polish exiles joined the Royal Air them out, and I mean sweated. Mike
Force. He was obsessed with the urge Gladych had my airplane, and I was
to kill Germans, and his fellow pilots convinced that I'd never see it again,
predicted that his frenzy for battle to or that Gladych would drag himself
the death with anything of German home in a wrecked Thunderbolt. Un-
origin would soon cause Mike's own believably, the airplane came home in
demise. Over France in a British fight- flyable condition. Mudge and Barnum
er, Mike lost his squadron and single- had flown off Mike's wing; somewhat
handed ripped into three German dazed about the entire event, they re-
fighters. In a furious battle he shot lated the proceedings.
down two and then ran out of ammu- Mike flew Number 3 to Barnum,
nition. Blazing with anger he rammed and they noticed early in the flight
the third plane. Pieces of wreckage that Gladych maintained a perfect
burst into the canopy, slashing Mike's position. No one ever worried when
head and eyes. He set course for home, they had The Killer with them. Mike
and fainted. could see enemy planes, it seemed,
He returned to consciousness two when they were still out of sight. Sud-
days later, swathed in bandages in a denly, they noticed that Gladych was
British hospital. Luck not only rode no longer in formation. Dismayed,
with Gladych, it hugged him tightly. they circled, trying to locate the miss-

234
ing Thunderbolt. They were at 18,000 his plane, Mike was prepared to cut
feet, and just east of the Ruhr Valley. him down with his propeller or wing-
And down below, 18,000 feet below, tip. When Mike returned, and I'd

in fact, was a Thunderbolt hell-bent heard the tale, I asked him why he
for leather after a Messerschmitt ME- didn't fire. He couldn't; the gun switch
109. Mudge and Barny dove after the was broken. Not being able to shoot
two planes; sure enough, it was my down the ME- 109 so infuriated him
fighter, the HV-P lettering standing that he tried to spin the German in, or
out clear and sharp. run him out of gas. He was actually
The book says a Thunderbolt can't trying to run the Kraut out of gas over
hold a turn at low altitude with the his own home, 350 miles from our base!
ME- 109, but Mike never read the Mike Gladych helped to keep things
book. He clung to the tail of the Ger- from getting too boring. Mike never
man moving in closer and
fighter, quit; he always stayed in the middle
closer. They were right on the deck, of a fight until he figured he had just
actually flying beneath the tops of enough gas to get him home. But not
trees.Mudge and Barny couldn't un- until his fuel reached the critical point
derstand why Gladych didn't cut down would he ^ven think of ending his
the Messerschmitt; he had plenty of one-man war with the Luftwaffe. And
lead but refused to fire. When the sure enough, we had regrouped and
German pilot saw the other two were on the way home and ... no
Thunderbolts, he ran for safety, skim- Mike. Gabreski yelled for him, "Hello
ming the trees as he fled down a val- Keyworth White Three, what is your
ley. He had good reason to run, with position?" After three callsand no re-
the three big fighters on his tail. Half- ply we began to worry. That was a
way down the valley was an opening foolish thing to do with Gladych.
to the right, and several miles farther The radio crackled and Mike's voice
a gap on the left. Mudge took the first came back in a monotone, "Hello
turn, and as the Messerschmitt burst Gabby, hello Gabby, this is Mike. I'm
out of the valley, snapping to the left, okay. I am being escorted out by three
he stared almost into the guns of Focke-Wulfs over Dummer Lake."
Mudge's Thunderbolt. He and Barny Gabby muttered something unintel-
cut loose at the same time; the Messer- ligible as he racked his fighter around
schmitt splattered along the ground to try and reach Mike in time to help.
for several hundred yards in a shower He might as well have saved the fuel.
of flame. Gladych turned into the three German
Mike and circled the
throttled back fighters, and exploded the leader. And
burning he wanted to be sure
fighter, at that moment his fuel reached the
that the pilot was dead. Had that Ger- critical stage; if he fought a minute
man survived the crash and run from longer he'd never get back to England.

235
There's always one way to get home in catch all kinds of hell. Later, a grinning
the Thunderbolt, and Mike took it, Mike "You know, it's funny
told us,
gunning for the deck in a screaming thing, they no bother me after I cross
power dive, the two Focke-Wulfs hot the field." The Germans had blasted
on his tail. Mike dropped below tree- both of them out the sky.
top level, engine howling, trying to Mike didn't have the fuel to get
shake his pursuers. As he flashed over back to England. In a solid overcast
a clump of trees, an air base loomed above the Channel the engine sput-
before him. No one could ever accuse tered and died. At the last possible
Gladych of being a slow thinker; he moment Mike bailed out and jerked
poured a long burst of bullets into the open the chute. Two hundred yards
German planes and crewmen as he off shore, he dropped into the water,
thundered overhead. The first man in shucked his harness, and swam to the
a surprise strafing attack rarely ever beach. That same day he was back at
gets hit; the ones that follow usually the field.

Col. Francis S. Gabreski with his foot on the tire of his P-47 Thunderbolt poses with his ground-
crew. Twenty-eight German kills can be seen stenciled on the side of the P-47.
Even to this day little has been told of the secret special air missions which
took place throughout the war in all theatres of the world. Tied in with
intelligence and counter-espionage activities, these hush-hush missions
played a large role in final victory. British and American aircraft involved
varied from light, single-engine fabric covered "grasshoppers" to converted
B-2^ Liberators. Workhorse was the faithful C-^y, but B-iys, British Ly-
sanders, Wellingtons, Mosquitoes, and others were used.
The work involved parachuting agents, radios, ammunition, weapons,
food, medicine, and money, to partisan groups in enemy territory, air-
landing on secret camouflaged dirt airstrips or open pasture lands behind
enemy lines to deliver supplies to resistance movements and evacuate
wounded and downed American flyers who had made their way into
underground channels. Another major activity was leaflet dropping,
(called "nickeling" by the British) urging civilians to resist and the Ger-
man soldiers to give up. Billions were dropped during the war.
A large share of this super-secret activity took place in the Balkans. In
September, 1944 nearly ii^o Americans were evacuated from Rumania
(most were Fifteenth Air Force air crews down over the Ploesti oilfields),

while ^00 air crewmen were rescued from Bulgaria. In the last four
months of 1944, 8^0 clandestine landings were made in Greece and Yugo-
slavia evacuating nearly 8000 individuals, 900 of whom were Allied air
crews. The four months of 194^ saw nearly 400 secret night landings
first

in Yugoslavia and Albania with over ^^00 individuals brought out.

Some of the most dramatic chapters of the war, yet untold, took place
during these operations. Try as they may, the Germans could not stop
them, imposing the most vicious penalties upon those partisans who were
caught, including such types of death as burning alive. Despite the penal-
ties of the German occupation forces, this type of Allied-partisan team-

work prospered and the enemy at best shadow-boxed it.

Similar activities mounted out of bases in Britain took place in Occu-
pied France and Poland. Perhaps the best known to the enemy were our
activities in Scandinavia, especially those conducted in broad daylight in
and out of neutral Sweden and led by the famed Norwegian-born Arctic
air explorer Bernt Balchen, a colonel in the American Air Force.
Here is that story.

237
 Scandinavian Carpetbagger
Capt. Eric FriedLlieim
Berlin-bound passengers at Bromma
Airport near Stockholm were just
boarding their JU-52 transport when
a B-24 sailed down through the early
morning fog and rolled to a stop at the
far corner of the field. Swedish officials
did not seem to pay much attention
but the air and press attaches from the
German Embassy who happened to be
at the airport watched suspiciously.
Obviously, this was not another Amer-
ican combat plane making an emer-
gency landing on neutral soil. The
Liberator was painted green and there
were no identifying markings on its
fuselage. The two Nazis also thought
it odd that no one stepped from the
plane until the JU-52 had roared down
the runway and headed off in the di-
rection of Germany. And when nine
men finally emerged attired in civilian
clothes the Germans were convinced
this was a case for investigation by the
Gestapo.
The date was March 31, 1944, and
in neutral Stockholm the arrival of a
mysterious airplane could mean many
things. In this atmosphere of espion-
age and intrigue, jittery Nazis were on
the alert for any portent of the coming
Allied invasion of the West and there
was little doubt in their minds that
238
the nine men from the Liberator
were linked to events of magnitude.
Enemy suspicion reached fever pitch
when one of the civilian passengers
was identified as Bernt Balchen, a
Norwegian by birth and now a colonel
in the American Air Forces. Balchen,
the Germans well knew, was one of
the world's foremost authorities on
Scandinavia and the Arctic. It was
Balchen who had been chosen by Gen.
Arnold early in the war to establish
vitally important outposts in Green-
land and along the polar regions so
that the AAF could open a new aerial
highway to Great Britain. To the Ger-
mans, his sudden appearance in Swe-
den was a matter of great significance.
Nazi undercover agents had no dif-
ficulty in trailing the Liberator's crew
to a suite at the Grand Hotel in Stock-
holm. By assiduous surveillance, the
Germans learned and his
that Balchen
men held several meetings with Amer-
ican diplomats and representatives of
the Swedish and Norwegian govern-
ments. After a week, during which the
Gestapo seldom let them out of sight,
the Germans deduced generally what
was afoot.
Balchen was in Stockholm to evacu-
ate 2000 Norwegian military trainees
from Sweden to Great Britain where Trondheim. The enemy's coastal em-
they would be absorbed by the great placements were formidable. And it

Allied armies that were massing for was necessary to assume the Gestapo's
D-day. He was also canvassing the pos- intensive sleuthing in Stockholm had
sibility of repatriating some 1500 given the Nazi defenses ample warning
American pilots and crew members of the impending operations.
who had been interned after making Operations got underway in April,
emergency landings in Sweden. Plans 1944, and during this month, Maj.
for these undertakings had been dis- David Schreiner made seven flights be-
cussed at the American Embassy in tween Scotland and Stockholm. First
London a month before and Balchen, passengers were the Norwegian train-
as an officer of the Air Transport Com- ees and Schreiner packed nearly 40 of
mand, was to establish a secret airline them into his Liberator on each trip.
running between the British Isles and "It was anything but a luxury ride
Sweden. for those boys," Schreiner recalled. "I
Gen. Spaatz already had agreed to justpacked them in like sardines. But
turn over a handful of war-weary B-24S nobody complained. They had been
and seven bomber crews who had fin- waiting for two years to get out."
ished their combat tours with the The Germans, of course, increased
Eight Air Force. Balchen insisted that their vigilance over Norway and sent
the Liberators carry civilian airline up numerous patrols in an effort to
markings and that their crews comply intercept the B-24S. On several occa-
with Sweden's commercial air regula- sions, British detectors picked up ene-
tions. The Swedes, in turn, promised my aircraft circling the route but each
their AA batteries would not fire on time the Liberators escaped by taking
the American planes provided they refuge over the Shetland Islands. The
flew over certain areas reserved for British also provided night fighter
commercial traffic. This would call for escort on some of the runs and during
exacting navigation since these areas the entire evacuation operation the
were only 20 miles wide. Germans failed to bag a single Ameri-
For his British terminus, Balchen can plane.
selected a remote airdrome at Leuch- Word spread to other Allied gov-
ars, near the eastern coast of Scotland. ernments that the Air Transport Com-
The next problem was to plot the mand's secret airline was operating
safest route across enemy-occupied into Sweden. Applications for passen-
Norway. ger space poured into the American
Allied intelligence knew the Ger- Embassy in London from all parts of
mans had at least 250 night fighters Europe. Somehow space was found to
based in Southern Norway near Ber- fill part of these requests and by the

gen, Stavanger, Oslo, Gossen, and end of June a large assortment of

239
American, British, and Russian offi- Balchen gave his decision.
cialswere ferried over the route. Once "We'll do it," he said.
the airline even transported the entire Work started immediately to pre-
refugee government of Norway. pare one of the Liberators for the new
One day in July, Balchen received job. In the air forces these sorties to
an urgent summons from U. S. officials aid the underground were known as
in London. A desperate plea for help "carpetbagger missions" and some
had come from the underground in modification in the aircraft was neces-
Norway: unless supplies were fur- sary. Into the bomb bays went 12
nished immediately the resistance 350-pound containers packed full with
movement in that country would machine guns, ammunition, explo-
collapse. sives, and other material necessary for

Officials explained the situation to sabotage. Packages of food and cloth-

Balchen. They told him that for the ing were stowed in the waist. The
moment not a single plane could be aperture normally covered by the belly
spared to help the Norwegian patriots. turret, and known as the Joe Hole,
They also hoped to drop Allied spies would be used to release the packages
into Norway because our intelligence and any individuals parachuting down
about German military movements in to join the underground.
the area was far from complete. They The first mission to supply the Nor-
asked Balchen if his organization wegian patriots was flown on July 17,
would be willing to use its transports 1944. In the Liberator were Balchen,
for these operations. Schreiner, Durham and other veterans
Balchen quickly calculated the risks. of the secret airline, including 1st Lt.

It was one thing to parachute men Robert Withrow and Sgts. Albert
and equipment onto the comparative- Sage, William Jesperson, Joel Wil-
ly rolling terrain of France and the liamson, Wilford Bollinger, and Neil
Low Countries during hours of dark- Richards. Briefing for the mission had
ness. Norway, however, was something been exacting. Courses had been
else again. Here there were mountains planned painstakingly to avoid inter-
and rough weather and the missions ception and flak positions. The route
would have to be carried out in day- selected was believed the safest one
light. Moreover, Norway was well pa- possible and if the Liberator remained
trolled by the Luftwaffe and there on course the chance for success was
would be few spots available for forced good.
landings if anything went wrong. The run from Scotland to the ren-
After a brief consultation with Lt. dezvous point was negotiated with
Col. Keith M. Allen, one of his aides, clocklike precision. The Liberator
and Capt. Robert C. Dur-
Schreiner, skirted every ground battery and look-
ham, another of his veteran pilots. out post. The signal was received from

240
the ground party and supplies fell the enemy's northern defenses. On one
squarely on the target. Quickly the occasion they spotted a hidden airfield
Liberator circled and pointed its nose harboring new types of jet planes. An-
for home. The navigator was just giv- other crew discovered installations that
ing the plot when Balchen shouted to were identified as V-bomb sites.

Schreiner: Late in the summer of 1944, the

"Go north!" Britishwere informed that one of Ger-
There was a loud chorus of protests. many's highly secret V-2 rockets had
"Go north!" Balchen insisted. fallen into Swedish territory. The
Reluctantly, Schreiner swung the rocket failed to explode and was al-
Liberator about and headed deeper most intact when the Swedes found it.
into Norway. The Swedish government was willing
Ten minutes later, Balchen pointed to give it to British scientists but the
excitedly at a towering mountain peak. problem was how to transport it to
"There it is!" he yelled. "The high- military laboratories in the south of
est mountain in Norway. I wanted all England.
of you to see it." Inevitably, the British called on
Encouraged by the success of the Balchen. Would be bring back the
first mission, Balchen's airline strove rocket? Balchen said he would. A mes-
to fly carpetbagger operations when- sage was sent to Stockholm. Load the
ever weather conditions were favor- rocket on a Liberator and bring it

able. Increasing quantities of supplies down at once. A reply came back in a

went down to the patriots and word few hours. The rocket weighed 8000
came back that the resistance forces pounds. It was dismantled and crated
were using them to good advantage. and the crates wouldn't fit into the
Balchen's men had great admiration Liberator.
for the patriots and they took to writ- Balchen went into a huddle with
ting them notes of encouragement. Allen. They decided the only way to
They also enclosed cigarettes and cop- bring that rocket back to England was
ies of American magazines in the in a C-47. Allen agreed to try it.

packages. The patriots delighted in He imme-

flew over to Prestwick
taunting the Gestapo by leaving the diately toborrow a C-47 ^^^ ^^^ only
magazines in the lobbies of Norway's one available was a battered airliner
principal hotels. known around the base as "The Bug."
During the course of these missions, Its magnetic compass was faulty and

the Liberators also dropped Allied the radio compass didn't work at all.
secret agents and soon a highly effi- Operations refused to take responsi-
cient intelligence network was estab- bility when Allen told them what he
lished. Liberator crews also brought intended to do.
back considerable information about Quickly the blue and black invasion

241
stripes were painted over and commer- es. The only way to find out was to
cial airline markings stenciled on the drop spies in the area with the hope
wings. Allen took off for Stockholm that they could send out reports by
with Durham, Withrow, and a Nor- portable transmitters.
wegian radio operator named Enge- Allen and Schreiner agreed to fly

land. When they landed in Sweden, two Allied secret agents as close to
"The Bug" did not have enough gas Altenfjord as possible and a B-24
left in its tanks to taxi to the hangar. quickly was modified to permit instal-
After the :rates were loaded aboard, lation of additional gasoline tanks in
Allen was told that all flights over the bomb bay.
Norway had been canceled because of The flight from Britain to the drop
the lack of cloud cover. He decided to zone and return covered more than
risk it and "The Bug" took off with 2600 miles and took i6i/^ hours. It
its heavy load, barely clearing a pile was probably the longest combat mis-
of rocks at the end of the runway. In sion ever flown in the ETO. The two
the bright daylight over Norway, the agents parachuted down close to the
transport would have had little chance harbor and within a day had estab-
if spotted by enemy fighters but luck lished contact with England.
was with it and it reached the North On September 21, 1944, Allen and
Sea without detection. German shore the old reliables — Schreiner, Durham,
batteries took some shots at "The Jesperson, Sage, Bollinger, Krasevac,
Bug" as it roared across the coastline Schick, Neil,and Richards — took off
but their aim was poor. At seven the to drop several spies in a heavily-de-
following morning the rocket was in fended region of Norway. The secret
the hands of the British. agents came down successfully but one
Having demonstrated that nothing of the Liberator's engines suddenly
was too difficult for it to handle, Bal- went out. Allen decided to head north-
chen's secret airline soon was asked to east to Murmansk for an emergency
undertake another seemingly impos- landing rather than risk the long re-
sible job. turn flight to Britain. The plane was
For a long time. Allied air forces just passing over the outskirts of Mur-
had been trying to sink the German mansk when it was coned in the search-
battleship Tirpitz, but as of Septem- lights of the Russian harbor defenses.
ber, 1944, the vessel was still afloat at Anti-aircraft let loose a heavy barrage.
her anchorage at Altenfjord, Norway. The Liberator shuddered under the
Except for photo reconnaissance pic- impact of a direct hit and Allen or-
tures, intelligence had little informa- dered his men to bail out. He kept
tion regarding the condition of the flying level had gone over
until all
warship or about the anti-aircraft de- the side and then prepared to follow.
fenses protecting the harbor approach- But another shell tore through the

242
wounded bomber. The Liberator fal- wooden cross over his grave was af-

tered and then plunged into the water, fixed the simple inscription:
a flaming mass of wreckage. "In performance of duty."
The Russians deeply regretted the It was a grievous loss to Balchen
tragedy which nevertheless was excus- and the others who had performed so
able, for therehad been no opportun- valiantly in all the Scandinavian op-
ity to alert the warships and harbor erations. But their work continued.
defenses that a friendly airplane was And it Avas not until victory came that
approaching. the exploits of these men could at last

Allen was buried with military hon- be heralded to the world.

ors at Murmansk and to the small

With the coming of spring, 1944 the days lengthened over Europe. Long-
range fighters continued their incessant search for the disappearing Luft-
waffe in the sky and on the ground and protecting the heavies of Eighth
and Fifteenth Air Forces now beginning the strategic campaign against
German oil. With the industrial heart of Germany largely converted to
ruins, all air forces now turned to the forthcoming invasion — "Operation
Overlord."
The months of April and May provided fitting climax to a flaming year
over Europe, for during this time the full weight of Allied airpower was
given to paving the way for the landings in Normandy.

Air Preparation for

«
Operation Overlord''
Maj. Jairies F. Sunderman

"The Allies owe the success of the Goering.

invasion to the air forces. They pre- The air preparation for the invasion
pared the invasion; they made it pos- of Western Europe began many
sible; they carried it through." This months before the ground forces were
lamentful statement came from Luft- even committed to battle. The Ninth
waffe Chief Reichsmarschall Hermann Air Force was set up in England in

243
October, 1943. The organization was at St. Lo on June 16, 10 days after
composed of A-20, B-26, B-25 medium D-Day. The 17th S.S. Panzer Grena-
bombers, P-38, P-47 fighter bombers, dier Division tried to move up from
and C-47 troop carriers. It eventually Thouars (in Central France) on June
grew into the largest single tactical 6. Elements were forced to detrain by
air force in the world. cuts in the rail system. They had to
In addition, the British 2nd Tacti- march by secondary roads at night and
cal Air Force was established to con- took five full days to cover 200 miles
centrate maximum firepower against to Periers. The gth and 10th S.S. Pan-
German attempts to reinforce the pos- zer Divisions took about two weeks to
sible invasion areas of Western Eur- reach the front from Metz.
ope. The campaign against the Luftwaffe
Allied air strikes for "Overlord" airfields within 130 miles of the pro-
had three primary objectives: isolation posed beachhead was mounted in the
of assault area from German ground three weeks preceding the assault, so
reserves, and from enemy air rein- as to preclude reconstruction. 67,000
forcements, and destruction of coastal tons of bombs devastated the airfields
defenses and radar that might endan- allowing the Germans to mount only
ger the attack. a few attacks against the invasion ar-
In a tremendous campaign to para- madas. Churchill had this to say: "So
lyze the French railroads. Allied bomb- great was our superiority in the air
ers in two months of pre-invasion that all the enemy could put up dur-
attacks dropped 76,000 tons of bombs ing daylight over the invasion beaches
on rail centers and bridges. By D-Day was a mere hundred sorties." Against
every bridge over the Seine below this pitiful response, the allies flew
Paris had been destroyed, leaving the 14,600 sorties within the 24-hour per-
Germans virtually cut off from rein- iod of D-Day,
forcements. "The whole railway sys- A third type of air support which
tem was in such a mess," wrote a helped the invasion to succeed was the
historian, "that most of the German neutralization of V-i launch sites in
reserves had to walk into Normandy France. Their presence had become
after D-Day." known and their menace hovered over
The Wehrmacht desperately tried. the invasion. In the six months before
One combat group of the German D-Day, allied aircraft flew 25,000 sor-
265th Infantry Division took a week tiesand dropped 36,000 tons of bombs
to cover 100 miles by rail. The 3rd on the V-i sites. This campaign, cou-
Parachute Division tried to move east pled with the attack on the French
from Brest by confiscating bicycles and railways, set the V-i program back by
carts, but had to split up. One regi- three months at least. The first V-i
ment was welcomed by Gen. Rommel was not launched until a week after

244
 .^'p^tft-%^_

"The whole railway system was in such a mess that most of the German reserves had to walk into
Normandy after D-Day."

•y^v^gfe.

The V-1 flying "Buzz Bomb" shortly after launch from a German site.
 1

D-Day, a delay which may have sealed The RAF contribution more than
the fate of the German resistance. Gen. doubled these figures and its last min-
Eisenhower later declared that if the ute neutralization of German radar
Germans had been able to use V-i a kept the enemy from detecting the
few months sooner, "Overlord" would direction of the main landings and
have been "exceedingly difficult, per- gave Eisenhower's forces advantage of
haps impossible." tactical surprise on D-Day.
To support pre-" Overlord" opera- Before dawn of D-Day, 1
1
36 heavy
tions in April, 1944, the AAF mus- bombers of the RAF Bomber Com-
tered in the ETO combat
a total of 99 mand had dropped 5853 tons of bombs
groups including 39 heavy bomber, 1 on selected coastal batteries lining the
medium and light bomber, 32 fighter, Bay of the Seine between Cherbourg
14 troop carrier, and 3 reconnaissance. and Le Havre. At dawn, the AAF took
This level of activity was sustained and up the air attacks, and in the half-hour
expanded as air operations reached a (from 0600 to 0630) before the touch-
climax. By June, 1944, AAF strength down of the assault forces, 1365 heavy
was increased by 2 heavy bomber and bombers dropped 2746 tons of high
1 fighter group to 102 combat groups. explosives on the shore defenses while
U.S. aircraft on hand in the ETO landing craft with their troops waited
in June, 1944 numbered 10,343 in- 1000 yards off shore from the beaches.
cluding 7505first line combat planes, This was followed by attacks by me-
broken down by 2929 heavy bombers, dium bombers, light bombers, and
804 medium bombers, 387 light bomb- fighter bombers on enemy defense
ers, 3046 fighters, 339 reconnaissance. emplacements. During the first eight
During the three months, April hours of June 6 alone, Allied aircraft
through June, 1944, the AAF flew an dropped 10,000 tons of bombs on
average of 57,400 effective sorties a German defenses and communica-
month, with June the peak month. In tions.While the pre-invasion tactical
support of D-Day operations that air campaign rolled at high crest.
month, the AAF flew 82,369 effective Eighth Air Force bombers continued
sorties, including 27,713 heavy bomb- attacking industrial targets deep in
er; 8908 medium and light bomber; Germany. The object was to draw off
and 50,748 fighter. Luftwaffe fighters from Allied air op-
The AAF dropped 262,516 tons of erations in France. The ruse worked.
bombs in France on all forms of every During the entire pre-invasion air
communication and transportation, on softening of the beachhead area and
airfields, on Hitler's Atlantic Wall de- surrounding territory, our flyers en-
fenses. Heavy bombers accounted for countered little German fighter oppo-
119,460 tons, and the medium, light sition.

and fighter bombers 143,056 tons. A variety of other air preparations

246
took place such as photo mapping of The price had been high. U.S. air
every inch of German coastal defenses crew casualties alone for June, 1943 to
which gave our air intelligence the May, 1944 numbered 27,576, includ-
detailed information needed to target ing 8690 killed and 15,862 missing or
bombers and fighter bombers and captured, while total and
British
pinpoint, for the Supreme Command- American casualties in all European
er, the most feasible areas to pour his theatres during this period were over
troops ashore. Weather planes ranged 140,000. They were far greater than
far and wide in practice missions for those killed and wounded in the en-
their all-important D-Day forecasting tire massive invasion of Normandy it-

duties. One thing made it all possible self.

— the defeat of the Luftwaffe. "The Air power's role in "Operation

lack of German air superiority," said Overlord" was a decisive one, said
Hitler's Gen. Guderian "led to our Gen. George C. Marshall, U.S. Army
complete breakdown ..." Chief of Staff. Without it, he stated,
The flaming year had driven from "it would have required at least 15

the skies the mighty Luftwaffe which weeks for the Allies to land as many
had been the keystone to every Ger- divisions as the Germans had avail-
man military conquest on the ground. able in Belgium and Northern France.

Ninth Air Force A-20s bomb German defenses on northern French coast in an attack to soften up
installations on the D-Day invasion coast.

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PART SIX
D-DAY TO V-E DAY:
June, 1944 -May, 1945
The Tactical Air Sweep
 •«i~'m

V>" -K"^"^ "^

^-^

i-4 *-* '

W-'yT.

-m;-- jm.

Lockheed P-38 Lightnings with zebra-stripe invasion markings flying low-level sweeps over Normandy.

250
 Three factors defeated us in the West where I was in command. Firsts the

unheard-of-superiority of your air force, which made all movement in day-

time impossible. Second, the lack of motor fuel — oil and gas — so that the
Panzers and even the remaining Luftwaffe were unable to move. Third,
the systematic destruction of all railway communications so that it was
impossible to bring one single railroad train across the Rhine. This made
impossible the reshuffling of troops and robbed us of all mobility.

—General Von Rundstedt, Commander-in-Chief

German Armed Forces in Western Europe

Introduction

By Spring, 1944 a crippled Luftwaffe gorging paratroopers of U.S. 10 1st and

hung tenaciously to its bases in West- 82nd Airborne Divisions on the Cher-
ern Europe, the victim of declining bourg Peninsula, inland from the
aircraft and fuel production and stag- beaches of Normandy. Simultaneous-
gered by losses in air battles with ly, 237 transports of two RAF Groups

Allied fighters. France and

Across dropped 4130 paratroopers of the
Belgium disrupted and road com-
rail British 6th Airborne Division into
munications paralyzed movements of the same area but to the east of the
troops and supplies. Debris-scarred U.S. landings.
German cities and industrial areas On the heels of this aerial envelop-
marked the pathway of a violent, in- ment, 104 CG-4A and 98 British Hor-
cessant year of strategic bombardment. sa and Hamilcar gliders cut loose over
Aerial destruction of German radar small fields of Normandy, bringing in
warning stations left the German High additional men, anti-tank guns, how-
Command with grossly inadequate in- itzers, and other heavy battle equip-

telligence about Allied invasion plans. ment.

The stage was set for the final cam- At daylight, following heavy air and
paign of the war — invasion of Eur- sea bombardment of the Normandy
ope — and this event got underway in coastal defenses, five Allied divisions,
the early hours of June 6, 1944, be- under an air cover of 171 fighter
tween midnight and 6:00 a.m. squadrons, assaulted the beaches of
At 0145 hours, 813 transports of IX Normandy between Caen and Monte-
Troop Carrier Command preceded by bourg and^seized a foothold in France.
20 Pathfinder aircraft (each with 13 While *tlie massive night airborne
member drop teams scheduled to landings had gotten somewhat scat-
flare-mark landing areas) began dis- tered, they served to screen German

251
reinforcements in the immediate area Two weeks later, the Allied forces had
from reaching the beach landings. increased to one million men, and on
And in the air overhead, only a few June 27 the big port of Cherbourg
German planes succeeded in penetrat- fell, giving a major access-way into

ing the Allied air patrols to attack France, through which troops, sup-
ships in the convoy. plies, and heavy armor could pour
Follow-up airborne activites on D- ashore.
Day consisted mainly of glider resup- Tactical air began moving
forces
ply missions and paradrops. Some 208 into quickly built airfields in Nor-
CG-4AS brought reinforcements to the mandy within one week after the land-
U.S. airborne troops while a large ings. By July 31, 17 out of Ninth AF's
British 256-glider operation in the 18 fighter-bomber groups were oper-
evening was highly successful. By mid- ating from Normandy airstrips sup-
afternoon the British forces had linked porting the 19 American and 16 Brit-
up with the beach forces. ish-Canadian divisions poised for the
The array of air power supporting drive across France.
the whole invasion effort was stagger- Despite overwhelming numerical
ing. The and Ninth Air
U.S. Eighth superiority on the ground, the initial
Forces comprised some 3000 combat Allied break-out from the landing
aircraft. Of near equal strength were area was stopped by strong German
the British 2nd Tactical and their Air defense positions around Caen and St.

Defense Forces (formerly Fighter Lo. U.S. and British airpower was
Command) On D-Day alone U.S. air-
. called in to break the deadlock. On
men flew more than 8722 combat sor- July 18, British heavies struck Caen,
ties while the RAF added another followed by a maximum U.S. effort at
5676. Compared to this the Luftwaffe St. Lo on July 25, when 1500 Eighth
put up less than 50 sorties — full proof Air Force heavies and 900 Ninth Air
of the decisiveness of the pre-invasion Force mediums carpet-bombed five
air battle. miles of the front. Fixed enemy posi-
Facing the massive Allied ground tions were saturated with neary 3500
assault were some 58 German divi- tons of bombs, gouging a gigantic hole
sions scattered throughout the Low in German defenses. Through this
Countries and France. Battered by break Lt. Gen. George S. Patton
continuous aerial attack in the weeks poured his Third Army tank columns
prior to D-Day, their immediate de- south into Brittany, preceded by waves
ployment to the Normandy area was and bombers
of hard-striking fighters
impossible. By D plus five, the Allies wreaking destruction on the retreating
had 16 divisions ashore while the Ger- Nazi ground forces.
mans had succeeded in moving only Rebounding to the St. Lo break-
14 divisions into the Cherbourg area. through the Germans counter-attacked

252
Headed for France, an American C-47 pulls a British Horsa glider loaded with airborne troops into
the air on the morning of D-Day.

••'3».:^

Having completed its part in a raid on the Nazi supply system, this Ninth Air Force B-26 Marauder
bomber is seen over the Channel headed back for its base in England. These hard-hitting medium
bombers shuttled back and forth across the Channel helping to clear the way for the invasion
ground forces. Far below can be seen a portion of the invasion fleet.
at Avranches, with the hope of driving air forces reached a near perfect level.

a wedge through Allied lines to the Leap-frogging from base to base be-
sea. When it failed, the invasion ar- hind the racing Allied armies. Ninth
mies (the British from the North and AF's tactical units put on a show of
the American from the south) began mobility astounding even Allied air
closing a giant pincer around all Ger- leaders. Luftwaffe airfields were flown
man forces in Normandy. Desperately into almost before the last German
the Nazi Panzers slipped backward, to plane left. Reconnaissance aircraft
avoid the trap, through a small open- watched every German move, called
ing called the Falaise-Argentan pock- in fighter bombers to eliminate Ger-
et. It was in this narrow corridor that man troop concentrations, traffic jams,
Allied tactical air struck the Panzers artillery fire. Strafing Thunderbolts
with terrible force, turning the col- turned the highways into nightmares
umns of armor, trucks, and mobile enemy.
for the fleeing
weapons into twisted junk. The scene Meanwhile, Allied forces landed in
was compared by Gen. Eisenhower to Southern France west of the French
a page from Dante's Inferno. Riviera in an equally spectacular op-
The Nazi rout became a pell-mell eration. More than 5000 paratroopers
flight across France as the Germans and glider-borne forces preluded the
headed for the safety of the Siegfried initial beach assault. Meeting light
Line. resistance these forces raced up the
The exploits of tactical air now be- Rhone Valley, brilliantly supported
came and dramatic. As Gen. Pat-
full by Twelfth Air Force tactical air-

ton his Third Army toward

raced craft. They linked up with the main
Germany, his unguarded southern Eisenhower drive out of Normandy
flank along the Loire River was pro- in less than a month.
tected solely by the fighters, fighter As the Allied armies struck out
bombers, and mediums of Brig. Gen. across France, a second thrust north-
O. P. Weyland's 19th Tactical Air ward through the Low Countries was
Command. So effective was this sweep- designed to outflank the Siegfried
ing air flank, that a German force of Line, cross the Rhine, and enter the
20,000, moving up from southern northern plains of Germany. In con-
France, surrendered, without any junction with this advance, com-
ground action, to the air commander. manded by British Gen. Bernard
It was an event without precedent in Montgomery (of Alamein) the Allies ,

history. launched "Operation Market" — the

As the Germans retreated toward largest airborne operation of the war.
their homeland, the tactical air offen- The aim of "Market" was to secure
sive increased in intensity and scope. both sides of the Rhine River and per-
Co-ordination between ground and mit Montgomery to drive his two land

254
 ^JBS'* ^

» *
V

Part of the airborne invasion of southern France, these parachutists fill the sky over the coastal
area somewhere between Nice and Marseilles.

Members of the 1st Airborne Task Force attend mass at their glider just before taking off for
invasion of southern France.

255
armies into Germany. Beginning on waffe and the Panzer divisions stranded
September 17, Pathfinder teams were for lack of fuel was achieved at high

dropped to mark paratroop and glider cost. The Germans had ringed their
landing zones. The initial phases were oil industry with the war's heaviest

a success, but inclement weather pre- concentration of flak guns and skilled
vented airborne reinforcements from crews. In the month of July alone
arriving on time. Between September Eighteenth and Fifteenth AF lost 642
17 and 30, 4934 British and U.S. heavies, but the campaign was a bril-
Troop Carrier planes and 2239 gliders liant success. The production curve
dropped and landed nearly 35,000 U.S. of dipped rapidly and by
gasoline
and English troops, 20,000 on the spring, 1945 it was down to 7 per cent
first day — September 18 — and 2856 of normal capacity.
tons of cargo. Allied tactical air flew The impact reverberated throughout
some 5200 sorties in support of the the German nation and its war effort.
giant maneuver. While the operation Lack of fuel completely negated the
itselfwas successful, its objective was rising production of German jet fight-

not. The Germans drove the airborne ers, cut down Luftwaffe pilot training
troops back across the Rhine and pro- to almost zero, forced German ground
ceeded to dig into strong positions forces to hoard precious gasoline for
from the North Sea to Switzerland weeks in order to make one movement
blocking that route into the homeland. of any kind. Coupled with the Allied
Failure to turn this northern end of tactical air disruption of railroad and
the Siegfried Line bogged the ground highway facilities, the strategic strike
war down as winter weather set in. on oil strangled the German economy
Meanwhile, the strategic campaign and the mobility of its armed forces.
of U.S. and RAF Bomber Command At the same time heavies continued
heavies against the German oil indus- their concentration on submarine pens
try proceeded at high pace. Main tar- in German port cities and on V-i and
get for the 1000 heavies of the Fif- V-2 weapon sites.

teenth Air Force was Ploesti and other By December, 1944 the German
Balkan oil plants. The 2000 four-en- back was to the wall. Hitler personally
gine bombers of Eighth Air Force directed his forces to launch a counter-
turned onto the synthetic oil industry offensive through the Ardennes Forest
at Merseburg-Leuna and plants in in a move to buy time at all costs and
Czechoslovakia and Western Poland. capture large stocks of Allied fuel.

RAF Bomber Command's 1100 hea- Using their last available gasoline and
vies continued hammering synthetic gathering up what remained of the
oil plants in the Ruhr. By September Luftwaffe, the German Wehrmacht
of 1944 German oil production was crushed through Allied lines, pushing
down to one-quarter of normal. This some 50 miles before it ground to a
great campaign which left the Luft- stop. Unfortunately a spell of extreme-

256
ly bad weather at this time of year positing 17,000 troops into an area
prevented Allied counter-air attack. less than 23 miles square in four hours.
But on December 23, the weather "Varsity" was preceded by a three-
cleared and during the next week me- day tactical air interdiction sweep that
diums, heavies and fighter bombers directed 3471 sorties against rail and
pasted the narrow German salient road communications in Germany,
with more than 100,000 tons of bombs. making 215 rail cuts, destroying 80
The historic stand of Allied ground locomotives, 2383 railroad cars and
forces at Bastogne and St. Vith held 318 trucks. Simultaneously, heavy
the Germans to their narrow wedge bombers dumped 6600 tons of explo-
from which they began to withdraw sives on military installations. "Var-
on December 27. During the next sity" was the most successful of all
month the "Bulge" was eliminated. airborne missions of the war, involv-
It was during this time the Luft- ing 1783 British and U.S. troop car-
waffe made its farewell appearance. rier planes, 1275 gliders. Less than 20
On New Year's Day, 1945, it launched Luftwaffe came even within
planes
an offensive against Allied airfields on Troop Carrier Formations.
sight of the
the Continent, flying some 800 sorties, The breach of the Rhine sealed the
destroying 127 Allied aircraft, mainly final fate of Germany.
on the ground, damaging nearly 140. For the big bombers the strategic
In exchange, the Germans lost nearly air offensive was finished by April 1,
200 of their own precious combat air- 1945. There were no more targets left.
craft. This hopeless effort marked the Allied troops, with complete air su-
end of the Luftwaffe in Western Eu- periority overhead, surrounded the in-
rope. A few of the battered units were dustrially rich Ruhr and 400,000 of
soon after transferred to the Russian Germany's crack troops. Tactical air's
Front where the Soviets were pushing mediums and fighter bombers swept
westward toward Germany. over the Reich like locusts striking
At the beginning of 1945, Germany targets of opportunity and catching
was no longer an industrial nation. Its nearly 3000 fuel-less Luftwaffe planes
transportation facilities were at near jam-packed on German airdromes.
collapse. Its airfields were packed with German defenses collapsed as Amer-
aircraftwhich had no fuel. The entire ican tank columns swiftly rolled
structure of the Third Reich was through the country and into Austria
crumbling from within and without. and Czechoslovakia. On April 25,
In January and February the Allied Allied ground forces met the Russians
armies pushed through the Rhineland driving in from the East at the Elbe
with little opposition. On March 24 a River and two weeks later, on May 7,
massive airborne invasion, "Operation the Nazi government of Adolph Hitler
Varsity," leaped across the Rhine, de- surrendered unconditionally.

257
By D-Day all of the rail bridges in eastern France between Paris and the sea had been destroyed.
Thisphotograph shows a locomotive caught during the bombing of a bridge.

D-Day. U. S. paratroopers coming down over a field on which glider troops have already landed.
 "You needn't worry about the air. If you see a plane it will be ours."
Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Allied Commander, to his troops
-

m the eve of D-Day, June 6, 1944.

General Eisenhower's high tribute to Allied air power had been made
possible by months of unending work on the ground and unceasing
heroism, in the air.
Looking back over the months that preceded D-Day, a certain orderly
and logical sequence of achievements can be discerned. First of all, the
Luftwaffe was forced back into Germany by the heavy bombers of the
Eighth Air Force and their fighter escorts who dealt such terrible blows
to the war-making capacity of the Reich that Hitler was forced to husband
his dwindling air strength to protect the homeland. Medium bombers and
fighters of the Ninth Air Force and the RAF's 2nd Tactical Air Force
also helped by making the coastal airdromes too hot for the Luftwaffe to
use with any comfort. But it was primarily strategic pressure on "Das
Vaterland" and the steadily dwindling aircraft reserves that cost Jerry all
hope of contesting the air over the beaches.
Once this forced withdrawal of the enemy air force was accomplished.
Allied airmen were able to turn their attention to the network of com-
munications on which the Germans relied to supply the armies of the
Atlantic Wall. Heavies, mediums, light bombers and fighters of both the
RAF and AAF hammered marshaling yards, junctions, tunnels, and
bridges into a state of chaos. By D-Day 14 road bridges across the Seine
between Paris and the sea were knocked out. By D-Day plus one, the re-

naining six were destroyed. The effect on Rommel's ability to shift troops
nto the Normandy area quickly can easily be imagined. And the on-
laught against rolling stock and road traffic never ceased.
Another pre-invasion function of air power was to observe enemy prep-
irations while denying him the benefits of photo reconnaissance. In end-
ess sorties. Allied photo planes obtained coverage of the entire enemy-held
:oastline. At low tide they photographed the steel obstructions planted by

he Germans to repel landing craft. Inland they kept a watchful photo-

graphic eye on the progress of the anti-glider and anti-paratroop installa-
tions. Our sweeps were unable completely to prevent German
fighters
t)hoto reconnaissance, especially at night, but restricted it to a point where
the Germans obviously were kept guessing.
The fourth tactical contribution of Allied air power was the blitz on
German coastal defenses themselves for weeks before D-Day. Bombers
poured an endless stream of high explosives on naval guns— i^^mm and
lyomm — housed in steel and concrete emplacements. On the night before
D-Day, the RAF dropped ^000 tons on ten of these crucial batteries in
he area between LeHavre and Cherbourg — more tonnage per battery

259
 than London ever received at one time during the night blitz of ig^o.
power had paved the way. Now, on June 6, 1944, it would
Allied air
spearhead the final assault. As darkness gathered around the air bases on
the English countryside on June 5, the supreme moment drew nigh for
the air assault forces.

Air Power In the Invasion

from **Air Force" Magazine

Inside the metal skins of hundreds night, one great sky serpent, nine
of C-47S, soot-faced paratroopers knelt planes wide and 200 miles long, thrust
in final prayer. Standing beside their its head across the enemy-held coast.

fragile craft, glider pilots checked their Ten minutes later the lead plane of
watches as the minutes ticked away to- the gth Troop Carrier Command's
ward midnight. On the Channel coast, Pathfinder group was over the desig-
civilians felt their beds rock and nated drop zone. Lights by the open
houses shudder as the RAF hurled door of the Skytrain winked red and
down on ten Nazi gun emplacements then green. Carrying radio equipment
the heaviest night bomb load of the that would greatly facilitate navigation
war. All day long, Lightnings had pa- for succeeding aircraft, the first stick
trolled the Straits, guarding ship of paratroopers tumbled into the flak-

movements from hostile eyes. Now streaked darkness. The time was 0016
the great armada was well underway, June 6, 1944. The liberation of Eu-
a thousand phosphorescent wakes rope from the West had begun.
gleaming under clouded skies. At Almost unchallenged the great pro-
bomber and fighter stations all over cession swung back toward its base.
England, lights burned behind guard- As the head recrossed the English
ed doors as the last secret orders came coast, the tail was still going out, roar-
in. Weeks of tension were building to ing across the choppy Channel at 300
a final climax. This was it; this was feet. As each section of the body passed

D-Day. over Cherbourg Peninsula at a slight-

Shortly before midnight, three air-
borne divisions were on their way —
the American 82nd and loist and the
British 6th. At six minutes past mid-
260
ly increased attitude, hundreds of
parachutes blossomed in the gusty air.
Some came down through clouds that
hung as low as 500 feet. As fast as they
hit the ground, the paratroopers seized at base, preparing to fly reinforcements
key position and began clearing the to the men they had dropped, the day-
landing areas of obstructions left by light forces were being briefed for the
the Germans. Gliders came spiraling greatest air effort in history. Every-
down — British Hamilcars and Horsas thing was going to be thrown in, from
and the smaller American CG-4AS — heavies to fighters.
carrying fighting troops, ammunition, Probably the first four-engine Amer-
land mines, field artillery, jeeps, medi- ican aircraft to participate in the inva-
cal supplies, and even complete radio sion plan were six Fortresses that
stations in some cases. The heavy dropped leaflets warning the French
Horsas actually mowed down German of the storm about to break. Long be-
obstacles. The giant Hamilcars, with fore any daylight,hundreds of heavies
greater wingspread than a Lancaster, and mediums were airborne, some tak-
disgorged tanks. Some cracked up but ing off by moonlight. D-Day had been
still delivered cargoes. Later the Ger- postponed 24 hours to let the weather
mans complained bitterly about the improve but it was still far from per-
Allied use of dummy paratroopers. fect. Through breaks in the clouds,
One American glider landed by mis- crews of the heavies caught glimpses
take on a roof, spilling out a combat of the sea armada far below. Some
team who promptly captured the vil- claimed that their were bombers
lage. Others were briefed to land di- rocked even at that altitude by the
rectly on top of gun positions, silence concussion of naval broadsides being
the gun crews, and get away before fired across the beaches.
the Allied bombers returned to the At dawn 1300 American heavies
job. They did. took over where the RAF left off. As
The losses among the Sky trains, fly- a result, the gunfire greeting the sea-
ing unarmed and unescorted at less borne forces was much weaker than
than 1000 feet were astonishingly expected. The great guns on our bat-
light. The Americans lost only 26 air- tleships couldand did silence the shore
craftout of almost 1000 dispatched, a guns still fire, and early reports
able to
bargain price to pay for the achieve- indicated only two destroyers and one
ment of landing two crack divisions LST sunk out of an armada of 4000
behind the Atlantic Wall. All the les- ships. This shows how thoroughly the
sons learned in the dangerous night way had been prepared by air power.
exercises during the past weeks in Marauders, flying lower than on any
Britain were brilliantly applied. The occasion since their disastrous debut
Ninth Air Force's Troop Carrier in the ETO, had a better view than
Command could well be proud of the anybody. They saw tanks crawling
night's work. ashore to engage the enemy, fields

By the time the Skytrains were back filled with the wreckage of gliders,

261
bomb-pocked ground littered with tion of the total forces engaged. By
parachutes. Fighters, never less than noon D-Day plus two, only 289
of air-

200 feet over the beachheads, prowled craft were missing of some 27,000 sor-

restlesslyup and down looking for ties flown — an overall loss ratio of
the Luftwaffe. On the whole they were barely 1 per cent. Meanwhile, the
disappointed. Goering had issued a Luftwaffe lost 176.

statement to the effect that the inva- The by the

close support afforded
sion had to be repulsed even if the during the first three
tactical air forces

Luftwaffe perished in the effort, but
apparently the Luftwaffe was not ready
for a showdown. Barely 50 enemy
planes were seen in the battle area all
day. Four of the 12 JU-88s that made a
pass at one of the beachheads were
destroyed. With approximately 10,000
Allied sorties being flown, the odds
against the Luftwaffe were 200 to 1.
The Supreme Commander was right;
the assault troops did not have to wor-
ry about the air.
All through D-Day endless air pro-
cessions went on. The Eighth Air Force
flew over 4300 sorties; this was as many
days was magnificent. The Marauders,
sometimes flying three missions a day
at whatever altitude the weather per-
mitted, added their bomb weight to
the naval bombardment of the stub-
born German stronghold of Caen.
Bomb-carrying P-47S pinpointed the
troublesome gun positions and silenced
them. Meanwhile 1000 American
heavies blasted airfields in a wide arc
around the battle zone. Gen. Eisen-
hower referred to the "long and bril-
liant campaign conducted in the past
months by the combined air forces."
It had been, he said, an essential pre-

battle flights in one day as the Eighth liminary to invasion and he congratu-
Air Force had completed in its first lated the airmen on keeping up the
seven months of operations over Eu- good work. Other Allied leaders
rope. The Ninth chalked up better agreed that the air support was all that
than 4800 and the RAF's 2nd Tactical could be desired.
Air Force recorded some 2000. It is On Friday, June 9, the uncertain
probable that in the first 24 hours weather became so bad that all Allied
more than 13,000 battle flights were air activity ceased. This respite gave
flown. When the late summer dark- the Germans a chance to bring up bad-
ness descended, the Allied night fight- ly needed supplies and hindered the
ers took up patrols and shot down 12 landing of our own. The communica-
enemy aircraft that attempted to attack tions of both sides, to a large extent,
the beaches. were at the mercy of the weather, but
Air opposition stiffened slightly the what was favorable to one handicapped
next day. Air losses were even — both the other. Bad weather tended to bot-
sides losing 23. For the Allies, how- tleneck Allied air superiority around
ever, this represented only a tiny frac- Rommel's throat.

262
 On Saturday, when the skies cleared mand's great fleet of Skytrains virtual-
somewhat, our planes found the roads ly intact, supply by air assumed great
behind the enemy lines choked with importance as airdromes were cap-
reinforcements. They took up strafing tured farther inland.
where they had left off on Thursday. As these words are written, on the
Marauders flew in as low as 200 feet. morning of June 12, D-Day plus six,
One came back with a fragment of its the German Air Force had yet to put
own bombs lodged in the wing: 28 in an appearance. Rommel seems to
enemy were destroyed that
aircraft be committing his reverses piecemeal
day; 26 of ours were lost. Sunday was but they are battling without benefit
the same story except that our losses of air power. Germany certainly has
were even lighter and the Luftwaffe enough front line air strength left to
more elusive than ever. make a fight of it for a limited time
By Saturday, emergency landing at least, but so far she is either unable
strips were being used by Allied or unwilling to do so. Probably both.
planes running short of fuel or suffer- Airfields near the battle zone are likely
ing battle damage. Sites for these to prove death traps for grounded air-

landing strips were chosen before the craft. Besides, if the Luftwaffe moves
invasion troops left England. Engi- its limited fighter strength forward,
neers had landed on D-Day and bull- Amefican heavies will smash targets

dozers followed that night. The first left unprotected in the Reich. Already
strip had been carved out of a corn- since D-Day Italian-based Fortresses in
field under sniper fire and was ready great strength have attacked factories
for action by Friday afternoon. in Austria. The Nazis are in the un-
By Monday, a Spitfire wing was in happy position of a boxer with only
full operation and air evacuation of one hand to guard himself. If he tries
the wounded by transport plane had to protect his face, he risks a knockout
begun. With the Troop Carrier Com- blow in the solar plexus.

A Spitfire Mark XI with in-

vasion markings.
 While the gigantic preparations for the Allied invasion of France could
not be hidden, even from the Germans, the specific time and place was
one of the best kept secrets of the war. And there were some interesting
and awkward situations as the final moments rolled by.

Invasion Alert
To THOUSANDS of American airmen other base, the local vicar arrived in
in Britain, the first warning that high dudgeon to demand the release
H-hour was at hand came when iron of several young women of his parish
security regulations were clamped who, he said, were not adequately
down on stations, guards were dou- chaperoned. They were not released.
bled, briefing room doors were locked A farmer, finding the village veterin-
and no one was allowed to leave. Post arian was among those interned, wist-
visitors were not told of the alert until fully drove a sick cow up to the gate.
after they were admitted and then The sentry informed him that the cow
found that they could not leave. In could be treated only inside the fence
some cases, this sequestration led to and that it would have to stay there.
awkward situations. At one fighter sta- At another station, two innocent pass-
tion, presumably unadorned by any ersby, who
displayed mild curiosity at
WACS, the harassed supply officer was the blue and white zebra stripes with
pestered by indignant female hostages which all invasion aircraft were fever-
to provide certain items which he nev- ishly being painted, were enticed in-
er before in all his Army career had side and held.
been called upon to produce. At an-

264
 When massive formations of B-iys and B-2^s were diverted from their
strategic campaign against the heartland of Germany to lend support to
ground forces, the versatility and flexibility of air power reached a high
peak. Frequently in the early days of the invasion the combined power
of strategic and tactical air forces were thrown at German field defenses,
laying down and destruction no army could withstand.
a carpet of death
"Carpet or pattern bombing" was a new technique devised to relieve criti-
cal situations such as uncorking the bottleneck at St. Lo and breaking up
the German counter-attack at Avranches. Through the five-mile breach
in the St. Lo lines. Gen. Patton poured his Third Army in his epic dash
across France.

Pacing the Attack

Maj. Arthur Gordon

The story goes that a GI from Geor- abled the Americans to break out of
gia in a foxhole near St. Lo raised his the Normandy peninsula and drive
head from the shuddering ground and headlong toward Paris.

screamed in his buddy's ear: "You The resulting devastation, as de-

know, Ah'm beginn' to think that dam- scribed by observers who covered the
yankee Sherman was a right easy-goin', area was appalling. The
afterward,
friendly sorta fella aftuh all!" neat orchards and hedgerows and
A few hundred yards ahead of this farmhouses looked as if they had been
particular dogface, 1500 heavy bomb- beaten with a giant flail. Dead cows
ers of the Eighth Air Force, flying at and dead Germans lay sprawled in the
medium altitude, were unloading more craters. The craters themselves were
than 3000 tons of general-purpose and not too large to interfere with tank
fragmentation bombs on an area five movements, but roads were pitted,
miles long and two wide. Thousands railroads were twisted into fantastic
of other doughboys watched the bomb- shapes, telephone poles were sheared
carrying fighters comb the area, saw off like matchsticks.

hundreds of mediums add their bomb- It seemed impossible that human

weight to this cauldron of steel and beings could survive such a barrage,
flame. The date was July 25. The ter- but some did. Those who expected the
rific aerial smash was the one that en- Germans to be completely "anaesthe-

265
tized" were too optimistic. The Jerries field defenses in open country was best
suffered far more than they did at indicated by their continued use of it.

Cassino, where they had deep cellars The Canadian breakthrough southeast
in which to hide, but plenty of them of Caen on August 8, an attack which

survived. The important question was began at night, was paced by about
whether they had enough fight left in 1000 RAF heavies some of which
them to stem the advance that followed. brought their bombs back, because
Results proved that they did not. again dust and smoke made dead-
The weather was cloudy, as usual, accurate bombing impossible. The air
but not so bad as that of the day before support was continued the next day
when the same armada had been forced when 600 American heavies hurled
to return to base without dropping down 20,000 fragmentation bombs.
more than a third of its bombs. On This was considerably fewer heavies
both days some bombs fell short. These than the number employed at St. Lo
errors could have been the result either two weeks earlier. The reason prob-
of malfunctions or of poor visibility ably was the air chiefs' conclusion that
caused by the dust and smoke of the after bombing by a certain number of
bombs. The casualties among Allied combat wings, the target was so ob-
personnel were regrettable, but they scured as to make additional bombing
were not unforeseen. The margin for unprofitable and dangerous. On that
error had been made purposely small. same day, the remainder of Eighth Air
No one doubted for a moment that Force B-17S and B-24S attacked other
among the assault troops the lives targets, including launching sites for
saved by the air blow far exceeded robot bombs. The Canadian drive,
those lost by it. plowing through a defense belt at least
The basic reason for this use of ten miles wide, threatened to unhinge
heavy bombers as tactical support was the whole German position.
simply the desire on the part of Allied In most of these cases where the
commanders to bring maximum pres- heavies were employed, the Allies were
sure to bear on strong German de- facing German defenses in depth, with
fenses. There was no intention to di- Jerry solidly dug in and awaiting at-

vert the Forts and Libs more often than tack. When the enemy was on the
was necessary from their primary m.is- move, however, either forward or
sion: the destruction of strategic tar- backward, the main burden of air sup-
gets. But it was significant that when port reverted to the mediums and
they were diverted, as on July 18, July fighters of the tactical air forces.
25, and July 30, important ground One of the most valuable contribu-
gains followed. tions made by Allied air power in the
What the high command thought entire campaign was the assistance it

of the value of all-out bombing of rendered in breaking up the German

266
counter attack aimed at Avranches, a fled from doors and windows.
thrust designed to pinch off the Amer- From the start, the tactical air forces
ican spearheads driving south into showed a willingness to experiment
Brittany. This was a full-scale effort boldly and profit by experience. A
by four German divisions, and the fairly typical day was June 20 — D-
work of the fighter-bombers — espe- plus-14. At that stage of the game the
cially RAF rocket-firingTyphoons — Germans, fighting hard, were being
in blasting enemy armor played a pushed back toward Cherbourg. They
large part in saving the Allied armies had reached a fairly strong defensive
from what would have been an awk- position west and southwest of the
ward position had the Panzer thrust city and, although somewhat disorgan-
succeeded. ized, were in a position to inflict heavy
This protective however, was
role, losses on the attacking forces.
a rare one. When
Gen. Bradley said was decided by the high command
It

that air-ground co-operation in Nor- not to use the heavies but to let the
mandy was "away beyond anything tactical air forces make an all-out effort

we believed possible," he probably to harass and demoralize the Germans

had in mind day-to-day performance before the VII Corps moved forward.
—a day, for example, like July 28, Although little if any opposition from
when 70 tanks and 884 other vehicles the Luftwaffe was expected, the air-
were reported destroyed by Normandy- men knew that the operation might
based planes alone. The effect on Ger- prove expensive; low-level attack
man communications was catastrophic. against disciplined ground troops
There were innumerable reports of usually is. Still, one reason for the
direct appeals from Allied tank com- attack was to balance losses against
manders for air support to bomb a objectives achieved and to be guided
stubborn gun emplacement or knock accordingly in the future. An advan-
out a defiant Tiger tank. As a rule, tage of this particular operation was
the requests were answered promptly, that Cherbourg was doomed, the ter-

md although pinpoint accuracy was rain was certain to be captured even-

not always obtained, sooner or later tually, and results could be judged by
:he obstruction was cleared. In one first-hand inspection on the ground
:ase of complete reciprocity, a P-47 and by subsequent interrogation of
pilot reported to Allied artillery that captured enemy ground forces.

the Germans seemed to be using a cer- There was little time to plan the
tain house as a headquarters. The operation — about six hours, to be
artillery commander obliged by put- exact; six hours in which to organize
ting a couple of shells into the build- an air effort calling forabout 1000
ing. The Thunderbolt, swooping sorties against an area three miles wide
down, picked off the Jerries as they and seven miles long; six hours in

267
 »iSs.

<r ^'TSfeaSiaaNIt

General H. H. Arnold, left. Commanding General, U.S. Army Air Forces and Lt. Gen. Omar N.
Bradley, Commanding General U.S. Ground Forces in the European Theatre of Operations walk
along a French beachhead shortly after D-Day. They appear very jubilant with the results of their
joint efforts in the invasion.

268
which to get the field orders down to damage had been done but that the
the groups; six hours in which to let enemy had been scattered and disor-
the ground forces know exactly what ganized and that the advance had been
was going to happen. It took some tall made considerably easier.
hustling on the part of headquarters While tactical support held the cen-
and all the way down the line, but ter of the stage, the strategic blows
they did it. continued. Fighter factories that the
H-hour was 1400. The plan called Germans had laboriously repaired by
for ten squadrons of RAF fighter- combining crippled plants were ham-
bombers from the 2d Tactical Air mered again. The blitz on oil produc-
Force to bomb and strafe the target tion continued, aided by the RAF's
area for 20 minutes from H-minus-8o night blows. Most of the fighter oppo-
to H-minus-6o. Then 12 Ninth Air sition was encountered in Southern
Force fighterbomber groups ^vere to Germany, where Jerry seemed to be
take over for an hour, from H-minus- concentrating the bulk of his remain-
60 to H. Then Ninth
eight groups of ing fighters in an effort to meet attacks
Air Force Marauders bombing from either from England or Italy. Striking
medium altitude, were to pinpoint from on July 18, heavies of the
Italy
gun positions from H to H-plus-60. Fifteenth Air Force and their escort at-
Finally three groups of A-20S were to tacked Friedrichshafen and met about
give the Germans a last-minute shel- 250 enemy fighters, 66 of which were
lacking. Weather prediction was 1000- claimed destroyed. On July 25, bomb-
2000 feet overcast, which might call ing the Hermann Goering tank works
for pathfinder technique. Actually the at Linz, Austria, they again encoun-
weather was somewhat better than tered stiff opposition and shot down
this, and visual as well as pathfinder 65, losing 19 bombers and two fight-

methods were used. ers. On both days, British-based heavies

The troops were withdrawn 1200 were employed on tactical targets, al-
yards. The air attack began dead on lowing Jerry to concentrate his full
schedule and proceeded like clock- strength, such as it was, on the in-

work. The fighter bombers — 25 of vaders from Italy.

which were lost out of about 550 at- There was considerable discussion
tacking — claimed good results from as to the wisdom of pulling the big
strafing, glide- and dive-bombing of bombers off strategic targets, even oc-
trains, flak-guns, machine-gun posi- casionally, to give close support to
tions, troops, and motor transport. ground troops. But the question was
The bombers, only one of which failed beginning to seem academic. The
to return, reported excellent to unob- truth was that the Allied air forces
served results. The ground forces were could now dispose sufficient strength
of the opinion that no great material to meet all tactical requirements and

269
maintain strategic bombing too. marshaling yards at Rouen. In August,
This was the happy state of affairs 1944, after two years of bitter fighting
that prevailed as the second anniver- and heartbreaking effort, the U.S. Air
sary of American participation in the Force and their British allies were
European air war drew near. In Aug- dominating the skies and were pacing
ust, 1942, 12 Fortresses had made the the ground assault upon crumbling
first stab at the Nazis, bombing the Fortress Europe.

The greatest tactical air feat of the ivar unfolded when the colorful Gen.
George S. Patton led his Third Army from the Normandy breakout in a
wild dash across France, relying completely on the fighters and the bomb-
ers ofGen. O. P. Weyland's ipth Tactical Air Command as the sole pro-
on his exposed southern flank.
tecting force
It was a bold, imaginative operation directed by Weyland with skill
and energy. Here is the story of its conception and successful execution.

Patton's Air Cavalry

&/Sgt. Mark Murphy

From the time of Philip of Macedon, trols for the purpose. The roving
army commanders have worried about cavalry or armor would cover its own
flanks, simply because most of the time flanks, spot any enemy strength and
an army is much longer than it is wide. engage the opposition until support
To the rear of an army's front line are arrived.
reserve troopsand supply depots and Patton, however, had another idea.
communications. A standard method He was in one hell of a hurry, so he
of winning a campaign is to strike the called in Weyland and gave him the
enemy's flanks, destroy his supply task of protecting an exposed flank —
routes,and cut off his front line troops not the flank of an army moving
from support and materiel. methodically across known terrain,
In past wars, cavalry often was used but that of a mechanized army moving
to protect the flanks of an army. In with incredible speed, now in one di-

the present conflict, the Germans fre- rection, now in another, destroying the
quently have employed armored pa- enemy, heading relentlessly toward

270
the German homeland.
And so for the first time in history,
air, in addition to its duties of column
support, reconnaissance and all the
odd work of a tactical force, was given
a task which until recent months in
this war had been a ground job. This
was no mere reconnaissance assign-
ment. Weyland's forces were expected
to cover the exposed area and handle
anything that developed. Previously,
armies had moved so far, stopped, re-
grouped and moved on again. Patton,
confident that his air support would
protect him, kept on going for weeks
after it was expected he would stop.
He and Weyland took on a job requir-
ing nerve and skill as well as imagina-
tion.
The 19th Tactical Air Command
and the Third Army were kept under
wraps until August 1, although both
had been activated for some time, and
the 19th had done a lot in the soften-
ing up of the French coast prior to
D-Day. Late in July, there was the
business at St. Lo, the breakthrough
and some feints which caught the Ger-
mans neatly. The British were left to
hold the pivot at Caen, their troops
engaging the bulk of German units in
the area, while the Americans cut loose
on a wild jaunt through France.
Although takeoff of the 19th on
August 1 was delayed until later after-
noon because of bad weather, the
Third Army had launched operations
bright and early, and, in the hours
remaining before dusk, the airmen
were able to knock out both German
271
armor and German trucks.
After the ground forces broke
through in a drive past Avranches,
the 19th really had its work cut out for
it.Groups were assigned to hang over
the armored columns of the Third
Army, to prevent attack by enemy
planes and to knock out stuff holding
up the columns. Armed reconnaissance
squadrons had the long range jobs of
isolating battlefields, which is a mili-
tary way of saying they had to kill any
troops coming to the support of the
enemy, to spot and break up any con-
centrations, and to keep the enemy
constantly off balance.
AAF pilots were told not to bust
any bridges because that might hold
up American armies
the progress of the
who were definitely on their way. If
there were no targets for the column-
supporting groups, they were left free
to wander 30 miles ahead in search
of objectives to bomb or strafe. Fighter
Control stations kept track of what was
going on and often sent squadrons out
to hit targets noticed only minutes be-
fore by recon outfits.
Patton moved his headquarters, and
the 19th TAG headquarters moved,
too. The command's tasks grew daily.
In addition to giving the Third Army
armed support by conducting recon-
naissance missions, there was the job
of protecting a bottleneck at Avranches,
through which the Third Army's men
and materiel were pouring, and some
work to be done on ships in the har-
bor of St. Malo. American pilots were
going on three and sometimes five
 missions a day. quarters, and attacked 21 troop con-
Almost daily new groups were be- centrations. All this was in addition

ing added to the 19th as its functions to ceaseless patroland reconnaissance.

were broadened. In the first five days
of the Third Army's drive, the airmen
flew 1088 sorties and lost only three
planes. They knocked out 250 motor
vehicles, 12 tanks, 9 horsedrawn ve-
hicles, 4 locomotives, 9 railroad cars,
and 2 naval vessels; cut 5 railroad
The enemy withdrew to concentra-
tion points at Brest, St. Malo, Lorient,
and on the Painpol Peninsula, and the
Third Army, finished with Normandy,
had overrun Brittany where the fields
and weather were better for air opera-
tions. The enemy tried to cut our

lines; destroyed 17 gun positions, 7 traffic through Avranches, and Fatten

fuel and supply dumps, 2 marshaling started east in a move threatening the

yards, a gas tank and an enemy head- Germans facing the U.S. First Army

An American fighter pilot leans on the wing of his P-51 Mustang. On the fuselage are stenciled sym-
bols for his interdiction work — two Messerschmitts, a locomotive, and two ammunition carriers. The
five goose-steppers stand for five German soldiers who tried to defend their ammunition carrier.

mim-^ mm
ifmi, Bmt
and the British in the area of Mortain Then zoom upward, circle and
they'd
and Vire. come back down to pelt the enemy
Meanwhile, continuing the Brittany with bombs and bullets. The Ger-
campaign, Patton set out to get the mans had to use horsedrawn equip-
river Loire for his right flank. The ment much of the time (for lack of
19th TAG was assigned to guard this gas and oil for their motorized equip-
flank, and dispatches of those days read ment), and our flyers killed a lot of

something like the description of a horses, something which bothered

character of Stephen Leacock's who them considerably more than killing
jumped on his horse and rode off in Germans, who needed it.
all directions. Word from the Third During the action which closed the
was received at the igth's headquar- Argentan trap, some of the igth's
ters that "movement east, south and Thunderbolts pounced upon a con-
west by ground troops was greatly centration of nearly 1000 enemy ve-
facilitated." hicles and destroyed at least half of
By the end of the first week of the them.
campaign, the 19th was in full strength, At this stage of the campaign, enemy
and some of the Luftwaffe got up to ground troops began surrendering to
be knocked down, 33 enemy planes the TAG flyers. One unit of about
being destroyed on August 7. Patton 400 Germans waved white flags at a

kept moving his headquarters close to fighter squadron which was lining up
the head of his columns. But 19th for a The squadron
strafing attack.
TAG headquarters had communica- reported the location of the troops to
tions troubles. The farther it moved Fighter Gontrol and waited around
inland, the farther it was from its until some srround soldiers rounded
airbases. up the Boches. An 18-year-old boy
Gen. Weyland, however, flew up to among the prisoners said the field

confer with Gen. Patton nearly every kitchen of his outfit had been bombed
day, and operations continued un- and that he hadn't had anything to eat
ceasingly. Planes blastedenemy armor for four days. Our planes then dropped
and gun positions, flew over areas that leaflets outlining the advantages of
the Third Army might move into, yielding and thousands of German
bombed and strafed targets they found troops capitulated voluntarily.
there and watched over the supply German concentrations were falling
routes. one by one, and on August 18 there
When the Germans used our color was a harvest of 7000 jammed vehicles.
recognition panels on their tanks, the Because most of the enemy equip-
TAG pilots would fly low and look ment was in the British sector, the
over the vehicles as carefully as a six- 19th was denied the jackpot. While
mile-a-minute speed would permit. the American flyers were credited with

273
 i
General George Patton consults with Air Force generals at an advance headquarters in Europe.
Left to right: General Carl A. Spaatz, General Patton, Lt. Gen. Jimmy Doolittie, Moj. Gen. Hoyt S.
Vandenberg and Maj. Gen. O. P. Weyland.

a few hundred trucks, some tanks and opposition or plenty of it, the enemy

railroad rolling stock, the score of the preferring to jump our P-38S, P-47S,
RAF's 2nd Tactical Command was and P-51S when it had an eight or ten-
1
159 motor transports destroyed and to-one advantage.
1725 damaged; 124 tanks destroyed Our scores usually ran about four
and 96 damaged. enemy craft destroyed to one of ours
Meanwhile, the Allies had landed lost. On one occasion, 8 P-51S dis-
in Southern France and were 30 miles persedmore than 80 German planes.
inland. The Germans were very un- Another day 8 P-47S, jumped by 12
happy. ME- 109s and 20 FW-190S, got 6 and
Late in the month a cold front cut damaged 1 for an American loss of 2
down flying time, and on several days planes and pilots. In a broadcast to its
the Third Army sent its own armored troops, the German High Command
patrols along its right flank on the line declared that the Luftwaffe while out-
of the Loire. There was little danger, numbered, really was doing some-
though, because the 19th TAG had thing, even though German soldiers
taken care of the enemy all along that "tied to a singlefront" might not
400-mile stretch. When the planes realize it.

were flying, there was either no air As the enemy tried to cross the Seine

274
before the fall of Paris, the Thunder- month the 19th herded in 20,000 Ger-
bolts made things miserable for him. mans to surrender in one of the oddest
There were practically no bridges left actions of the war. These troops yield-

standing, and some of the Germans ed to what amounted to a couple of

were trying to swim across the river. platoons of infantry and a battalion of
Most of them were using ferries, and MPs brought up for the purpose, A
the igth, making things worse, put young infantry officer arranged the sur-

delayed action bombs in the ferry slips. render after days of negotiations when
Pressing ever onward, the Ameri- he threatened, among other things,
cans skirted Paris on two sides, leaving to have some circling P-47S come in
the 2nd French Armored Division to and bomb the Germans. The Thun-
occupy the encircled city after the derbolts had been attacking them for
French Forces of the Interior had a weeks and they didn't want another
field day routing Germans out of their minute of it.
fine billets. Ground-air co-operation between
On August 25, the Luftwaffe took the 19th TAG and the Third Army
and Thun-
a terrific beating. Mustangs reached an all-time high if you can go
derbolts of the and of the gth
jgth for the fantastic story they tell at TAG
Tactical Air Command of the Ninth headquarters. It's about a young air-

Air Force destroyed 77 enemy
in the air and 50 on the ground, got
1 1 probables and damaged 33. The
total American loss was 27 aircraft.
Over Germany, Eighth Air Force fight-
ers and bombers accounted for 1 1 in
the air and 40 on the ground. The
Germans launched a few jet-propelled
craft which traveled like hell but nev-
er got anywhere near our planes.
planes man, a lieutenant colonel, who was
forced to bail out behind the German
lines.According to the tale, he hid in
a town for two days, waiting for Pat-
ton's columns to approach the area.
After a Frenchman had sneaked him
across the lines, the colonel reached
Third Army Headquarters, where he
described the enemy-held town and
its defenses and suggested that it be

The igth's assignment after the fall taken immediately.

of Paris was a tough one, calling for "Give me a forty-five and I'll take
widely diffused action. Patton was far it myself," the flyer is said to have
across France and the TAG was sup- volunteered.
porting him. At the same time it was The colonel's enthusiasm is sup-
bombing Brest and other enemy tar- posed to have so pleased the two-gun
gets in Western France. When these man (Patton) to whom he was report-
coastal installations finally capitulated, ing, that half an hour later, American
Weyland was able to devote his full tanks rolled into town on information
strength to the campaign in the East. an AAF officer had obtained on flying-

In September things began to slow boot reconnaissance.

down, although in the middle of the

275
 Aerial resupply of the surging Allied armies was a feu,, of gigantic propor-
tions. The job went to the Troop Carrier boys with their slow, unarmed
C-^y cargo planes. Theirs was the unenviable task of going into front line
took a lot of guts and skill and there was little glory to be earned.
strips. It
When ^^,000 paratroops and glider infantry were delivered deep behind
enemy lines in northern Holland in September, 1944 to secure both sides
of the Rhine River, there was only one lifeline of supply — by air. Troop
Carrier pilots rose to the occasion. Here is the story of a typical day.

Special Delivery to No Man's

Land
1st Lt. Joseph D. Guess

Today, at last, the fog was lifting and "Give us three hours," said Gen.
the sun was showing. Clark, "and one field and we'll land
At 0800, it was decided to run the and unload all planes."
mission. Soon the motors of more The C-47S were loaded.
than 200 C-47S would be making the By 1100 the German fighter field —
ground throb beneath them at the 1000 yards by 1400 yards — had been
Wing's bases. Gen. Clark looked at his cleared. The Germans had been pushed
overall plan. One of his officers pointed from one two miles away. Whether
to
out that the plan called for landing at they could be held there was an open
three bases in Holland. They looked question.
at their map of the day. At 1115 the first of the C-47S, its

"The enemy isn't cleared from three seams bulging with tightly-packed
fields in this area," this officer said. cargo,lumbered down the runway and
"The situation is confusing there. At took off for a field in Holland that
this moment we have no fields to land might — and then again might not —
on." With his finger he indicated a be cleared of the enemy when it came
point on themap two miles north of time to land.
Grave and eight miles southwest of Meanwhile, a force of Eighth Air
Nijmegen. "There's a small German Force and RAF fighters was readying
fighter field there that may be cleared for take-off to the same area. Obviously
by this afternoon. But that's only one the Luftwaffe would challenge fiercely
field."

276
 The first of the C-47s with their "seams bulging with tightly-packed cargo" on their way to a first

landing in Holland.

such a mass landing of supplies as this. Some of the fighter escorts went
Probably the longest aerial supply ahead to set up a ring of protection
headed for a front line
train that ever around the small field at Grave.
nosed its way over the enemy coast At 1350 the first C-47 set its wheels
before 1300. The sky wasn't too clear, on the dirt landing strip. Three hours
and the sky train went in at low alti- — 180 minutes — to land, unload, and
tude. dispatch more than 200 large planes.
Beneath it, a furiously speeding was a task that might have un-
It

fighter escort plane occasionally
turn sharply upon a Dutch haystack
or a lone farmhouse, spraying lead
into a hidden flak
to get the range.
would nerved the traffic control officers at
the largest and best equipped airfield
in England — or the U. S.
gun that was trying But there was no control tower at
this field. There were no traffic con-

277
trol officers. There was sharp, vicious nition; 60,730 pounds of rations. In
fighting a mile and a half away. There 657,995 pounds of combat equip-
all,

were squadrons of desperate Luftwaffe ment and 882 fighting men were un-
fighter pilots trying to penetrate the loaded on a field 1000 by 1400 yards.
Allied fighter ring. In the offing, the While the Wing was making this
Eighth Air Force and RAF fighters great supply delivery — without which
were mixed with the Germans in a the unprecedented airborne operation
great, swirling dogfight. would have failed — it also was load-
The first C-47S to land carried Eng- ing many of the glider personnel that
lish anti-aircraft personnel and equip- had been stranded in no-man's land,
ment, including big Bofors guns. The and taking them back to England so
ordinary unloading time for this cargo they could fly again against the Hun.
was three to four hours. They did it Planes that were loading these es-

in 45 minutes. sential men dropped out of the line

At one time there were more than that was squirming from the unload-
100 C-47S on the field— 100 closely ing area down a dirt strip to the take-
parked, defenseless sky freight wagons. off line; then, when ready, they edged
The men who were hurrying with the their way back into the procession.
unloading knew they would be duck The Luftwaffe was going crazy try-

soup if even a half-dozen enemy planes ing to get in close enough to shoot up
could get close enough to strafe them. the C-47S. One force of 50 Luftwaffe
Above the field, the traffic pattern fightersheaded toward the field. With-
was jammed with a long orderly line in a few blazing minutes, the Eighth
of cargo planes ready to land. One dirt Air Force had shot down 32 of the
landing strip was cluttered with those Germans, probably shot down another
that had landed. Another strip was and damaged 8. The remaining Huns
jammed with aircraft ready to takeoff. scattered.
And all traffic directions were coming At 1650 — three hours to the min-
by radio from one parked C-47 on ute — the last of the C-47S took off.

the ground. The job had been done.

Yet there was not one moment of Back to England they went, and
confusion. landed. Not a single cargo plane had
The supplies rolled out on the field: been lost in the most dangerous re-
132 jeeps; 73 jeep quarter-ton trailers; supply mission ever undertaken by
31 motorcycles; 3375 gallons of gas air to the front battle lines.
for vehicles; 38,700 pounds of ammu-

278
 While Allied ground armies pushed across France, fighter pilots relent-
hunted down the fast-disappearing Luftwaffe in the air and on the
lessly

ground. Here in dramatic prose, ^8-victor ace John T. Godfrey of the

famous ^th Fighter Group, recounts these waning days of the Luftwaffe.
Twice during his combat career the ingenious Godfrey was shot down
over enemy territory, and twice he escaped from the Germans to make
his way back to England.

Last Encounter wltli the

Luftwaffe
Jolm T. Godfrey

On August 6, I flew as leader of Free aimed for the tail first, and then eased
Lance Section, This to me was the best right rudder as the bullets traveled
job in the 4th Group. Not being tied along the fuselage to the starboard
down to any squadron or group com- engine. This caught on fire immedi-
mander, I was free to roam anywhere ately. Throttling back I jockeyed my
in Germany. Flying at 30,000 feet or plane to the stern of the 410 and
down to zero, north, south, east or blanketed the port with fire. It was
west, the skieswere mine, and I rel- out of control and in flames when I

ished every minute of it. pulled up over it. One of the boys
Five months ago, flying over Berlin, called on the RT, "Look at that poor
there were only a few fighters protect- bastard."
ing the Forts; now Allied fighters were I looked down and saw a man plum-
everywhere. I didn't waste time around meting to earth, his defective para-
Berlin, but flew eastward for 30 miles, chute streaming unfurled above him.
hoping to pick up stray German It was a sickening sight, and I could

planes. My plan worked. I saw a single imagine the frantic efforts he must
ME-410 flying at 2000 feet. After ask- have made pulling on his shroud lines
ing the boys to give I dove me cover, before the earth crushed him. What a
down. Approaching from the stern horrible way to die.
was suicide against this type of plane, I flicked on my camera switch and
for they had rear gunners. So, swing- followed the 410 down to earth. It

ing to the right, I quartered into the struck the ground and a huge column
plane and shot with a 30° deflection. I of fire shot a hundred feet into the air.

279
It wasn't every day I had the time and have been peering into the ring sight
protection to record on film the posi- — and would have caught the bullet
tive proof of a destroyed plane. squarely between my eyes.
I rejoined my three comrades; we The other three planes were now
flew at looo feet searching for more striving to catch me. Then the crack-
targets. Glover saw the airdrome first ing of a voice over the RT sent me
and reported it to me. I opened my numb with fright, "Johnny, you're
throttle for as much speed as possible streaming glycol."
as we went down to strafe. I picked I looked at my instruments and saw
out a DO- 17 partly concealed at the with horror that my engine tempera-
far end of the field. Sighting was done ture registered in the dangerous red
by guess, for the windshield in front area. One two things would happen
of
of my gun sights was covered with oil very shortly — either my engine would
picked up from the riddled 410. I held freeze, or it would blow up. All rea-
my head way over to the right and soning left me and I panicked. Still
watched my bullets flick up the earth keeping the plane in a climbing posi-
in front of the Dornier. Pulling back tion, I worked frantically to pull the
on the stick raised the nose of the emergency release which would send
plane slightly, and the four machine my canopy free from its sliding racks.
guns hit home. The DO- 17 exploded. My hand fumbled desperately but
I felt my
plane tremble as machine- shook so much I had to use the other
gun from the ground hammered
fire hand to steady it. Whoosh! A blast of
into it. I yanked back on the stick air rushed into the cockpit as the
and climbed to free myself from this canopy tore free. Now all I had to do
hotbed of blazing shells. Crash! The was unbuckle my harness straps and
windshield in front of the gun sight step over the side. Ten minutes ago I
looked like a cobweb with a small had watched a man bail out of a plane,
hole in the center. I felt a sharp tug and his parachute hadn't opened; I
on my left temple as the bullet creased tried to erase the picture of the plum-
me before it splat into the armor meting man from my mind. I wanted
plate by my head. For a second the to say something calm and dramatic
concussion of the bullet knocked me to the boys before I bailed out, but
senseless, but I came to with my plane when I did speak it was in a high-
climbing. I could feel blood dripping pitched voice, screaming with despair.
down my forehead. Quickly I adjusted "I'm bailing out, boys. Tell Char-
my goggles. They were close-fitting lotte I'll see her when I get back!"
and I hoped they would keep the The words rushed out in my urgency
blood from running into my eyes. But to leave this death-trap of a thousand
I knew I was lucky. If it hadn't been exploding horses.
for the oil on the windshield I would Reaching up to yank the helmet

280
and earphones off my head, I hesitated I throttled back and began climbing
as I heard the calm voice of Freddie at only 50 feet a minute, continually
Glover: "Don't jump, Johnny, there's pushing my wobble pump in and out,
still a chance." in and out.
I tried to collect my wits, to think Freddie and his wingman left me
of what Freddie was saying. "Now sit when- I reached 18,000 feet. He had
back and relax for a second. You're done his job well, and now my safe
still flying and the plane won't blow return would rest on the strength of
up. Look at your instruments and tell my arm and the fuel supply. Patteau,
me how your oil pressure is." I looked my wingman, was flying in a zigzag
at the blur of needles swimming be- manner, first on one side, then on the
fore my eyes. I have to concentrate, I other — protecting my tail. My plane
kept telling myself over and over again. had been hit near Berlin, 675 miles
"Normal, Freddie." from Debden. The chances of getting
"Good, that's a good sign. Now un- back seemed very remote, but desper-
screw your wobble pump and start ately I pumped and pumped, injecting
priming your engines. That'll force life into my dying engine. Gone were

raw gas into your cylinders and have the thoughts of the two enemy aircraft
the same effect as the glycol. No bull, I had destroyed. Flak and enemy fight-

Johnny, — Fve heard of somebody else ers no longer seemed threats to me.
doing it and it works." By the second hand of my plane's
The wobble pump was on my dash- clock I counted one, two, three, four
board; it had a small handle similar to ... 16 I worked the
times a minute
an outboard motor's starting handle, plunger. Three hours more to Debden
and when pulled out would spring equaled almost 3000 injections; and if
back. With my right hand I pulled out I subtracted the time I had started, it

the handle and then thrust it back in would make but I couldn't think.
. . .

to feed the gas into the cylinders. It This type of calculation was too much
didn't work easily. Freddie was flying for me moment. The wind whis-
at the
close to me now and continued his tling through the cockpit was cold and
encouragement as I worked the pump penetrating. I could feel it biting into
in and out. my very soul. Regrettably I lost height
"Freddie, it's working. My engine in an attempt to find a warmer layer
temperature is away from the danger of air. How much can a body endure
zone." before the breaking point?
"Good, Johnny — now throttle back The agonies of the flesh were for-
and don't push your engine. Try to gotten when my engine spit and died.
keep climbing; the higher we go the A frantic search of my instrument
cooler the air will be — every little bit panel made me hastily switch on the
helps." reserve gas tank. The motor caught,

281
but the instruments had made me If ... if ... a small word but it meant
aware of a greater threat. Thirty-nine so much to me. If my gas holds out,
gallons of gas left, and I had no idea I can make it. If I can press this

of my exact position. plunger several hundred more times,

Then saw it. Thank God, just
I England be under my wing.
will I did
ahead of me was the Channel. I had not count ... I dared not.
lost the battle for height as my cold My wheels touched down at Beccles.

body demanded warmer and warmer No circling of the field for me; I land-
air. I was at 4000 feet when the plane ed on the nearest runway — with no
left the shores of Holland. The glove regard for wind or traffic. I didn't
on my right hand had frayed open even taxi to the control tower; I pulled
from the continual friction of the hot off on a grassy plot near the end of the
handle of the plunger. What had been runway and shut off the engine. I
blisters under the glove were now red climbed out of the cockpit and lit a
welts of bleeding, slippery flesh, and much needed cigarette.
the plunger kept slipping from my Did I have any premonition of my
grasp. Blasts of air continued to blow fate on that last mission of August 24?
into the cockpit with tornado force. I No. There was no dream to forewarn
didn't think I could stand it much me. Even the wobble pump which I
longer. Panic-stricken, I called my now used to prime my engine before
wingman. starting was just another instrument
"Patty, I don't think I have enough on the panel. That mission of August
gas to make it. Call Air Sea Rescue for 6, when it had played such an impor-

a fix. I'm switching over now." My tant part of my life, was pushed far
lefthand flicked the button which into the back of my mind. Everything
would set my radio on the Air Sea was the same — the takeoff, the join-
Rescue frequency. I listened in a daze ing of squadron and group, the climb
at Pattyinformed them of my plight, over the Channel, the constant whine
and they gave him a vector onto the of the Germans trying to jam our RT.
nearest field. If I could last 21 more The flak, which always plagued us
minutes I could make it. when we entered over the enemy coast,
The ground control officer seemed had its terrifying effect, and we
still

calm and confident, as if there were dodged in and out of the black explo-
nothing to worry about. They knew sions.
my exact position at all and if
times, Somany things could have happened
I did bail out, a seaplane would be to make me turn back. My radio could
sent in minutes. have gone dead; the motor could easily
How long is 21 minutes? To me it have started spitting; my belly tanks
was measured by the times my weary could not have dropped; my oxygen
arm worked the plunger in and out. could have run low — all or any of
these mishaps had forced me back on of every kind, all of whom were firing
previous missions. at us.
I had no reason to ask the squadron Why didn't I leave now? What was
leader to break formation, since there I trying to prove?
were no enemy fighters in sight; but I I heard the crunch of a shell as it
wanted to leave the many fighters who exploded near my wing. But down
were protecting the bombers, to see if again I flew, to assure the destruction
there was more action near the ground. of the last two planes on the field. The
Two boys in my section found a light tattoo of a machine-gun fire raked
marshaling yard with trains in abund- my plane from the hub of the pro-
ance — not good enough targets for peller to the tail assembly. Not one
me. I wanted bigger game, and left struck the cockpit. My motor was sud-
them with their little set of trains. Up denly sluggish, but there was that one
ahead I suddenly saw an enemy air- last plane — and I dove once more for
field. And there they were — eight my final kill.
juicy fat JU-52S, sitting peacefully at But there was no fast pull up now.
the edge of the field. One pass, I prom- As I flew over the burning wreck, my

ised myself; there's no harm in that. engine began to falter badly, but my
Down I went, building up speed in momentum carried me up to 1500 feet
my dive to the ground. One JU-52 before the 1200 horses gave their last
loomed bigger and bigger in my ring gasp. I aimed the nose of the plane at
sight. Now, I said, and pressed the but- a small clearing I could see ahead. And
ton to watch the fat JU-52 wither in a as my plane started its downward
shroud of machine-gun fire. Pulling plunge, I felt a strange sense of relief
up I waited; no flak. Then — down — there were no flashbacks of my life,
again, this time joined by my wing- no self-pity for what was happening.
man. Another JU-52 melted into the For I was tired, dead tired of the strug-
ground. gle. As I pulled back on the stick to
Again, again, again— five passes and ease the crash, I felt the plane slide
each time my home. But
bullets hit into the soft earth. My head shot for-
now around us. And
the flak was all ward and hit the gun sight as the plane
the ground was alive with gunners crunched to a stop.

283
 Dogsbody
Group Capt. J. E. Jolmson, RAF
It is fascinating to watch the reac- ity (although every squadron usually
tions of the various pilots. They fall possessed at least one), turned to their
into two broad categories: those who escape kits and made quite sure that
are going out to shoot and those who they were wearing the tunic with the
secretly and desperately know they silk maps sewn into a secret hiding-
will be shot at, the hunters and the place; that they had at least one oil-

hunted. The majority of the pilots, skin-covered packet of French francs,

once they have seen their names on and two if possible; that they had a
the board, walk out to their Spitfires compass and a revolver and sometimes
for a pre-flight check and for a word specially-made clothes to assist their
or two with their ground crews. They activities once they were shot down.
tie on their mae-wests, check their When they went through these agon-
maps, study the weather forecast and ized preparations they reminded me
have a last-minute chat with their of aged countrywomen meticulously
leaders or wingmen. These are the checking their shopping-lists before
hunters. catching the bus for the market town.
The hunted, that very small minor-

Except for brief diversions to lend a hand in the tactical air war, the
strategic heavybombers of Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces and the RAF
Bomber Command continued their incessant day-night pounding of
German cities and industry.
For over a year they had dealt crippling blows at various segments of
the German economy and war-making potential — rubber, ball-bearing,
aircraft, shipyards, submarine pens, V -sites and other key targets — turning
factories and installations into rubble. But always the resilient Germans,
through dispersion, underground facilities, and regimentation of civilian
population, managed to resume a degree of production. During the last
year of the war, for example, underground factory output of fighter air-
craft actually increased, though the planes were of little use to a prostrate
Luftwaffe.

284
 It was not until the final year of the war that strategic air power found
the Achilles heel of the German nation — oil. The obliteration of this vital
segment of national and military life, more than any other factor, brought
on the final quick collapse of the Third Reich by depriving it of its mo-
bility. Lack of oil strangled the economy and paralyzed the once powerful

Wehrmacht. It elim.inated Germany as an industrial nation.

Here is the story of this decisive strategic air campaign, by reporters
covering the missions during the latter part of the war.

Striking Oil
Air Force Overseas Correspondents

On November 2, 1944, the biggest air fare,had been systematically drained

battle of the war took place over Ger- from its veins. Blow by blow, the
many when half of a force of more sledgehammers of strategic bombing
than 1000 Eighth Air Force heavy had pounded away until Hitler's oil
bombers, escorted by 900 fighters, at- production of more than a million
tacked the giant Leuna synthetic oil metric tons per month had dwindled
refinery at Merseburg. For the first to a thin, sluggish trickle.
time in many weeks, the Luftwaffe, Beyond the welter of dates and fig-

which had remained in hiding while ures that detail the story of our cam-
Allied bombers were laying waste paign to strike oil is the simple fact of
whole cities, rose to defend a target. its overwhelming importance to the
And its fierce resistance and the reck- enemy and the prime necessity, from
lessness with which its carefully hus- our point of view, for its destruction.
banded fighters were expended — 208 This was recognized early in the war.
Nazi planes were destroyed — testified As far back as 1940, the RAF went
to the desperation of the Reich with after specific oil targets in the Ruhr
regard to its gasoline situation. and elsewhere. However, was not it

It is more than just a play on words, until the turning point in Africa and
therefore, to say that the picture of a the culmination of the slow growth
badly mauled Germany driven behind of Allied air superiority, that the
the defensive bastions of homelandits smashing of Nazi refineries and syn-
is a portrait in oil. Fuel and lubri- thetic plants could assume its rightful
cants, the lifeblood of machine war- priority.

285
 The target was large and sprawling. by about 80 per cent. Thousands of
There is very little oil in Germany it- planes had been destroyed in combat
self. The principal producers are the and on the ground. The capacity of
synthetic plants in the three main coal German airmen to interfere seriously
regions of Silesia, and the Ruhr, with Allied operations was limited.
around Leipzig. Various coke oven The was now cleared for the
field

plants, gas works, and L. T. Carbon-
ization units add their volume to the
total of Hitler's refined products,
by far the greater percentage of natu-
ral petroleum sources are scattered
kickoff, and goals were assigned as
follows: the RAF was to attack petro-
but leum plants in the Ruhr; the Eighth
Air Force was to operate in central,
northern, and eastern Germany, east-

through the occupied countries. The ern Czechoslovakia, and western Po-
great Ploesti refining district in Ru- land; the Fifteenth Air Force was to
mania, for example, was able to fur- strikeat southern and southeastern
nish 28 per cent of greater Germany's Germany, southern Poland, Austria,
demands for oil. Hungary, Italy, southern France, and
It was realized at the beginning of the important Balkan countries, in-

the oil offensive that an effective re- cluding Rumania. It was a master plan
duction of Nazi output called for to dovetail three powerful air armadas
neutralization of the Luftwaffe to per- in a campaign against Hitler's oil re-
mit a concentrated assault. Long-range fineries, synthetic fuel manufacturing
precision bombardment was required plants, and stored reserves.
before the industry could be gravely The ensuing campaign was con-
air
hurt. There had been successful mis- sistent and effective. Between the mid-
sions against oil before 1944 — notably dle of May and October 19, the Eighth
the attack on the Ploesti fields in Au- made 2 assaults on more than 30
1 1

gust, 1943 — but as long as the enemy's individual refineries and synthetic
air force maintained and expanded its plants in some of the biggest daylight
fighter strength, all strategic bombing attacks of the war. In July, the Fif-

efforts were threatened with prohibi- teenth aimed its bombs at oil targets
tive losses. The first objective, there- on 17 days of the month while during
Eighth and Fifteenth
fore, of the U.S. the short nights the RAF was also dili-

Air and the RAF Bomber

Forces gent. And pacing the drive was a week-
Command, became the demolition of in, week-out demolition of storage
aircraft plants, ball-bearing factories, tanks, depots, railway tankers, and
and related industrial installations. By other supplies by all Allied air forces

May of this year the Luftwaffe was in Europe, both strategic and tactical.

limping badly. Single-engine fighter The list of important places hit in-
production had been cut by more than cluded Ploesti, Almasfuzito, Trzebinia,
60 per cent, twin-engine manufacture Lobau, Zeit, Politz, Brux, Blechham-

286
mer, Merseburg, Magdeburg, Bohlen, ery is smaller than for most targets. To
Lutzkendorf, Ruhland, Hamburg, and render a plant unproductive, only one
many others. Total Nazi production of its components has to be seriously
of oil products declined steadily and impeded. Destruction of either the
inexorably. By October, the quantity cracking plant, the distillation unit, or
available was less than one-fourth of the boiler house will suspend normal
what it had been, and the Wehrmacht operation of the refinery until it is

was forced to dip heavily into its re- repaired or rebuilt. And the high vola-
serves. tility of the product which may
itself,

By its very nature, an oil refinery is ignite from other causes when even a
a good target. The process of refining near-miss occurs, greatly increases the
petroleum requires installations that probability of damage.
are rambling and well spread out, The Germans have made frantic
offering bombardiers wide areas upon efforts to reduce this vulnerability, and
which to sight. Smokestacks, often their methods have been partially suc-
more than loo feet tall, and distilla- cessful. One of the great proving
tion equipment situated well above grounds for this epic race between
ground, make camouflage extremely offense and defense was Ploesti. That
difficult. And ideal landmarks were facet of the campaign is worth consid-
provided by the clusters of tank farms ering in some detail, not only because
which are used to accumulate crude it was the greatest single source of
oil to supply the refineries and to store Nazi oil, but also because the fields

the finished products until shipment have since fallen into Allied hands,
can be made. thus making complete evaluation pos-
Synthetic plants, too, need compli- sible.

cated facilities. The manufacture of At Ploesti, the oil region covers an

oil from coal shale by either the Ber- area of 19 square miles, densely
gins method, which provides the crowded with refineries and pumping
greatest percentage of aviation gas, or stations interconnected with a railway
the Fischer Tropsch system, requires network. The plants are in three prin-
plants for distillation, carbonization, cipal groups — at Ploesti, Campina,
compression, conversion, catalysis, and and Brazil — and were potentially cap-
purification, as well as oven houses, able of a crude oil output of 709,000
gas generators, large gas tanks, injector tons per month. The largest of these
plants, water gas works, and other units, Astra Romana, served as the
specialized equipment. Authorities say central receiving station for oil from
that it takes two years to build a syn- most of the other plants, and pumped
thetic plant from the ground up. it to the Giurgiu terminal of the pipe-

In addition, the number of direct line on the Danube, over which it was
hits necessary to incapacitate a refin- transported to the Reich. The proxim-

287
ity of Rumania to the Nazi forces of active and passive defense, exploit-
on the Russian Front enabled the Ger- ing every old trick and a couple of
mans to supply them with ease, while new ones. Their fighters were up in
some of the fuel requirements of the force, with the Rumanian and Nazi
hard-pressed divisions in Italy could pilots flying ME- 109s. Anti-aircraft
also be met with Rumanian lubricants guns, including four-barreled 20-mm,
and gasoline. 88-mm, 105-mm, and 128-mm guns,
When the first attacking party of threw up a curtain of flak that at all
177 B-24S came over without fighter times was heavy, intense, and accurate.
escort in the now historic low-level at- But fighter interception and ack-ack
tack of August tremendous
1, 1943, a were not the sole extent of Hitler's
amount of damage was accomplished defense preparations. Beginning with
in spite of the loss of 54 planes. Astra the last strike in May, the whole
Romana's powerhouse was put out of Ploesti area was screened by a thick,
operation, and its cracking installation swirling artificial fog. Approximately
was demolished, as well as half of its 2000 smoke generators were employed
functioning capacity. Greditul Minier, in this capacity and functioned in the
Colombia Acquila, and Steaua Roma- same manner every time Allied airmen
na — three of Ploesti's most modem came over. On the last battle, however,
plants — were hit hard. Half of the there was but little smoke. Continued
Phoenix Orion refinery was obliter- hammering of communication lines
ated, and the Lumina works had a had paid off, and the defenders could
large proportion of its vital parts re- not get in supplies of the necessary
duced to rubble. chemicals.
At the time of the opening salvo Another defensive feature at Ploesti
against German oil in early 1944, was the construction of huge blast
Ploesti's estimated production was walls — requiring enough brick to
458,000 tons of crude output per build a sizable modern town— around
month, of which 177,000 tons repre- every single installation at each re-
sented maximum gasoline production. finery. Nothing quite like them had
During April the Fifteenth Air Force ever been seen. Some were 6 feet thick
— this time flying at 20,000 feet with at the bottom and tapered upward to
fighter escort — softened up the target a height of 20 feet, where they were
for Sunday punch by pounding the
its 2 feet wide. Even a series of three
railroad marshaling yards which lie to pumps had a complete square of blast
the north and south of the oil fields walls around it, and from the air the
themselves. whole arrangement had the weird,
From May, 1944 on, the heavies con- dazzle-painted appearance of a gigantic,
centrated on the refineries. The enemy one-story, multi-roomed, roofless house.
reacted with strong countermeasures There were three large-scale raids

288
in the month of May, at the end of the withdrawal orders issued by the
which the Steaua Romana refinery, the command of the Nazi 26th Panzer
third most productive, had been defi- Division in Italy:
nitely knocked out, and the overall "Armored units which are not com-
output at Ploesti had been trimmed pletely for action and those
ready
down to 217,000 tons monthly, which cannot be taken along on ac-
June brought another three attacks count of the fuel position must be
and an innovation in the Fifteenth blown up. Commanders will have to
Air Force's tactics. On the 10th, P-38S decide which motor transport will
made a low-level bombing-strafing run have to be taken along and which left
on Romana Americana Refinery. They behind, basing their decision on the
dropped between 40 and 50 bombs fuel position ." Eloquent testimony
. .

weighing 500 pounds each and set fire to the leak which air power had cre-
to the Crutzell crude oil distillery ated in the German gas tank.
plant. When they left, 10 oil storage On the less cloudy side of the ene-
tanks were blazing and the mechani: my's ledger with respect to his "fuel
cal work shops were almost completely position" are several important con-
demolished. siderations. First is the fact that the
Five stabs in July caused important word "destroy" must be used cautious-
material damaged to the Romana ly when applied to the oil industry. A
Americana and Concordia refineries. refinery is a vulnerable mechanism, it

Storage facilities of the Unirea Refin- is true, but it can be repaired if spare
ery were severely rocked, and the giant parts are readily available. A plant
Astra Romana plant was once again may be struck with the greatest pos-
subjected to an aerial pummeling. sible accuracy, with the right number,
In August, up to the time of the type, and bombs. Most of the
size of

capture of the Ploesti fields by the surface structure may be demolished,

Soviet Army, several heavy strikes most of the machinery smashed. But
were carried out by the Fifteenth Air the foundations will probably be left
Force with one night bombing foray standing, the bulk of underground
by RAF Wellingtons and Halifaxes. pipes and other works will be little

In addition, there was a straight fighter harmed, and some of the machines
sweep by P-51S and P-38S on August 6. will no doubt be available for repair
By the end of the last mission, the ca- or salvage. Hitler's men are well aware
pacity of the main Rumanian refiner- of this, and in June a special commis-
ieswas reduced from its rated 709,000 sioner was appointed to direct such
tons of crude output per month to a renovation activities. He was given
mere 77,000 tons —a drop of 90 per preference for labor and material even
cent. No
wonder, then, that the fol- over armament manufacturers, and the
lowing recommendations appeared in result has been the creation of a well

289
trained corps of skilled workmen who Another advantage for Jerry lies in
are specialists in just this type of emer- the fact that bombing of refineries and
gency work. synthetic plants is rarely a visual pin-
Moreover, extravagant pains have point operation. Because of smoke
been taken to have spare parts within screens and other reasons, it frequently
reach. Just as in the Reich substitute has to be performed by instruments.
bridges are ready to replace existing And as the weather grows worse, the
spans which the Nazis think may be problem becomes more difficult for
demolished, so extra machinery and the Allies and easier for the Nazis.
building materials have been deposited Nevertheless, the persistent bomb-
in the vicinity of many essential oil ing of her oil industry has been very
plants. By this means, it is possible for costly to the Reich— may, in fact, have
a refinery to be in production again been the substance with which her
remarkably soon after it has been satu- skids were greased on the Western
rated with bombs. Front. Outward indications of a ser-
The speed of German restoration is ious pinch are everywhere in evidence.
best illustrated by recent figures. Commanders of Panzer divisions are
Whereas in September it was known now required to submit daily reports
that oil capacity had fallen to its low on consumption and have been or-
point of approximately 25 per cent of dered to utilize horse-drawn vehicles
the pre-attack level, the belief among wherever possible. The German Air
experts was that volume might rise Force training program, which always
during the winter months because bad received a top priority on gas, has been
weather would probably interfere with drastically limited. Training periods
our operations. have been shortened, and new pilots
To soften the effects of such assaults, do much less flying. Needless to say,
the enemy has been surrounding his civilian use of vital gas and oil has
oil targets with some extremely strong been virtually eliminated.
batteries of anti-aircraft guns. At Brux, Obviously, the enemy is desperate.
for example, photo reconnaissance The bombardment of his oil industry
shows that the number of AA weapons has been and continues to be his worst
had been increased from 84 heavy headache. And when the wheels of the
guns in July about 200 in late
to Wehrmacht grate and grind to their
October. now guarded by
Politz is last stop, Germany's defeat may well
more heavy guns than are used to be ascribed in part to too many trou-
protect entire cities such as Bremen, bled waters — and not enough oil.
Hanover, Frankfurt, or Munich.

290
 A peculiar characteristic of aerial warfare was the sense of respect and
admiration between combatants over Europe. This trait of airmanship
transcended national and political boundaries and found its expression
in many ways.
French Ace Pierre Clostermann, who flew with the RAF, puts it this
way.

Walter Nowotny
Pierre Clostermann

On March 15 last I was leading a checking documents and

captured
section of fourTempests in a rat Me-262 had
prisoners' reports that the
scramble over Rheine/Hopsten at been piloted by Nowotny*. Everyone
8000 feet. Suddenly we saw at ground had gone to bed. Bruce Cole, Clark,
level a Messerschmitt 262 without any Brooker, and I had stayed up and we
camouflage, its polished wings glitter- were glancing at an illustrated article
ing in the sun. was already in the
It on Nowotny in a review called Der
flak corridor and about to put down. Adler which we had found at Goch.
The barrage of tracers was already up There was his picture, taken on the
to cover its approach. In accordance day he received the Iron Cross with
with the new orders I decided not to swords, diamonds, and oak leaves —
attack in these conditions, when, with- the highest German military distinc-
out warning, my Number 4 dived ver- tion. A face like that of a tired child,
tically toward the small bright dot with a trace of sadness and a deter-
which was nearing the long cement mined mouth and chin.
runway. Hurtling through the air like "All now,"
right suddenly said

a bullet Bob Clark miraculously went Brooker, "time to go to bed. What a

through the wall of flak without being pity that type wasn't wearing our
hit and fired a long burst at the sil- uniform."
very Me-262, which was in the final Walter Nowotny was dead. Our ad-
phase of its approach. The Messer- versary in Normandy and in the Ger-
schmitt crashed in flames just on the
• Maj. Walter Nowotny commanded the Luft-
edge of the airfield.
waffe's ME-262 jet fighter unit stationed near
A fortnight later we learnt by cross- Osnabruck.

291
man skies had died two days before in like toys in the infinite sky. We too,
the hospital at Osnabriick as a result of course, were involved in less noble
of burns.The Luftwaffe, whose hero fighting; that strafing of trains in the
he was, would not long survive his gray dawn of winter mornings when
death, which was as it were the turn- you tried not to think of the shrieks
ing point of the aerial war. That eve- of terror, not to see your shells smash-
ning in the mess his name was often ing through the wood, the windows
on our lips. We
spoke of him without shivering in fragments, the engine-
hatred and without rancor. Each one drivers writhing in the burning jets of
of us recalled his memories of him, steam, all those human beings trapped
with respect, almost with affection. It in the coaches, panic-stricken by the
was the first time I had heard this note roar of our engines and the barking
in a conversation in the RAF, and it of the flak; all those inhuman, im-
was also the first time that I heard, moral jobs we had to do because we
openly expressed, that curious solidar- were soldiers and because war is war.
ity among fighter pilots which is above We could rise above all this today by
all tragedies and all prejudices. This saluting a brave enemy who had just
war had witnessed appalling massa- died, by saying that Nowotny belonged
cres, towns crushed by bombs, the to us, that he was part of our world,
butchery of Oradour, the ruins of where there were no ideologies, no
Hamburg. We ourselves had been hatreds, no frontiers. This sense of
sickened when our shells exploded in comradeship had nothing to do with
a peaceful village street, mowing down patriotism, democracy, Nazism, or hu-
women and children round the Ger- manity. All those chaps that evening
man tank we were attacking. In com- felt this instinctively, and as for those
parison, our tussles with Nowotny and who shrug their shoulders, they just
his Messerschmitts were something can't know — they aren't fighter pilots.
clean, above the fighting on the The conversation had ceased, the beer
ground, in the mud and the blood, in mugs were empty, the wireless was si-
the deafening din of the crawling, lent as was past midnight. Bruce
it

stinking tanks. Cole, who was neither poet nor philo-

Dog-fights in the sky; silvery midges sopher, let fall these words:
dancing in graceful arabesques — the "Whoever first dared paint mark-
diaphanous tracery of milky condensa- ings on a plane's wing was a swine!"
tion trails — Focke-Wulfs skimming

292
 The decline of the Luftwaffe on the Western Front paralleled a compara-
ble situation in Russia. From the fall of Stalingrad (February 2, 194^)
onward, the Russian air and ground offensive rolled toward the borders
of Germany. A completely revitalized Russian Air Force, backed up by
U.S. lend-lease and an annual production of their own of between ^0,000
and 40,000 combat aircraft per year (including YAK-ps, LA-ps,
MIG-^s, LA-ys, and TU-2s) was averaging some 2000 sorties per day
against the retreating Nazi air and ground forces. By April, 194^ Russian
air power was supreme, mounting in that month alone almost 216,000
sorties. (Russian estimates of Luftwaffe losses on the Eastern Front during

the entire war is 60,000 aircraft.) As the Soviet air and ground armies ap-
proached Germany, Luftwaffe pilots flew hopelessly to stem the Red flood-
tide. Here one of Germany's top dive-bomber pilots describes his last

mission in a JU-8y.

The Closing; Ring

Hans UlrichL Rudel, Luftwaffe

Early on the morning of February 9 front.

a telephone call from H.Q.: Frankfurt We fly there to find out what truth
has just reported that last night the there is in this report. From afar I can
Russians bridged the Oder at Lebus, already make out the pontoon bridge,
slightly north of Frankfurt and with we encounter intense flak a long way
some tanks have already gained a foot- before we reach it. The Russians cer-
ing on the west bank. The situation tainly have a rod in pickle for us! One
is more than critical; at this point there of my squadrons attacks the bridge
is no opposition on the ground and across the ice. We have no great illu-

there is no possibility of bringing up sions about the results we shall achieve,

heavy artillery there in time to stop knowing as we do that Ivan has such
them. So there is nothing to prevent quantities of bridge-building material
the Soviet tanks from rolling on to- that he can repair the damage in less
ward the capital, or at least straddling than no time. I myself fly lower with
the railway and the autobahn from on the look-out for
the anti-tank flight
Frankfurt to Berlin, both vital supply tanks on the west bank of the river. I
lines for the establishment of the Oder can discern their tracks but not the

293
monsters themselves. Or are these the distance when the enemy's armor is
tracks of AA tractors? I come down already pushing toward it. There is no
lower to make sure and see, well time for ripe consideration. This time
camouflaged in the folds of the river you will have to trust to luck, I tell

valley,some tanks on the northern myself, and in I go. I tell the other
edge of the village of Lebus. There pilots to stay up; there are several new
are perhaps a dozen or 15. Then some- crews among them and while they can-
thing smacks against my wing, a hit not be expected to do much damage
by light flak. I keep low, guns are with this defense we are likely to suffer
flashing all over the place, at a guess heavier losses than are worth the can-
six or eight batteries are protecting dle. When I come in low and as soon
the river crossing. The flak gunners as they see the flash of the AA guns
appear to be old hands at the game they are to concentrate their cannon
with long Stuka experience behind fire on the flak. There is always the
them. They are not using tracers, one chance that this will get Ivan rattled
sees no string of beads snaking up at and affect his accuracy. There are sev-
one, but one only realizes that they eral Stalin tanks there, the rest are
have opened up when the aircraft T-34S. After four have been set on fire
shudders harshly under the impact of and I have run out of ammunition we
a hit.They stop firing as soon as we fly back. I report my observations and

climb and so our bombers cannot at- stress the fact that I have only attacked
tack them. Only when one is flying because we are fighting 50 miles from
very low above our objective can one Berlin, otherwise it would be inexcus-
see the spurt of flame from the muzzle able. If we are holding a line further
of a gun like the flash of a pocket east I should have waited for a more
torch. I consider what to do; there is favorable situation, or at least until the
no chance of coming in cunningly be- tanks had been driven out of range of
hind cover as the flat river valley offers their flak screenround the bridge. I
no opportunities for such tactics. change two sorties be-
aircraft after
There are no tall trees or buildings. cause they have been hit by flak. Back
Sober reflection tells me that exper- a fourth time and a total of 12 tanks
ience and tactical skill go by the board are ablaze. I am buzzing a Stalin tank
ifone breaks all the fundamental rules which is emitting smoke but refuses to
derived from them. The answer: a catch fire.

stubborn attack and trust to luck. If I Each time before coming in to the
had always been so foolhardy I should attack I climb to 2400 feet as the flak

have been in my grave a dozen times. cannot follow me to this altitude. From
There are no troops here on the 2400 feet I scream down in a steep
ground and we are 50 miles from the dive, weaving violently. When I am
capital of the Reich, a perilously short close to the tank I straighten up for

294
an instant to fire, and then streak away my other ego heatedly replies:
low above the tank with the same eva- "Perhaps it requires just this one
sive tactics until I reach a point where shot to stop the tank from rolling on
I can begin to climb again — out of through Germany."
range of the flak. I really ought to "Rolling on through Germany
come in slowly and with my aircraft sounds much too melodramatic! A lot
better controlled, but this would be more Russian tanks are going to roll
suicide. I am only able to straighten on through Germany if you bungle it
up for the fraction of a second and now, and you will bungle it, you may
hit the tank accurately in its vulner- depend upon that. It is madness to go
able parts thanks to my manifold ex- down again to that level for the sake
perience and somnabulistic assurance. of a single shot. Sheer lunacy!"
Such attacks are, of course, out of the "You will say next that I shall
question for my colleagues for the sim- bungle it because it is the 13th. Super-
ple reason that they have not the ex- stitious nonsense! You have one round
perience. left, so stop shilly-shallying and get
The pulses throb in my temples. I cracking!"
know that I am playing cat and mouse And
already I zoom down from 2400
with fate, but this Stalin tank has got Keep your mind on your flying,
feet.

to be set alight. Up to 2400 feet once twist and turn; again a score of guns
more and on to the 60-ton leviathan. spit fire at me. Now I straighten up
It still refuses to burn! Rage seizes me; . . . fire . . . the tank bursts into a blaze!
it must and shall catch fire! With jubilation in my heart, I streak
The red light indicator on my can- away low above the burning tank. I
non winks. That too! On one side the go into a climbing spiral ... a crack
breech has jammed, the other cannon in the engine and something sears
has therefore only one round left. I through my leg like a strip of red hot
climb again. Is it not madness to risk steel. Everything goes black before my
everything again for the sake of a sin- eyes, I gasp for breath. But I must
gle shot? Don't argue; how often have keep flying must not
. . . flying ... I

you put paid to a tank with a single pass out. Grit your teeth, you have to
shot? master your weakness. A spasm of pain
It takes a long time to gain 2400 shoots through my whole body.
feet with a Ju-87; far too long, for "Ernst, my right leg is gone."
now I begin to weigh the pros and "No, your leg won't be gone. If it
cons. My one ego says: if the 13th tank were you wouldn't be able to speak.
has not yet caught fire you needn't But the left wing is on fire. You'll have
imagine you can do the trick with one to come down, we've been hit twice
more shot. Fly home and remunition, by 4cm flak."
you will find it again all right. To this An appalling darkness veils my
295
eyes, I can no longer make out any- foot and howl with agony. But surely
thing. it was my right leg that was hit? Pull
me where I can crash-land.
"Tell to the right, I bring the nose of the air-

Then get me out quickly so that I craft up and slide her gently into her
am not burnt alive." belly, in this way perhaps the release
I cannot see a thing any more, I gear of the undercarriage will not func-
pilot by instinct. I remember vaguely tion and I can make it after all. If not
that I came in to each attack from we shall pancake. The aircraft is on fire
south to north and banked left as I . she bumps and skids for a second.
. .

flew out. I must therefore be headed Now I can rest, now I can slip away
west and in the right direction for into the gray distance — wonderful!
home. So I fly on for several minutes. Maddening pains jerk me back into
Why wing is not already gone I
the consciousness. someone pulling me Is

do not know. Actually I am moving about? Are we jolting over rough

northwest almost parallel to the Rus- ground? Now it is over. At last I sink
sian Front. utterly into the arms of silence.
"Pull!" shouts Gadermann through wake up, everything around me
I

the intercom, and now I feel that I am is white intent faces ... a pungent
. . .

slowly dozing off into a kind of fog . . . smell ... I am lying on an operating
a pleasant coma. table. A sudden, violent panic con-
"Pull! yells Gadermann again— were vulses me: where is my leg?
those trees or telephone wires? I have "Is it gone?"
lost all sensation in my mind and pull The surgeon nods. Spinning down-
the stick only when Gadermann yells hill on brand new skis . . . diving . .

at me. If this searing pain in my leg athletics pole jumping . . . . . . what do

would only stop . . . and this flying . . . these things matter? How many com-
if I could let myself sink at last into rades have beenfar more seriously
this queer, gray peace and remoteness wounded? Do you remember? That
which invites me. one in the hospital at Dnjepropetrovsk
"Pull!" Once again I wrench auto- whose whole face and both hands had
matically at the joystick, but now for been torn off by a mine? The loss of a
an instant Gadermann has "shouted leg, an arm, a head are all of no im-

me awake." In a flash I realize that I portance if only the sacrifice could

must do something here. save the Fatherland from its mortal
"What's the terrain like?" I ask into peril. This is no catastrophe, the only
the microphone. catastrophe is that I cannot fly for
"Bad — hummocky." weeks . . . and in the present crisis!

But I have to come down, otherwise These thoughts flash through my brain
the dangerous apathy brought on from in a second, and now the surgeon says
my wounded body will again steal over to me gently:
me. I kick the rudder-bar with my left "I couldn't do anything else."

296
 The revolutionary twin-jet ME-262 had been under development in Ger-

many since ip^8 but the priority given it was low and only in spring,
ip^^ did the first and combat evaluation.
prototypes appear for flight test

Even then, Hitler's dogged insistence that it be used as a bomber instead

of fighter delayed the combat use of this potent weapon against the Allied
strategic offensive.
The ME-262 was the one Germanwhich might have stopped
aircraft
the Allied strategic formations, had
been ready in 1943. Ironically , it
it

could have been ready but for unwise and short-sighted air planning by
the German Dictator himself and his High Command.
Companions of the ME-262 were the ME-163B Komet, liquid rocket
motor, which appeared in autumn of 1944 to the consternation of the
Allies; and the twin-jet reconnaissance bomber the Arado 234. Only small
proportions of all these jets reached operational units, and then most were
stood down for lack of fuel.
Of all three jet models, the ME-262 became the rising star and upon it

were pinned the last hopes of German leaders. At the nth hour Hitler
ordered all ME-262S into operational status as fighters. The cream of the
Luftwaffe fighter pilots gathered from all parts to fly the jets and German
underground production facilities were tooled-up to produce 1000 per
month.
But it was too late. The Allied strategic air campaign against synthetic
fuel had nearly exhausted the Luftwaffe's remaining stocks by March, and
in April the Luftwaffe was grounded entirely by empty gas tanks — sitting
ducks for A Hied flyers.
Here, by Luftwaffe fighter chief, is the pathetic story of "too little, too
late."

ME-262 Jet Fighter: The

Luftwaffe's Last Stand
Adolf Gallanci

In January, 1945, we started on the the fighter arm our 44th Squad-
that
formation of my unit that Hitler had ron was taking shape at Brandenburg-
ordered. It spread quickly through Briest. Our official nomination was a

297
 .ik_
VD +ER

The German ME-163B Komet.

JV-44. air superiority. They wanted to be

Steinhoff was in charge of retraining known as the first jet boys of the last

the pilots.Lutzow came to us from fighter pilots of the Luftwaffe. For

Italy. who had scored more
Barkhorn, this they were ready once more to
than 300 kills in the East, Hohagen, chance sacrificing their lives.

Schnell, and Krupinski were coaxed Soon after receiving the first planes
out of hospital. Many reported with- we were stationed at Munich-Riem. In
out consent or transfer orders. Most of the early hours of the morning of
them had been in action since the March 31, 1945, the JV-44 took off in
firstday of the war, and all of them close formation,and 42 minutes later
had been wounded. All of them bore the planes landed in Munich. They
the scars of war and displayed the high- had covered the distance of about 300
est medals. The Knight's Cross was, so miles in record time.
to speak, the badge of our unit. Now, Here in Munich the unit took on its

after a long period of technical and final shape. The Squadron of Experts,
numerical inferiority, they wanted as we were had as pilots one
called,
once more to experience the feeling of lieutenant general, two colonels, one

J98
lieutenant colonel, three majors, five of all our field was under continuous
captains, eight lieutenants, and about observation by an overwhelming ma-
the same number of second lieuten- jority of American fighters. During one
ants. None of us imagined that we raid we were hit three times very heav-
were able to give the war the much- ily. Thousands of workers had to be

quoted "turn." The magic word "jet" mobilized to keep open a landing strip
had brought us together to experience between the bomb craters.
once more "die grosse Fliegerei." Our Operation orders for the ME-262S
last operation was anything but a fresh now changed daily. Conditions in the
and gay hunting. We not only battled armament industry were also turbu-
against technical, tactical, and supply lent. The time of commissioners, spe-
difficulties, we also lacked a clear pic- cial commissioners, ambassadors of
ture of the air situation of the floods the Fuehrer, commissars, and special
coming from the West —a picture ab- commissariats had started. All who
solutely necessary for the success of an were to increase production of the in-
operation. Every day the fronts moved dustry or to co-ordinate operations
in closer from three sides. But worst were appointed subordinate to each

A German Messerschmitt ME-262. This model was equipped with radar and was employed as a
night fighter aircraft.

->t-'-ffinfWir--^?arffii^ri'Tir^'-''^-^^
other, equal to each other, and over ter of luck. One raid followed another.
each other. From February until In this situation, the safety of the
March the jet-fighter command went personnel was paramount and came
partly over to the SA. From their before any orders to clear the airfield.
ranks came the so-called Commissari- Each pilot was responsible for his own
at of the Fuehrer for Jet Aircraft. A cover on the airfield and had to dig
general of the Waffen SS., Hitler had his foxhole. When it came to phy-
own
appointed him although Goering in sicalwork you cannot imagine any-
his turn had appointed a Special Com- thing more lazy than a fighter pilot in
missioner for Jet Aircraft. his sixth year of service. My pilots
Surprisingly I was called by Goering moaned terribly about the stony
to the Obersalzberg: it must have been ground at Riem. Returning from a
somewhere around April lo. To my mission, I was standing with them on
amazement he received me with the our western airstrip, watching the
greatest civility, inquired after the bombers attacking railway stations in
progress of our initial actions, and Munich in single waves. Suddenly
gave me a restricted confirmation that somebody called, "Achtung! Bombe-
my prediction concerning the use of nangriff!" Already the ugly finger of
bombers with the ME-262 in the de- death, as we called the markers of the
fense of the Reich had been correct. daylight raiders, were groping for our
This indicated that the Reichsmar- aerodrome. I chased after one of my
schall had begun to realize that after pilots, who slithered into a nearby
all I had been right throughout all hole he had dug for himself. Hellishly
those sharp clashes of opinions of the narrow, I thought . . . oh, a single fox-
lastmonths. This was the last time I hole. It was very shallow. Then the
saw Goering. first carpet of bombs roared down,
Four weeks before the collapse of passed over our heads. Nauseating —
the armed forces the fighter arm was the whistle, the explosion, the blast,
still in a position to represent a factor the tremor of the ground. A brief
that could not be overlooked. Opera- pause occurred after the attack of the
tionsfrom Riem started despite all first formation. Iwas lying on top of
and difficulties. Naturally
resistance a sergeant. It was Knier. He was shak-
we were able to send up only small ing, but in answer to my question he
units. On landing, the aircraft had to insisted that he was no more afraid
be towed immediately off the field. than I was.
They were dispersed over the country- Ourhole had a cover. A few splint-
side and had to be completely camou- ers had struck this lid with a loud
flaged. Bringing the aircraft onto the metallic clang. My back was pressed
field and taking off became more and against it. "Knier, what's this on my
more difficult: eventually it was a mat- back?" "loo-pound bombs, Herr Gen-

300
eral," was the prompt reply. I certainly Schallnoser, who once over Riem had
began to shake. Another five salvos rammed a Lightning because in his
followed at short intervals. Outside excitement he could not fire, waded
there was smoke, debris, craters, fire, into the Marauders with all his rock-
and destruction. All the Germans had ets. That evening he reported back to
experienced this during the last years his quarters, parachute under his arm
of the war: in the cities, in the factor- and a twisted leg.
ies, on the battlefield, on ships and Our impression of the efficiency of
U-boats; bombs, bombs, bombs? But this new weapon was indescribable.
it was an awkward feeling to be in the The rockets could be fired outside the
middle of a raid and, what is more, effective range of the defensive fire

to be sheltered by one's own bombs. of the bombers. A well-aimed salvo

During these last weeks of the war would probably hit several bombers
we were able to fit out some aircraft simultaneously. That was the way to
with additional weapons, which gave break up formations. But this was the
a greater firing power to the ME-262: end of April, 1945! In the middle of
R4M rockets of 3-cm caliber, and our breakup, at the beginning of our
500-g. explosives. A single hit from collapse! It does not bear thinking
these was enough to bring down a about what we could have done had
multi-engined bomber. They were we had those jet fighters, 3-cm quick-
fixed beneath the wing in two racks firing cannons, and 5-cm rockets years
that carried 24 rockets. In a feverish ago — before our war potential had
hurry our mechanics and servicing been smashed, before indescribable
crew loaded up a few jet fighters. I misery had come over Germany
took off in one of them. through the raids. We dared not think
In the district of Landsberg on the about it. Now we could do nothing
Lech I met a formation of about 16 but fly and fight and do our duty as
Marauders. We called these twin-en- fighter pilots to the last.
gined bombers Halbstarke. I opened Service in action still demanded
from a distance of about 600 yards, heavy and grievous losses. On April
firing in half a second a salvo of 24 18, Steinhoff crashed on a takeoff but
rockets into the close flying formation. managed to free himself from the burn-
I two certain hits. One
observed ing wreckage of his jet plane with
bomber immediately caught fire and very severe burns. A few days later
exploded; a second lost large parts of Gunther Lutzow did not return from
its and wing and began
right tail unit his mission. Long after the end of the
to spiral earthward. In the meantime war, we were still hoping that this
the three other planes that had taken splendid might not have left us
officer
off with me had also attacked success- forever. In the same spirit and with
fully. My accompanying pilot, Edward the same devotion many more young

301
pilots of our unit fell. On April 26, I set out on my last

But the fate of Germany was sealed. mission of the war. I led six jet fighters
On April 25 the American and the of the JV-44 against a formation of
Soviet soldiers shook hands at Torgau Marauders. Our own little directing
on the Elbe. The last defensive ring post brought us well into contact with
of Berlin was soon penetrated. The the enemy. The weather: varying
Red flag was flying over the Ballhaus- clouds at different altitudes, with gaps,
platz in Vienna. The German Front ground visible in about only three-
in Italy collapsed. On Pilsen fell the tenths of the operational area.
last bomb which
of the 2,755,000 tons I enemy formation in
sighted the
the Western Allies had dropped on Neuburg on the Danube.
the district of
Europe during five years of war. Once again I noticed how difficult it
At that moment I called my pilots was, with such great difference of
together and said to them, "Militarily speed and with clouds over the land-
speaking the war is lost. Even our ac- marks, to find the relative flying direc-
tion cannot change anything ... I shall between one's own plane and that
tion
continue to fight, because operating of the enemy, and how difficult it was
with the ME-262 has got hold of me, to judge the approach. This difficulty
because I am proud to belong to the had already driven Lutzow to despair.
last fighter pilots of theGerman Luft- He had discussed it repeatedly with
waffe Only those
. . . who feel the same me, and every time he missed his run-
are to goon flying with me ..." in, this most successful fighter com-

In the meantime the harsh reality modore blamed his own inefficiency
of the war finally decided the ques- as a fighter pilot. Had there been any
tion: "Bomber or fighter action by need for more confirmation as to the
ME-262?" in our favor. The leaders hopelessness of operations with the
were completely occupied with them- ME-262 by bomber pilots, our experi-
selves in Berlin and at other places. ences would have sufficed.
Numerous departments, which up to But now there was no time for such
now had interfered with allocation considerations. We were flying in an
and the operation of jet fighters, ceased almost opposite direction to the Ma-
to function or did not come through rauder formation. Each second meant
any more. Commanders of the bomb- that we were 300 yards nearer. I will
ers, reconnaissance, combat fighters, not say that I fought this action ideal-
night fighters, and sundry testing units ly, but I led my formation to a fairly
that had been fitted out with the covet- favorable firing position. Safety catch
ed ME-262 passed their aircraft on to off the gun and rocket switch! As
us. From all sides we were presented usual in a dogfight, I was tense and
with jet fighters. Finally we had 70 excited: I forgot to release the second
aircraft. safety catch for the rockets. They did
302
not go off. I was in the best firing po- which now apparently was only good
sition, I had aimed accurately and for dying in. But then I was paralyzed
pressed my thumb flat on the release by the terror of being shot while para-
button — with no result. Maddening chuting down. Experience had taught
forany fighter pilot! Anyhow my four us that we jet-fighter pilots had to

3-cm cannons were working. They had reckon on this. I soon discovered that
much more firing power than we had my battered ME-262 could be steered
been used to so far. At that moment, again after some adjustments. After a
close below me, Schallnoser, the jet- dive through the layer of cloud I saw
rammer, whizzed past. In ramming he the Autobahn below me; ahead of me
made no distinction between friend lay Munich and to the left Riem. In
or foe. a few seconds I was over the airfield.

This engagement had lasted only a It was remarkably quiet and dead be-
fraction of a second — a very important low. Having regained my self-con-

second to be sure. One Marauder of fidence, I gave the customary wing

the last string was on fire and exploded. wobble and started banking to come
Now I attacked another bomber in in. One engine did not react at all

the van of the formation. It was heav- to the throttle. I could not reduce it.

ily hit as I passed very close above
During this breakthrough I got a few
minor hits from the defensive fire. But
now I wanted to know definitely what
was happening to the second bomber
I had hit. I was not quite clear if it
had crashed. So far I had not noticed
any fighter escort.
Above the formation I had attacked
last,I banked steeply to the left, and
it. Just before the edge of the airfield I
therefore had to cut out both engines.
A long trail of smoke drifted behind
me. Only at this moment I noticed
that Thunderbolts in a low-level at-
tack were giving our airfield the
works. Now I had no choice. I had not
heard the warnings of our ground post
because my wireless had faded out
when I was hit. There remained only

at this moment
happened: a hail of
it one thing to do: straight down into
fire enveloped me. A Mustang had the fireworks! Touching down, I real-
caught me napping. A sharp rap hit ized that the tire of my nosewheel was
my right knee. The instrument panel flat. It rattled horribly as the earth
with its indispensable instruments was again received me at a speed of 150
shattered. The right engine was also m.p.h. on the small landing strip.
hit. Its metal covering worked loose in Brake! Brake! The kite would not
the wind and was partly carried away. stop! But at last I was out of the kite
Now the left engine was hit too. I and into the nearest bomb crater.
could hardly hold her in the air. There were plenty of them on our
In this embarrassing situation I had runways. Bombs and rockets exploded
only one wish: to get out of this crate. all around; bursts of shells from the

303
American and British prisoners released from Stolog Villa at Londshut, Germany, watt to board
planes that will ferry them on the first leg of their trip bock home.

An ME-262 jet-propelled aircraft at rest on a German airfield. The first German |et captured in-

tact, it was flown over allied lines and surrendered by its pilot.

JtW
Thunderbolts whistled and banged. at several places. The JV-44 prepared
A new low-level attack. Out of the fast- its last transfer. Bar, who had come
est fighter in the world into a bomb to us with the remnants of his Volks-
crater, that was an unutterably fighter test commando, took over the
wretched feeling. Through all the fire- command in my place. About 60 jet
works an armored tractor came rush- fighters flew to Salzburg. Orders came
ing across to me. It pulled up sharply from the Reichskanzlei and from the
close by. One of our mechanics. Luftwaffe Staff in Berchtesgaden for
Quickly I got in behind him. He an immediate transfer to Prague in
turned and raced off on the shortest order to pursue from there the com-
route away from the airfield. In silence pletely hopeless fight for Berlin. The
I slapped him on the shoulder. He execution of this order was delayed
understood better what I wanted to until it became purposeless.
say than any words about the unity On May
3, the aircraft of the JV-44

between flying and ground personnel were standing on the aerodrome of

could have expressed. Salzburg without any camouflage.
The other pilots who took part in American fighters circled overhead.
this operation were directed to neigh- They did not drop
shoot, they did not
boring airfields or came into Riem any bombs; they obviously hoped
after the attack. We reported five cer- soon to be flying the German jet fight-
tain kills without loss to ourselves. ers that had given them so much trou-
I had to go to Munich to a hospital ble. Salzburg prepared for the
for treatment of my scratched knee. capitulation. The advanced units of
The X-ray showed two splinters in the Devers' army approached the town. As
kneecap. It was put in plaster. A fine the rattle of the first tank was heard
business! on the airfield, there was no other
The enemy, advancing from the possibility left: our jet fighters went
north, had already crossed the Danube up in flames.

305
 While German technology was developing the jet fighter in the late ig^os,
Hitler's rocketand missile scientists at Peenemunde were experimenting
with jet-propelled pilotless aircraft and supersonic rockets — the V-weap-
ons — that could be ready as a military weapon in numbers by 1942.
In 19^9, however, Adolph Hitler canceled the Peenemunde priority,
relegating it to a low status of weapon development. Preoccupied with
building his Panzer divisions and a Luftivaffe geared solely to support of
those divisions for quick success in the field. Hitler would hear none of
the pleas of his rocket experts.
It was four years later, as the Allied Combined Bomber Offensive got
underway in May, 1943, that the German Dictator reversed his decision
and gave the missile scientists the go-ahead to build the weapons. But
again it was the story of too late. Great technical difficulties still had to be
solved. When the V-weapons were finally ready. Allied air power had
built up sufficiently to meet the threat and successfully cope with it.
Here is the story of the air campaign against the weapon that could
have reversed the course of the war.

Guided Missiles Could

Have Won
Josepli Warner Angell
Alarming underground reports of revolutionary weapons: the V-i, a jet-

long-range "secret weapons," designed propelled pilotless aircraft, and the

by the Germans to bombard England
from Continental areas, reached the
British with increasing frequency
throughout the spring of 1943. Re-
sponding to the threat of new wea-
pons, that might, if used in time, turn
the course of the war, British Intelli-
V-2, a gigantic supersonic rocket
against which there could be no de-
fenses, once it was airborne. And on
the Channel coast of France huge la-
bor forces were feverishly constructing
a great chain of V-weapon launching
sites.

gence discovered that the disturbing
rumors were founded on fact. In a
vast and hitherto secret experimental
station at Peenemunde, on the Baltic
coast, the Germans were perfecting
Knowing that the new weapons
must be stopped, the British decided
to make the first attack on the more
likely target — Peenemunde. The raid
was planned with utmost care and

306
secrecy, with Air Chief Marshal Sir taken on the following day, would
Arthur Harris of the RAF Bomber give evidence of greater destruction
Command in personal charge of prep- than was actually accomplished.
arations. In any case, there were two impor-
Late in the evening of August 17, tant consequences of the August raid.
1943 — a day already made memorable The Germans were givenfull warning

by the Regensburg-Schweinfurt mis- that massive efforts would be made to

sion of the American Eighth Air Force prevent or disrupt the use of their
— and in the brilliant light of a full new weapons, and they proceeded to
moon, a great fleet of RAF heavy disperseV-weapon production activity
bombers began the long run to the from Peenemunde.
Baltic coast. The thousands of airmen Ten days after the raid on Peene-
aloft over Germany were unaware of munde the Eighth Air Force sent out
the actual nature of the Peenemunde its first "Crossbow" (the Allied code
installation. Fearful that revelation of name for all matters, particularly air
the truth about Peenemunde would counter-measures operations, pertain-
reach the public and arouse alarm and ing to the German V weapons) mis-
despondency in the homeland, Harris sion—an attack by B-17S on the
had briefed his men that they must be German construction at Watten on
prepared to accept 50 per cent losses. the French coast. The extreme ends of
The attack against Peenemunde be- the secret weapons axis, in so far as it

gan shortly after midnight, and at the was visible to the had thus been
Allies,

time appeared to be enormously suc- hammered by Allied air power in the

cessful. There is, however, wide and opening blows of the "Crossbow"
perhaps irreconcilable variance in fin- campaign. But continued aerial re-
al estimates of the success of the attack. connaissance revealed new construc-
The British and Germans at first re- tions of colossal size, seven in all, four
garded Peenemunde as "completely in the Pas-de-Calais and three on the
gone." Col. Walter Dornberger, who tip of the Cherbourg peninsula.
headed the German V-2 installation Discovery of a second type of Ger-
and who was talking with his brilliant man construction on the French coast
rocket technician, Wernher von Braun, was made late in October. In response
in the Officers Club when the first to reports from ground agents in the
alarm sounded, now takes credit for Pas-de-Calais, a close photographic
having seen, after the first shock of the cover of the area around a heavily
raid, that damage to key installations wooded hamlet revealed a series of
was negligible; and for ordering, there- concrete structures, the largest of which
fore, a hasty setting of fires and a were two curiously shaped buildings,
blowing up of roads and unimportant each nearly 300 feet in length, resem-
buildings so that British strike-photos, bling gigantic skis laid on edge. By

307
ik
r
"^"^mu.
^^

An air reconnaissance photograph of a German V-1 "Buzz Bomb" site under construction in France.

A drawing of a typical V-1 flying bomb ski launching site.

'm^ii.

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22 APOIL .-^AA.
the middle of November, 21 "ski London and Washington there were
sites" had been identified. prolonged and intense discussions on
As Allied reconnaissance of the the importance of the "Crossbow"
French coast continued with unremit- threat and on the scale and type of
ting effort, a significant relationship effort necessary to preserve the safety
between the ski sites became apparent: of England and ensure that the forth-
the alignment of all the ski sites in the coming invasion of Europe would not
Pas-de-Calais indicated an orientation have to be postponed or disrupted.
directly on London. It was impossible In February, ground agents had re-
for British Intelligence to escape the ported the appearance of a new type
conclusion that the closely integrated of site, apparently designed to launch
and rapidly growing network of in- the "Peenemunde projectiles." Des-
stallations, including the seven large ignated "Modified Sites," these were
sites, was to be used for some type of very simple constructions as compared
concentrated long-range attack against with the ski sites. They could be quick-
the world's most populous city — and ly built, easily camouflaged, and be-
the heart of the staging area for the cause of their small size were very poor
forthcoming invasion of the Conti- targets. For the third time, the entire

nent. was not until Christmas Eve,

It French coast was subjected to a "to-
1943, that the Eighth Air Force struck tal" reconnaissance, which revealed an

its first great blow against the vast alarming number of the new type of
chain of ski sites. sites. The Germans, meanwhile, con-

Operation 164, the largest Eighth tinued to employ thousands of work-

Air Force operation to date, put more ers repairing bombed large sites and
than 1300 American aircraft over the ski sites — whether in a desperate at-
network. The crews were told
ski site tempt to prepare them for use or as a
only that they were attacking "special means of drawing Allied bombs from
military installations" of critical targets in Germany, the Allies did not

importance, but the outside world know.

learned for the first time of the new A few weeks before D-Day, Eisen-
German threat. Bold headlines in hower ruled that for such time as it
American newspapers announced that would require the heavy bombers to
U.S. and British fliers had hit the strike a final blow against the large

"Rocket Gun Coast," and editorial sites and ski sites, "Crossbow" would

writers spoke of the possibility that have priority over all other air opera-
the Germans had at last created their tions.

long-sought and "ultimate" diversion The modified sites would, for the
of Allied plans. Allied authorites con- time being, be left alone. And what-

tinued to be on the significance

silent ever Hitler might, or might not, have
of the Christmas Eve mission, but in up his sleeve, "Overlord" would be-

309
gin on the day appointed. And then, on the night of June 15,

In May, the big bombers pounded there began an entirely new phase of
"Crossbow" sites for the last time the war in Europe — the Battle of the
before D-Day, and returned to their Flying Bomb. In little more than 24
primary task of giving the final pre- hours the Germans fired nearly 300
invasion punch. On the morning of V-is against England. Clearly "Cross-
June 6, "Overlord" began. At the end bow" was not a hoax.
of the first day's operations, Allied Early in the morning of the 16th,
Forces had crossed the Channel and as V-is continued to strike London,
were holding the beachhead they had Churchill assembled his entire War
won that morning. And as the long Cabinet, together with Air Chief Mar-
last minute of D-Day passed into his- shal Tedder, Field Marshal Brooke,
tory, the great network of "Crossbow" and
chief of the British Imperial Staff,
sites — strung out along the French others who were to have a voice in

coast for hundreds of miles — remained one of the war's fateful decisions.
shrouded in silence. Though little was known about the
For six days after the launching of number and capabilities of the modi-
"Overlord," the "Crossbow" areas in fied sites, it was agreed that London

the Pas-de-Calais and on the tip of the would have to withstand whatever was
Cherbourg peninsula were quiet. No in store for it — the Battle of France
Allied aircraft bombed "Crossbow" was to remain the primary concern of
targets, for the vast network of ski the Allies. Nevertheless, Gen. Eisen-
sites lay in ruins and the seven large hower would be asked to take all
sites were visibly shattered. possible measures to neutralize
The tense days of anxiety and alarm "Crossbow" sites, and long-standing
over the "Crossbow" threat to the plans for the deployment of balloons,
safety of England and the execution fighter aircraft, and radar-controlled
of "Overlord" appeared to be over. anti-aircraft against the flying bombs
But on the night of June 12, 1944, the would be put into effect at once by the
silence of the Pas-de-Calais was brok- Air Defense of Great Britain.
en. Cataputed from the steel rails of Gen. Eisenhower's response was
ramp, hid-
a modified site launching swift. On his orders, a comprehensive
den near a farmhouse on the French plan was drafted for the bombing of
German secret weapon
coast, the first "Crossbow" sites by units of the Amer-
fired in combat began it noisy, fiery ican Eighth and Ninth Air Forces and
journey to London. Four V-is, or "fly- by the RAF Bomber Command.
ing bombs," struck London that night. At once fleets of RAF heavies struck
During the next few days, German against the "Crossbow" network, prin-
"Crossbow" batteries remained inop- cipally the large sites, from which, it
erative. was presumed, the giant rockets would

310
be launched. Having withstood the attack.
best efforts of "conventional" 2-ton While pursuing their effort to pre-
bombs, the huge installations were vent, or diminish. Hitler's use of the
soon being pounded by the British V-2, the Allies learned two facts about
with their monstrous new "Tallboy" the highly-touted weapon that gave a
bombs, 12,000-pounders. The Ameri- kind of negative hope. For one thing,
can Eighth struck repeatedly at the several of the large sites had been cap-
supposedly "neutralized" ski sites and tured when Allied troops droye the
other targets presumably related to Germans from the Cherbourg penin-
the firing of V-is. But for all the com- sula. The American air commander,

bined power — ef-

efforts of Allied air Lt. Gen. Louis H. Brereton, toured
forts that in July and August cost the these monstrous enemy installations
Allies one-fourth of all their combat late in June. Though he estimated

sorties and one-fifth of all their ton- the Cherbourg sites to be only half-
nage — the flying bombs still contin- finished — a reassuring finding — Gen.
ued to rise in only slightly diminished Brereton described them as "more ex-

numbers from ramps

their launching tensive than any concrete construction
hidden along the coast of France. (The we have United States, with the
in the
number of flying bombs that actually possible exception of Boulder Dam or
reached their targets in England was, similar waterway projects." The sec-
toward the end of the summer, greatly ond negative reassurance came from
reduced by new techniques of defense the examination of a V-2 that had mis-
against air-borne V-is.) fired at Peenemunde and landed, vir-
Meanwhile, it had been absolutely tually intact, in Sweden. It was
verified that the V-2 was in mass pro- regarded by Allied scientists and tech-

duction. And against this weapon, nicians as marvelous mechanism

a
which traveled far in advance of the technically, but it was apparent that
speed of sound, there could be no de- the V-2's warhead — barring use of a
fense, once it was airborne. Only by revolutionary explosive — was no
stopping the rockets at their firing greater than that of the simpler and
sites or at production and transporta- less costly V-i.
tion centers could the Allies prevent However, if Hitler had vast quan-
Hitler from using his now actual won- tities of V-2S, he could, the experts
der weapon. The Eighth, therefore, said, blow London off the map. The
struck Peenemunde repeatedly and Allies therefore prepared a bombing
with outstanding success. The RAF plan, to be used when rocket firings
bombers to V-2 produc-
sent fleets of commenced, that would require their
tion centers deep in Germany, and entire bombing forces, in order to
from its bases in the Mediterranean demolish in one great blow more than
the Fifteenth Air Force joined in the 250 V-2 targets in Germany, Holland,

311
The Eighth Air Force in its early days was under the brilliant leadership of Moj. Gen. Ira Ealcer. He
is seen here in a casual moment discussing air
strategy while strolling on the lawn of RAF Air Chief
Marshal Sir Arthur Harris' estate. Left to right are General H. H. Arnold, the Commanding General
of the U.S. Army Air Forces, Chief Marshal Harris and General Eaker.

312
Belgium, and France. Simultaneously, for at the dinner hour on the evening
plans were drawn for a mass evacua- of September 8, the first of more than
tion of London. 1000 12-ton V-2 rockets that were to
The last V-i fired from a launching strikeEngland fell soundlessly and
site in France struck England on the exploded in a London suburb. Six
afternoon of September i, 1944. Al- seconds later a second V-2 struck an-
lied ground troops, advancing rapidly other suburb. That same day the
up the French coast, had forced the Germans fired several of their giant
flying bomb firing units to withdraw rockets against Paris.
northward into Holland. Thereafter, But spectacular as was the scientific

the greatly reduced numbers of flying achievement apparent in the V-2, the
bombs that hit England were fired weapon had been committed to battle
from Heinkel Ills equipped to air- too late, its military effectiveness was
launch V-is or from ground sites in more limited than had been antici-
Holland. pated, and reliable intelligence re-
On the day the last V-i was fired ports indicated that the Germans had
from France, British civil defense au- not produced sufficient quantities of
thorities halted their planning of pre- the weapon to make it a long-contin-
cautionary measures against V-2 uing danger of great significance.
attack. On September 3, all operation- Moreover, the steadily advancing Al-
al air commands in the European lied ground troops would, in time,
Theatre were ordered to suspend every deny Hitler the use of both V-2 fac-
type of "Crossbow" operation pend- tories and firing sites. This combina-
ing further notice. Three days later, tion of evidence, all quickly evaluated
on the assumption that there would in the Allied deliberations on the
shortly be no further danger from morning of September 9, led to the
either ground-launched V-is or the still decision, and it proved to be a sound
silent V-2, all Allied bombing attacks one, that only limited measures should
against "Crossbow" targets were can- be taken to meet the "Crossbow" threat
celed, except for occasional strikes in its third and penultimate phase.
against airfields that might be used The final phase of the Allied "Cross-
for the air-launchings of V-is. On bow" campaign involved a series of
September 7, a member of the British discussions in December, 1944, and
War Cabinet announced to the press January, 1945, regarding the policy to
that the "Battle of London" was over, be adopted following intelligence re-
except "possibly ... a few last shots." ports that the Germans were prepar-
As had been the case during the week ing to use a third V-weapon, variously
following D-Day, the "Crossbow" dan- designated the V-3, V-4, and the "final
ger appeared to be over. weapon." Early in December, Amer-
But the cycle was to repeat itself. ican agents in Argentina and Turkey

313
reported that "reliable sources" had repair. At least 4,500,000 British civ-
revealed the Germans would, within ilians were rendered homeless or to

30 days, begin bombardment of Amer- some degree inconvenienced. In the

ican cities on the Atlantic seaboard second week of September, following
with stratospheric rockets capable of the cessation of the major V-i offen-
demolishing 40 square kilometers sive, a labor force of more than 60,000
around the point of impact. After — many of them drawn from the armed
painstaking investigations, the War services — was engaged on repairs to
Department and AAF Headquarters buildings capable of reconstruction.
in Washington concluded that while It is impossible to do more than
such rockets and warheads might be speculate on what Germany might
in the experimental stage in Germany, have done with its long-range wea-
it could be assumed that they were pons, notably the V-2, had they been
not ready for use in combat. In Eu- produced in far greater numbers and
rope, Gen. Spaatz came to a similar been committed to combat in the ear-
conclusion. And thus ended the Allied lier years of the war. Dornberger and

discussion of policy concerning the von Braun had stated that the V-2
German V-weapons. would have been ready for combat as
After September 8, 1944, the Ger- early as 1942 if Hitler had not can-
mans fired some 1100 V-2S against celed Peenemunde's first priority in
England, as well as some 8000 V- is fired 1939. The A- 10, or transatlantic rock-
between June and September of 1944. et, could have been operational by
Against Continental targets, princi- Dornberger suggests, if work on
1946,
pally Antwerp, they concentrated a ithad continued after the outbreak of
heavy fire of V-is and V-2S. Belgium war. As to Germany's capacity to man-
suffered far greater damage, propor- ufacture great quantities of the V-2,
tionately, than did England. In both Willy Messerschmitt, Germany's out-
countries, the loss of life and destruc- standing aviation authority, is known
tion of property was appalling, consid- to have informed Hitler that with an
ering the essentially limited numbers all-out effort at the proper time, Ger-
of V-we^pons fired by the Germans. man industry could have produced
Although only about 2500 V-is and 100,000 V-2S per month.
fewer than 100 V-2S exploded in Eng- Though the major responsibility for
land, nearly 10,000 British civilians the German failure to use the V-2
were killed and some 25,000 were ser- must rest with Hitler, and to some
iously injured. More than 200,000 extent with his advisers in the High
buildings (principally dwellings) were Command, it cannot be denied that
totally destroyed or damaged beyond once Hitler decided — in May, 1943
repair; 1,339,000 buildings, less ser- — to use the weapon, there remained
iously damaged, required some type of unforeseen technical difficulties that

314
 ~ •^'^t^SS?.^^
/-i^Jt •-^.*rf'-'^r^rf '"fS^
3 ~^<;^fc:::rr^-f :;^: ;^^
Dpposite, a German V-2 rocket being carried to its launching pad, then erected into position;
above, ready for firing, then on its way to a target.

317
had something to do with the failure at Kummersdorf, Hitler had sum-
to use the V-2 before D-Day, when it moned Dornberger and von Braun to
would have been more effective. Von his personal headquarters, to tell them
Braun would have it that Hitler's be- that he might use the V-2 against Eng-
lated decision was doubly wrong, in land ... in a moment of quiet. Hitler
that he demanded the use of the wea- stared searchingly into Dornberger's
pon before it was technically ready. eyes, and said:
In his last gigantic moments in the
underground bunker in Berlin, with If only I had had faith in you
the thunder of Russian guns and Brit- earlier! In all my life I have owed
ish and American heavy bombs pene- apologies to two people only — Gen-
trating the buried recesses of steel and eral Field Marshal von Brauchitsch,
concrete, and with final knowledge who repeatedly drew my attention
that Allied tanks and foot soldiers to the importance of (the V-2) . . .

were closing in from the East and for the future, and yourself. If we
West, it is not impossible that Adolf had had this rocket in 1939, we
Hitler remembered certain words he would never have had this war. Now
had spoken to a German colonel of and in the future, Europe and the
artillery two years earlier: world is too small for war War . . .

On that day in 1943, ten years after will become unbearable for the hu-
his first visit to the little rocket station man race.

318
319
 OPERATIONAL AIRCRAFT OF THE ALLIED
UNITED STATES - BOMBERS
TYPE DIMENSIONS

Boeing Span: 103' 9" Max: 299 mph at 25,000 ft.

B 17F Length: 74' 9" Cruise: 162 mph

Flying Fortress Height: 19' 1" Svc. Ceiling: 35,000 ft.

Douglas Span: 61' 4" Max: 339 mph at 12,000 ft.

A-20G Length: 48' Cruise: 272 mph

Havoc Height: 17' 7" Svc. Ceiling: 25,800 ft.

Consolidated Span: 110' Max. 313 mph at 25,000 ft.

B-24H Length: 67' 2" Cruise: 215 mph

Liberator Height: 18' Svc. Ceiling: 28,000 ft.

North American Span: 67' 7" Max: 281 mph at 15,000 ft.

B-25G Length: 51' Cruise: 200 mph

Mitchell Height: 15' 9" Svc. Ceiling: 25,000 ft.

Martin Span: 71' Max: 277 mph at 10,000 ft.

B-26G Length: 56' 1" Cruise: 225 mph

Marauder Height: 20' 4" Svc. Ceiling: 20,000 ft.

Lockheed Span: 65' 6" Max. 250 mph at 12,500 ft.

A-29 Length: 44' 4" Cruise: 190 mph

Hudson Height: 11' IQi/g" Svc. Ceiling: 24,500 ft.

Douglas Span: 70' Max, 373 mph at 10,000 ft.

A-26 Length: 50' Cruise: 280 mph

Invader Height: 18' 6" Svc. Ceiling: 22,100 ft.

UNITED STATES -FIGHTERS. FIGHTER BOMBERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Lockheed Span: 52' Max: 402 mph at 25,000 ft.

P-38H Length: 37' 10" Cruise: 300 mph

Lightning Height: 9' 10" Rate of Climb: 20,000 ft. in 8.5 mins.

Bell Span: 34' Max: 399 mph at 9,700 ft.

P-39Q Length: 30' 2" Cruise: 213 mph

Airacobra Height: 12' 5" Rate of Climb: 15,000 ft. in 3.8 min.

Curtiss Span: 37' 4" Max: 362 mph at 15,000 ft.

P-40K Length: 33' 4" Cruise: 290 mph

Kittyhawk III Height: 12' 4" Rate of Climb: 15,000 ft. in 7.5 min.

Republic Span: 42' 7" Max: 467 mph at 32„500 ft.

P-47N Length: 36' 1" Cruise: 300 mph

Thunderbolt Height: 14' 8" Rate of Climb: 25,000 ft. in 14.2 min.

North American Span: 37' Max: 487 mph at 25,000 ft.

P-51H Length: 33' 4" Cruise: 380 mph

Mustang Height: 13' 8" Rate of Climb: 30,000 ft. in 12.5 min.

Northrop Span: 66' Max: 366 mph at 20,000 ft.

P-61B Length: 49' 7" Cruise: 235 mph

Black Widow Height: 14' 8" Rate of Climb: 25.000 ft. in 14.8 min.

320
FORCES - EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT

17,600 lbs. Four Wright Cyclone Thirteen .50 cal. machine Max: 3,600 mi.
Short Range R-1820, 1,200 h.p. each, guns Combat: 2,100
4,000 lbs. - normal radial mi. with 4,000 lbs.

2,000 lbs. Two Wrigtit Dble. Cyclone Nine .50 cal. machine guns Max: 1,090 mi.
internal R-2600, 1,600 h.p. each, Combat: 525 mi.
2,000 external radial with 2,400 lbs.

12,800 lbs. max. Four Pratt and Whitney, Ten .50 cal. machine guns Max: 3,700 mi.
5,000 lbs. normal R-1830. 1,200 h.p. each, Combat: 2,100
radial mi. with 5,000 lbs.

4,000 lbs. max. Two Wright Cyclone R-2600, Thirteen— Eighteen .50 cal. Max: 2,400 mi.
3,000 lbs. normal 1,700 h.p. each, radial machine guns Combat: 1,560
One 75 mm (Attack model) mi. with 3,000 lbs.

4,000 lbs. normal Two Pratt and Whitney Eleven .50 cal. machine guns Max: 2,400 mi.
R-2800, 2,000 h.p. each, Combat: 1,300
radial mi. with 3,000 lbs.

1,400 lbs. Two Wright Cyclone Six .50 cal. machine guns Max: 2,160 mi.
R-1820, 1,200 h.p. each, Combat: 700 mi.
radial with 1,400 lbs.

4,000 lbs. Two Pratt and Whitney Eight .50 cal. machine guns Max: 3,200 mi.
R-2800, 2,000 h.p. each, Fourteen 5" Rockets Combat: 1,400
radial mi. with 4,000 lbs.

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT

4,000 lbs. or Two Allison V-1710, One 20 mm, four .50 cal. 2,400 mi. with
Ten-5" rockets 1,425 h.p. each, inline Ext. tanks
Combat: 350 mi.

500 lbs. One Allison V-1710, One 37 mm (prop hub), two 1,595 mi. ferry
1,150 h.p., inline .50 cal., four .30 cal. 750 mi. with
500 lb. bomb

Three-500 lb. One Allison V-1710, Six .50 cal. wing guns 1,600 mi. or 350

1,325 h.p., inline mi. with 500^ lb.

bomb

Three- 1000 lb. One Pratt and Whitney Eight .50 cal. wing guns 2,200 mi. or 800
or Ten-5" R-2800, 2,800 h.p., radial mi. with 2,000
rockets lb.

Two-l,0001b.or One Packard V-1650, Six .50 cal. wing guns 2,400 mi. or 850
Ten-5" rockets 1,380 h.p., inline mi. with 1,000
lb.

4,000 lbs. Two Pratt and Whitney Four 20 mm cannon 3,000 mi. -ferry
R-2800, 2,000 h.p. each, 1,050 mi.-

radial
combat

321
UNITED STATES TRANSPORTS
TYPE DIMENSIONS SPEED

Douglas Span: 95' Max: 230 mph at 9,000 ft.

C-47 Length: 64' 51/," Cruise: 155 niph

11''
Skytrain Goony Bird Height: 16' Svc. Ceiling: 29.000 ft.

Curtiss-Wright Span: 108' 1" Max: 265 mph at 13,000 ft.

C-46 Length: 76' 4" Cruise: 160 mph

Commando Height: 21' 9" Svc. Ceiling: 25,000 ft.

Douglas Span: 117' 6" Max: 275 mph at 14,000 ft.

C-54 Length: 93' 10" Cruise: 185 mph

Skymaster Height: 27' 6" Svc. Ceiling: 30,000 ft.

Lockheed Span: 65' 6" Max: 251 mph at 7,500 ft.

C-56 Length: 49' 10" Cruise: 180 mph

Lodestar Height: 11' IO1/2" Svc. Ceiling: 23,400 ft.

Lockheed Span: 123' Max: 340 mph at 16,000 ft.

C-69 Length: 94' 11" Cruise: 255 mph

Constellation Height: 23' 8" Svc. Ceiling: 30,000 ft.

Boeing Span: 107' 3" Max: 250 mph at 16,400 ft.

C-75 Length: 74' i" Cruise: 190 mph

Stratoliner Height: 20' 91/2" Svc. Ceiling: 24.000 ft.

Consolidated Span: 110' Max: 300 mph at 25,000 ft.

C-87 Length: 67' 2" Cruise: 191 mph

Liberator Height: 18' Svc. Ceiling: 30,000 ft.

UNITED STATES - GLIDERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

\V'aco Span: 83' 8" Max: 180 mph

CG-4A Length: 48' 8" Norm: 150 mph
Min: 38 mph
Waco Span: 85' 7' Max: 190 mph
CG-13A

GREAT BRITAIN - BOMBERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

DeHavilland Span: 54' 2" Max: 408 mph at 26,000 ft.

Mosquito XV'I Length: 40' 6" Cruise: 300 mph

Height: 12' 6" Svc. Ceiling: 37,000 ft.

Vickers Span: 86' 2" Max: 260 mph at 10.500 ft.

Wellington III Length: 64' 7" Cruise: 180 mph
Height: 17' 5" Svc. Ceiling: 19,000 ft.

Handley Page Span: 69' 2" Max: 265 mph at 15,500 ft.

Hampden Length: 53' 7" Crui.se: 215mph

Height: 14' II" Svc. Ceiling: 22.700 ft.

.Armstrong Span: 84' Max: 230 mph at 18,000 ft.

Whitley V Length: 72' 6" Cruise: 185 mph

Height: 15' Svc. Ceiling: 24,000 ft.

322
 rOWERPLANT RANGE CREW

Max: 10,000 lb. Two Pratt and Whitney R-1830, Max: 2,125 mi. 4-5
Norm: 7,500 lb. 1,200 h.p. each, radial Normal: 1,350 mi.
21 troops

15,000 lbs. or Two Pratt and Whitney R-2800, Normal: 1,600 mi.
50 troops 2,000 h.p. each, radial

Max: 32,000 lbs. Four Pratt and Whitney R-2000, Max: 3,500 mi. 5-6
Norm: 14,000 1,450 h.p. each, radial Normal: 2,540 mi.
lbs. or 50 troops

5,000 lbs. or 18 Two Wright Cyclone R-1820, 1,600 mi. 3-4

troops 1,200 h.p. each, radial

32,000 lbs. or 60 Four Wright Cyclone R-3350, 2,000 mi. with 20,000 lbs. 7-9
troops 2^00 t.o. h.p. each, radial

33 troops Four Wright Cyclone R-1820, 2,340 mi. 5-6

1,100 h.p. each, radial

10,000 lbs. or 38 Four Pratt and Whitney R-1830, Max: 3,300 mi. 4-5
troops 1,200 h.p. each, radial Normal: 1,400 mi.

CREW

4,000 lbs. or 15 2
troops

8,000 lbs. or 42
troops

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT

4,000 lbs. Two Rolls Royce Merlin 73, Four 20 mm, four .303 1,870 mi. with
1,290 h.p. each, inline some models 1,000 lbs.
1,370 mi. with
4,000 lbs.

6.000 lbs. Two Bristol Hercules XI, Six .303 Max: 2,120 mi.
1,370 h.p. each, radial 1.325 mi. with
4,500 lbs.

4,000 lbs. Two Bristol Pegasus, 1,000 h.p. Four .303 Max: 1,990 mi.
each, radial 870 mi. with
4,000 lbs.

7.000 lbs. Two Rolls Royce Merlin X, Five .303 Max: 2,400 mi.
1,130 h.p. each, inline 1,650 mi. with
7.000 lbs.

383
GREAT BRITAIN - BOMBERS (Continued)

TYPE DIMEN.SIONS SPEED

Handley Page Span: 104' Max: 282 mph at 13,500 ft.

Halifax III Length: 71' 7" Cruise: 215 mph

Height: 21' 7" Svc. Ceiling: 24,000 ft.

Short Span: 99' 1" Max: 260 mph at 10,500 ft.

Stirling III Length: 87' 3" Crui.se: 200mph

Height: 22' 9" Svc. Ceiling: 20,500 ft.

Avro Span: 10^' Max: 270 mph at 19,000 ft.

Lancaster III Length: 69' 4" Cruise: 210 mph

Height: 20' Svc. Ceiling: 21,500 ft.

Avro Span: 120' Max: 300 mph

Lincoln II Length: 78' 31/2"
Height: 17' 31/2"

Bristol Span: 56' 4" Max: 285 mph at 15,000 ft.

Blenheim I Length: 39' 9" Cruise: 220 mph

Height: 9' 10" Svc. Ceiling: 27,280 ft.

GREAT BRITAIN - FIGHTERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Blackburn Span: 51' 31/2" Max: 350 mph at 13,000 ft.

B-37 Length: 39' 1" Cruise: 256 mph

Firebrand Height: 15' 2" Rate of Climb: 2,600 fpm (i)

Boulton Paul Span: 39' 4" Max: 313 mph at 19,000 ft.

Defiant II Length: 35' 4" Cruise: 259 mph

Height: 11' 4" Rate of Climb: 15,750 ft. in 8.5 min.

Bristol Span: 57' 10" Max: 330 mph at 14,000 ft.

Beaufighter X Length: 41' 4" Cruise: 249 mph

Height: 15' 10" Rate of Climb: 1,850 fpm (i)

DeHavilland Span: 54' 2" Max: 378 mph at 13,200 ft.

Mosquito XIX Length; 41' 2" Cruise: 300 mph

Height: 15' 3" Rate of Climb: 2,700 fpm (i)

(i) initial rate

Gloster Span: 32' 3" Max: 253 mph at 14,500 ft.

Gladiator Length: 27' 5" Cruise: 212 mph at 15,500 ft.
Biplane Height: 10' 4" Rate of Climb: 20,000 ft. in 9 mi

Hawker Span: 40' Max: 340 mph at 21,000 ft.

Hurricane Length: 32' 3" Cruise: 307 mph

JIB Height: 13' I1/2' Rate of Climb: 20.000 ft. in 7.5 min.

Hawker Span: 41' 7" Max: 405 mph at 18,000 ft.

Typhoon Length: 31' 11" Cruise: 254 mph

Height: 15' 31/2 Rate of Climb: 15,000 ft. in 6.2 min.

Hawker Span: 41' Max: 435 mph at 17,000 ft.

Tempest V Length: 33' 8" Cruise: 351 mph

Height: 16' 1" Rate of Climb: 20,000 ft. in 6.1 min.

Vickers-Supermarine Span: 36' 10" Max: 416 mph at 27.500 ft.

Spitfire IXE Length: 31' 4" Cruise: 322 mph

Height: 12' 714 Rate of Climb: 20,000 ft. in 6.4 min.

324
 BOMB LOAD I'OWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

14,500 lbs. Four Bristol Hercules XVI, Nine .303 3,000 mi.
1,650 h.p. each, radial

14,000 lbs. Four Bristol Hercules XI, Eight .303 Max: 2,330 mi.
1,585 h.p. each, radial 740 mi. with
14,000 lbs.

22,000 lbs. Four Packard Merlin 28, 1,390 Eight .303 Max: 2,230 mi.
special modification h.p. each, inline with 7,000 lbs.
14,000 Ibs.- 1,160 mi. with
normal max. 14.000 lbs.

18,000 lbs. w/o Four Packard Merlin 100, 1,650 Two 20 mm, four .50 cal. 3,600 mi.
modification h.p. each, inline

2,000 lbs. Two Bristol Mercury, 905 h.p. Five .303 1,460 mi.
each, radial

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT

Two-l,0001b. or Bristol Centaurus IX, 2,500 h.p., Four 20 mm 1,250 mi. with
One- 1,850 lb. radial torpedo and
torpedo aux. tanks:745 mi.
with torpedo

Rolls Royce Merlin XX, 1,260 Four .303 in power turret 750 mi.
h.p., inline

2,200 lbs. Two Bristol Hercules XVII, Four 20 mm, six .303, Max: 1,750 mi.
1,725 h.p. each, t.o., radial one .303 flexible Nor: 1,400 mi.

2,000 lbs. Two Rolls Royce Merlin 25, Four 20 mm 1,905 mi. with
1,620 h.p. each t.o., inline external tank
1,400 mi. w/o tanks

Bristol Mercury IX, 840 h.p., Four .303 410 mi.

radial

1 ,000 lbs. or Rolls Royce Merlin XX, 1,280 Twelve .303 985 mi. with
Eight rockets h.p. t.o., inline external tanks
480 mi. w/o tanks

Two- 1,000 lb. Napier-Sabre, 2,200 h.p., inline Four 20 mm or 1,000 mi. with
bombs, or twelve .303 ext. tanks
Eight-60 lb. rockets 610 mi. w/o tanks

2,000 lb. bombs Napier Sabre IIB, 2.420 h.p.. Four 20 mm 1,300 mi. or
or Eight-60 lb. inline 820 mi.
rockets

750 lbs. Rolls Royce Merlin 70, 1,710 Two 20 mm, two .50 cal. 980 mi. with
h.p., inline ext. tanks
430 mi. w/o tanks

325
GREAT BRITAIN -TRANSPORTS
TYPE DIMENSIONS

Armstrong-Whitworth Span: 77' Max: 250 mph at 10,500 ft.

Albemarle IV Length: 59' 11" Cruise: 180 mph

Height: 15' 7" Svc. Ceiling: 22300 ft.

Avro Span: 102' Max: 290 mph

York Length: 78'
Height: 20'

Short Development of the bomber for Troop Carrier Operations

Stirling

Vickers- Armstrong Development of the bomber for Transport Operations

Warwick

GREAT BRITAIN GLIDERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Airspeed Span: 88' 150 mph

Horsa Length: 67'
Height: 21'

GAL. Span: 110' Diving: 187 mph

Hamilcar Length: 68' Max. Tow: 150 mph
Height: 20' 3" Stall: 65 mph

FRANCE - FIGHTERS
TYPE DIMENSIONS

Bloch Span: 34' 7" Max: 320 mph at 13,000 ft.

MB-152 Length: 29' 10" Cruise: 220 mph

Height: 13' Rate of Climb: 16,000 ft. in 6 min.

Dewoitine Span: 33' 6" Max: 330 mph at 22.000 ft.

520 Length: 28' 9" Cruise: 248 mph

Height: 8' 5" Rate of Climb: 13,000 ft. in 4 min.

Morane-Saulnier Span: 34' 10" Max: 305 mph at 16,000 ft.

M.S. 406 Length: 26' 9" Cruise: 218 mph

Height: 9' 4" Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in 6 min.

Potez Span: 52' 6" Max: 280 mph at 13,000 ft.

631 Length: 36' 4" Cruise: 198 mph

Height: 11' 10" Rate of Climb: 13,100 ft. in 9 min.

SOVIET UNION - BOMBERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

IliuchiTi (Ilyushin) Span: 70' 2" Max: 265 mph

D.B. 3-F Length: 47' 6" Cruise: 175 mph
Med. Bmr. Svc. Ceiling: 28,000 ft.

Ilyushin Span: 70' 2" Max: 265 mph at 20,000 ft.

IL-4 Length: 47' 6" Cruise: 185 mph

Med. Bmr. Svc. Ceiling: 29,520 ft.

Tupolev Span: 70' 6" Max: 279 mph

SB-2bis Length: 41' 6" Cruise: 217 mph
Med. Bmr. Svc. Ceiling: 27,890 ft.

326
 POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

4,000 lbs. or 10 Two Bristol Hercules XI, none 1,350 mi.

troops 1,590 h.p. each, radial

50-56 troops Four Rolls Royce Merlin 24, Max: 3,100 mi.
1,620 h.p. each, inline 1,000 mi. with
50-56 troops

CAPACITY

30 troops

17.500 lbs.

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

Gnome-Rhone, 1,100 h.p., radial Two 20 mm, two 7.5 mm 400 mi.

Hispano-Suiza, 1,000 h.p., inline One 20 mm, four 7.5 mm. 950 mi.

Hispano-Suiza, 860 h.p., inline One 20 mm, two 7.5 mm 500 mi.

Two Gnome-Rhone, 660 h.p. Two 20 mm, six 7.5 mm, 650 mi.
each, radial two 7.5 mm flexible mount

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

4,400 lbs. Two M-88, 1,100 h.p. each, Four 7.62 mm 2,500 mi.
radial

5,950 lbs. Two M-82, 1,600 h.p. each, Four 12.7 mm 2,550 mi.
radial 1.025 mi. with
5,950 lbs.

1,320 lbs. Two M-103, 990 h.p. each, Four 7.62 mm 1,430 mi.

inline 500 mi. with

1,320 lbs.

327
SOVIET UNION - BOMBERS (Continued)

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Tupolev Span: 69' 10" Max: 357 mph at 12,000 ft.

Tu-2 Length: 45' 4" Cruise: 260 mph

Attack Bmr. Svc. Ceiling: 36,000 ft.

Tupolev Span: 131' 3" Max: 274 mph at 25,000 ft.

TB-7 or PE-8 Length: 80' 6" Cruise: 165 mph

Hvy. Bmr. .Svc. Ceiling: 33,000 ft.

SOVIET UNION - FIGHTERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Ilyushin IL-2 .Span: 47' 10" Max: 280 mph at 13,120 ft.

Stormovik Length: 38' Crui.se: 185 mph

Ftr. Bomber Height: 10' 9"

Lavochin (Lavochkin) Span: 32' 2" Max: ?,!() nip!) at 16.400 ft.
La-5 Length: 27' 11' Ouise: 250 mph
Height: 9' 3" Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in 5 min.

Petlyakov Span: 56' 3" Max: 3.35 mph at 16.400 ft.

Pe-2 Length: 41' 6" Crui.se: 226 mpli

Ftr., attack, recon. .Svc. CeiHng: 29,.520 ft.

Yakovlev Span: 32' 10" Max: 3.58 mph at 13,000 ft.

9P Length: 28' 1/2' Ouisc: 245 mph
Height: 8' Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in 4 min.

SOVIET UNION - TRANSPORTS

DIMENSIONS

Lisunov Span: 95' Max: 225 mph

Li-2 (also P-84) Length: 64' 51/2" Cruise: 155 mph
DC-3 prewar license Height: 16' II" Svc. Ceiling: 29,000 ft.

Tupolev .Span: 132' IO1/2" Max: 155 mph

ANT-6 Crui.se: 115 mph

SOVIET UNION -GLIDERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Antonov Span: 62' 3"

A-7 Length: 37' 9"

328
 BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT
5,000 lbs. Two Shvetsov-ASh-82, 1,850 h.p. Two 23 mm, five 12.7 mm 1,500 mi.
each, radial

8,800 lbs. Four AM-38, 1,300 h.p. each, Two 20 mm, two 12.7 mm, 2,500 mi. with
inline two 7.62 mm 4,400 lbs.

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT

8801bs. orEight- One AM-38F, 1,600 h.p., inline Two 23 mm, two 12.7 mm, 750 mi.
56 lb. rocket.s one 12.7 mm flexible

440 lbs. One Shvetsov M-82FN, 1,640 Two 20 mm 510 mi.

h.p., radial

2,200 lbs. Two Klimov VK-105R. 1,100 One 12.7 mm, four 1,200 mi.
h.p. each, inline 7.62 mm

500 lbs. One Klimov M-105 PF, 1,260 One 37 mm, one 12.7 mm 516 mi.
h.p., inline

CAPACITY POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

10,000 lbs. max. Two Schvetsov ASh-621, 1,000 Four 7.62 mm Max: 2,000 mi.
or 7,500 lbs. h.p. each, radial Normal: 1,300
norm, or 21 troops mi.

4,400 lbs. or 30 Four AM-34, 830 h.p. each,

i>aratroops inline

329
 OPERATIONAL AIRCRAFT OF THE AXIS

GERMANY - BOMBERS
TYPE DIMENSIONS

Focke-WuIf Span: 76' 11 1/2" Max: 224 mph at 15,750 ft.

Fw200c Length: 107' 91/2" Cruise: 172 mph

Kurier Height: 20' 8" Svc. Ceiling: 19,000 ft.

Domier Span: 62' 4" Max: 348 mph at 18,700 ft.

Do 217 Length: 55' 9" Cruise: 254 mph

Height: 16' 4" Svc. Ceiling: 30,000 ft.

Heinkel Span: 74' I1/2" Max: 258 mph at 16,400 ft.

He 111 Length: 54' 51/2" Cruise: 212 mph

Height: 13' 9" Svc. Ceiling: 25,500 ft.

Heinkel Span: 103' 4" Max: 303 mph at 20,000 ft.

He 177 Length: 67' 3" Cruise: 215 mph

Height: 21' Svc. Ceiling: 26,500 ft.

Junkers Span: 45' 4" Max: 210 mph at 16,000 ft.

Ju-87 Length: 36' 6" Cruise: 175 mph

Stuka Height: 12' 9" Svc. Ceiling: 24,500 ft.

GERMANY - FIGHTERS
DIMENSIONS

Focke-Wulf Span: 34' 6" Max: 408 mph at 20,600 ft.

Fw-190 Length: 29' 7" Cruise: 296 mph

Height: 13' Rate of Climb: 20,000 ft. in
9.1min.

Messerschmitt Span: 32' 61/2" Max: 452 mph at 19,685 ft.

Bf-109 Length: 29' 4" Cruise: 310 mph

Height: 8' 6" Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in
3 min.

Messerschmitt Span: 53' 5" Max: 342 mph at 22,900 ft.

Bf 110 Length: 41' 7" Cruise: 200 mph
Height: 13' 1" Rate of Climb: 18,000 ft. in
7.9min.

Messerschmitt Span: 30' 7" Max: 596 mph at 30,000 ft.

Me I63B Length: 18' 8" Rate of CHmb: 30,000 ft. in
Komet Height: 9' 2.6 min.

Messerschmitt Span: 40' lli/j" Max: 540 mph at 19,700 ft.

Me 262 Length: 34' 91/2" Rate of Climb: 3,937 fpm
Sturmvogel Height: 12' 7" (initial)

Messerschmitt Span: 53' 9" Max: 390 mph at 22,000 ft.

Me 410 Length: 41' 1" Cruise: 310 mph
Height: 14' Rate of Climb: 22,000 ft. in
10.8 min.

330
POWERS - EUROPEAN THEATER OF OPERATIONS

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

4,620 lbs. Four BMW Bramo, 1,200 h.p. One 20 mm, three 13 mm, two 2,210 mi.
each, radial 7.9 mm
5,500 Ibs.- Two BMW, 1,600 h.p. each, One 20 mm, one 15 mm, two 1,500 mi. with
internal radial 7.92 mm 5,500 lbs.
1,000 Ibs.-
external

5,600 lbs. Two Junkers Jumo, 1,340 h.p. Two 20 mm, one 13 mm, four 2,640 mi.
each, inline 7.92 mm 760 mi. with
4,400 lbs.

14.000 lbs. Two DB 610 (2 engines each), Two 20 mm, three 13 mm, three 3,417 mi.
3,000 h.p. each pr., inline 7.92 mm 1,100 mi. with
4,500 lbs.

3,960 Ibs.-short One Junkers Jumo, 1,300 h.p. Two 7.92 mm wings, two 7.92 1,200 mi.
range inline mm flexible 620 mi. with
2,200 Ibs.-normal 3,960 lbs.

BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

1,100 lbs. BMW 801, 1,700 t.o. h.p., radial Four 20 mm, two 13 mm 525 mi.

1,200 lbs. Daimler Benz 605, 1,500 h.p., One 30 mm, two 15 mm 440 mi.
inline

2,000 lbs. Two Daimler Benz, 1,475 h.p. Two 30 mm, two 20 mm, two 1,305 mi.
each, inline 7.92 mm flexible 735 mi. with
2,000 lbs.

None One Walter HWK rocket motor. Two 30 mm cannon

3,750 lbs. thrust

1,100 lbs. Two Junkers Jumo, 1,980 lbs. Four 30 mm cannon, twenty- 652 mi. at
thrust each four 50 mm rockets 30,000 ft.

230 mi. at sea

level

2,200 lbs. Two Daimler Benz 603A, 1 ,750 Four 20 mm, two 13 mm rear 1,405 mi.
internal h.p. each, inline firing, two 7.9 mm

331
GERMANY - TRANSPORTS

DIMENSIONS

Focke-Wulf Span: 108' 3" Max: 252 mph

Fw200b Length: 78' 3" Cruise: 226 mph
Condor Height: 20' Svc. Ceiling: 23,600 ft.

Junkers Span: 95' 11" Max: 165 mph at sea level

Ju-52 Length: 62' Cruise: 132 mph
Height: 14' 10* Svc. Ceiling: 20,000 ft.

Junkers Span: 138' Max: 243 mph at 18,000 ft.

Ju-290 Length: 92' 6" Cruise: 185 mph

Svc. Ceiling: 19,700 ft.

Messerschmitt Span: 181' Max: 136 mph at sea level

Me 323 Length: 93' 4" Cruise: 110 mph
Height: 23' 3"

GERMANY - GLffiERS

DIMENSIONS

DFS-230A

Gotha Span: 79'

Go 242 Length: 52' 6"

Messerschmitt Span: 181'

Me 321

ITALY - BOMBERS

TYPE DIMENSIONS

Breda 88 Span: 50' 10" Max: 310 mph at 13,120 ft.

"Lince" (Lynx) Length: 37' 9" Cruise: 185 mph
Svc. Ceiling: 28,500 ft.

Cant Span: 81' 4" Max: 280 mph at 15,000 ft.

Z 1007 Length: 60' 4" Cruise: 175 mph
"Alcione" (Kingfisher) Height: 17' Svc. Ceiling: 26300 ft.

Fiat Span: 70' 6" Max: 268 mph at 16,400 ft.

BR. 20 Length: 52' 10" Cruise: 180 mph
"Cigogna" (Stork) Height: 14' 1- Svc. Ceiling: 25,000 ft.

Piaggio Span: 108' 3" Max: 250 mph at 13,120 ft.

P. 108B Length: 81' 6" Cruise: 165 mph
Svc. Ceiling: 26,000 ft.

Savoia-Marchetti Span: 66' 3" Max: 230 mph at 13,120 ft.

SM. 79- Length: 53' 2" Cruise: 165 mph
Sparviero (Hawk) Height: 13' 6" Svc. Ceiling: 24,600 ft.

332
 CAPACITY POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

30 troops Four BMW 132, 870 h.p. each, Two 20 mm. two 13 mm 930 mi.
radial

1 8 troops Three BMW, 660 h.p. each, Four 7.9 mm 800 mi.
radial

18,700 lbs. or 40 Four BMW, 1 ,600 h.p. each, Three 20 mm, six 7.9 mm Max: 3,785 mi.
troops radial 2,490 mi. with
17,600 lbs.

18 tons or 130 Six Gnome-Rhone, 990 h.p. Eighteen 7.9 mm 500 mi.
troops each, radial

10 troops

5,300 lbs. or 25
troops

40,0001bs. or 120
troops

BOMB LOAD POWERPLA.NT ARMAMENT

2,200 lbs. Two Piaggio XI, 1,000 h.p. each, Three 12.7 mm, two 7.7 mm, Max: 1,450 mi.
radial one 7.7 mm flexible Norm: 900 mi.

2.600 lbs. Three Piaggio XI, 1,000 h.p. Two 12.7 mm, two 7.7 mm 800 mi.
each, radial

2,600 lbs. Two Fiat A.80, 1,000 h.p. each. One 12.7 mm, two 7.7 mm 1,150 mi.
radial

4,100 lbs. Four Piaggio P.XII. 1,000 h.p. Four 12.7 mm 2,500 mi.
each, radial

7,770 lbs. Three Alfa-Romeo 126, 750 h.p. Four 7.7 mm Max: 1,860 mi.
each, radial 1,000 mi. with
2.640 lbs.

333
ITALY - FIGHTERS
DIMENSIONS

Breda 65 Span: 39' 8" Max: 267 mph at 16,400 ft.

Length: 31' 6" Cruise: 195 mph

Height: 10' 11" Rate of Climb: 19,700 ft. in
11.5 mill.

Capronia Span: 53' 10" Max: 315 mph at 17,000 ft.

CA. 331B Length: 38' 61/2" Cruise: 200 mph

Raffica (Squall) Rate of Climb: 13,120 ft. in
9.3 min.

Fiat Span: 31' 10" Max: 265 mph at 13,000 ft.

C.R. 42 Length: 27' 3" Cruise: 185 mph

Falco Height: 10' 10" Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in
Biplane 7 min.

Fiat Span: 36' 1" Max: 295 mph at 16,400 ft.

G. 50 Length: 27' 2" Cruise: 178 mph

Height: 9' 2" Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in
8 min.

Fiat Span: 38' IO1/2" Max: 385 mph at 23,000 ft.

G. 55 Length: 30' 9" Cruise: 300 mph

Centauro Height: 10' 3" Rate of Climb: 26,250 ft. in
10.1 min.

Macchi Span: 34' 81/2" Max: 310 mph at 15,000 ft.

C. 200 Length: 26' 10" Cruise: 250 mph

Saetta Height: 11' 6" Rate of Climb: 16,400 ft. in
6 min.

Machhi Span: 34' 81/2" Max: 370 mph at 16,400 ft.

C. 202 Length: 29' Cruise: 300 mph

Folgore Height: 10' Rate of Climb: 19,685 ft. in
6 min.

ITALY - TRANSPORT

DIMENSIONS

Savoia-Marchetti Span: 97' 5" Max: 230 mph at 13,120 ft.

S.M. 75 Length: 73' 10" Cruise: 160 mph

Marsupiale Height: 17' 8" Svc. Ceiling: 24,600 ft.

334
 BOMB LOAD POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANCE

1,800 lbs. One Fiat A.80, 1,000 h.p., radial Four 7.7 mm 682 mi.

2,640 lbs. Two Isotta-Fraschini, 840 h.p. Six 20 mm, two 12.7 mm flexible 1,125 mi.
each, radial

440 lbs. One Fiat A.74, 840 h.p.. radial Two 12.7 mm 630 mi.

300 lbs. internal One Fiat A.74, 840 h.p., radial Two 12.7 mm, two 7.7 mm 420 mi.

2,000 lbs. One Fiat, 1,475 h.p., inline Three 20 mm, two 12.7 mm 1.025 mi.

700 lbs. One Alfa-Romeo R.A., 1,000. Two 12.7 mm. two 7.7 mm 475 mi.
1.175 h.p.. inline

700 lbs. One Fiat A.74. 870 h.p., radial Two 12.7 mm 540 mi.

POWERPLANT ARMAMENT RANGE

7.700 lbs. Three Alfa-Romeo 126. 750 h.p. 1,860 mi.

each, radial

335
 Index
A-20 •Havoc". 53. 80, illus.. 81 Austria, 257
Aandalanes. Norway, 20, 22 Automobile industry, 53
Abbeville. 26 Auxiliary fuel tanks, 92, 93, 170, 204, 209
Abortion, 230 Avranches, 254
Aces: AWPD/l (air strategy), 56
Eighth Air Force. U.S., 176 Axis Sally, 131
Fifteenth Air Force. U.S., 178 Azores, 56
Ninth Air Force. P.S.. 176
North African campaigns, 104 B-17 "Flying Fortress", 53, 72. 81, 82, 90, 123,
other than U.S., 178 84
illus.,

ADD Long Range Air Command, 59 B-17E Flying Fortress, 79

Adriatic Sea, 143, 144 B-17F (Bomber), 80, 171
Aerial delivery and supply force {see Air B-24 "Liberator", 54, 80, 81, 82
Transport Command) B-25 "Mitchell", 53
African Invasion Air Force (see Twelfth Air B-26 "Marauder", 53
Force) Baktshisarai, 96
Afrika Korps, 57, 100, 102, 106, 112, 137 Balbo (Air group). 45, 46
Air bases, overseas, 56 Balchen, Bernt, 72. 237
Air combat tactics. 38-46 Balkans, 16, 46, 174
Air Corps Ferrying Command, 60 Ball-bearing industry, German, 171, 201, 215,
Air routes, 54 222, 223
Air Strategy, 101. 108, 110 Bardufoss, Norway, 23, 24
AWPD/1, 56 Barrage balloon, 194
Air Transport Association, 60 Bastogne, 257
Air Transport Command (ATC), 54, 60-71. 239 Battle ol Britain, 11-14, 29-36, 38, 43-45, 55
Airborne operations: Battle of the Bulge, 257
Algeria, 108 Baumbach, Werner, 96
Crete, 17 Beaufighter (see Bristol Beaufighter)
D-Day, 251 BEF (see British Expeditionary Force)
Germany, 254. 260-263 Belgium, 8
Holland, 7 Bengazi, 112, 171, 189
Operation Varsity. 257 Berlin, 222-229
Sicily. 141. 148 air raids, 87, 88
Aircraft production. 4 Battle of, 173, 174
British, 55 Beurling, G. R., 178
German. 90. 173, 174, 220 Big Week, 174, 220
Russian, 50, 58, 59 Birksted, Kaj, 178
United States, 52, 53, 88 Bizerte, 104, 127
Adler Tag, 1 Black Sea, 18, 98
Alexandria. 107. 112 Blakeslee, Donald J., 226-229
Algeria. 100. 102 Blalock, Johnny B., 151, 153
Algiers. 102 Blenheim IV (plane), 27
Allen. Keith M., 240 Blitz, The, 14, 32-34
Altenfjord. Norway, 242 Blitzkrieg, 3, 6, 26
American Embassy, London, 239 Greece, 16
Amiens, 92, 94 USSR, 17, 46
Ang^agsalik, 73 Blockbusters, 89
Anson (plane), 27 Bluie East-2, 77
Antiaircarft, 1141 16 Bluie West Eight, 72
Tobruk. 112 Bluie West One, 72
Anzio beachhead. 144. 161 Bodo, Norway, 24
Arado 234 (jet bomber), 297 Boiling Air Force Base, 82
Ardennes Forest, 256 Bollinger, Wilford, 240
Ardennes Squadron, 91 Bomber Command, RAF, 141
Ark Royal (Brit, carrier), 22 Bombers, 43, 44
Armor plating, 80 fighter escort, 43
Army Air Corps, U.S., 52, 55 Bombing, 48, 56, 79, 84, 85
Army Air Corps Ferrying Command, U.S., 54 practice, 188
Army Air Forces, 56 Bone airdrome, 108
Arnold, H. H., 56, 82. 87. 173, illus,, 143 Bonn, 217
Astra Romana refinery, 287-289, illus., 195 Borders, Tom, 128
ATC (see Air Transport Command) Bradley, Gen., 267
Atcherley, R. L. R., 23 Brauchitsch, Field Marshal von, 318
Atlantic Wall, 246 Bremen, 88
Atterbury Dome, 73, 76, 77 Brenner Pass, 167, 175

336
Brereton, Louis H., 311 Daylight bombing, 56, 57, 58, 79-91, 215, 222
Bretagne bomber squadron, 91 DB-3 (Russian bomber), 50
Bristol Beaufighter. 14, 15, 55, 118-120 DC-3, 64
British Bomber Command, 18, 222, 175 D-Day, 244-263
British Expeditionary Force, 8, 24, 26 Debden Airbase, Eng.. 226
Bromma Airport, Stockholm, 238 Deere, Al, 45
Browning machine guns, 38 Demarest, Max, 76
Buckingham Palace, 32 Denmark, 6, 20
Bulgaria, 16, 237 Derna, Libya, 118, 120
Bushy Park, 82 Desert Air Force (RAF), 102, 110, 118, 131
Desert Fox (see Rommel, Erwin)
C-47 (transport), 64, 108, illus., 62, 277 Devers, 78
C-53 (transport), 73, 150 Dewoitine, 102, 108
C-54, 73, illus., 74 Dive bombing, 39
C. 200 Saetta (Italian plane), 16 Dogfight, 43
Caldwell, Clive Robert, 178 Dombaas, Norway, 21
Cannon, John K., 144 Donaldson, J. W., 20, 22
Cantacuzine, Constantin, 178 Doolittle, James, 58, 79, 102, 173, 174, illus., 57
Cap Gris Nez, 10 Dornberger, Walter, 307, 314, 318
Cape Bon, 132, 133 DO-17 (plane), 3, 39
Cape Murro di Porco, 156, 157 Druskininkai, USSR, 48
Caribbean, 56 Duke, Neville, 136
Carpet bombing. 265 Dumbrell, Bruce, 93
Carpetbagger missions, 240 Dunkirk, 8, 26, illus., 9
Carr, Bruce W., 176 Dunlap. 78
Casablanca Conference (1942), 60, 86. 110, 170, Durham, Robert C, 240
188 Dutch Air Force, 8
Cassino, 145, 160 Dutch Guiana, 56
Caucasus, 47
Cecina, 166 Eagle Day (see Adler Tag)
CG-4A glider, 150 Eagleston, Glenn T., 176
Chartres, 92 Eaker, Ira, 57, 82, 86, 144, 173, 203
Chase, Levi R., 104 Egypt, 17, 83, 100, 107, 120
Chenango (U.S. carrier), 102 Eighth Air Corps, German, 96
Cherbourg Peninsula, 251, 252 Eighth Air Force, U.S., 57, 79-91, 82, 83, 141,
V-weapons, 307, 311 170-176, 188, 203, 243, 259, 265, 266
Chiang Kai-shek. 115 Aces, 176
Chiusi, 166 Bomber Command, 58
Churchill, Winston, 13. 35, 55, 83, 86, 100, 244, D-Day, 262
illus.. 37. 86 Eighth Bomber Command, U.S.. 81
Clark, Bob, 291 Eighth Army (Brit.), 57, 59, 102, 104. 143. 148
Clark, Mark, 143, 276 82nd Airborne Division, 148
Clarke, D. H., 27 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 101, 144, 246, 259, 262,
Clostermann, Pierre, 91, 178, 291 illus., 143

Cole, Bruce, 291 El Alamein, 57, 79, 83, 100, 107, 112
Cologne, 55, 87 El Aouina, 130
Combined Bomber Offensive (British-U.S.). 60, Elbe River, 184, 257
80-91, 141, 170-248 El Djem, 131, 132, 136
Combined Chiefs of Staff, 170 Electronic navigation, 182
Commercial airlines, 60 England, 10. 14
Compiegne, 94, 95 English Channel, 8, 11

Armistice at, 10 Ent, Uzal, 199

Compton, Keith, 199 Erkner, Ger., 222, 223
Concordia Vega refinery, 192 Espionage, 237-243
Coningham, Sir Arthur, 102 Essen, 172
Coventry, England, 14 Estonia, 18
CR 32 (fighter plane), 16 Eupatoria, 96
CR 42 (fighter plane), 16 Evans, Sgt., 150, 156-159
Crete, 17
Crimea. 59, 96-98 Falaise-Argentan pocket, 254
Cross, K. B., 23, 24
Fennell, Maj., 113
Crossbow (code name), 307 Order
Field 58, 190
Curio Range, 73 Fifteenth Air Force, 144, 145, 146, 173-175, 201,
Curl, Captain, 132, 133, 134
224, 237, 243, 256, 269
Cuxhaven, 183 Aces, 178
Czechoslovakia, 257
V-weapons, 311
FifthArmy, U.S.. 143. 144. 145
Danube River. 192 51stTroop Carrier Wing, 141, 148
Dardanelles. 47 52nd Troop Carrier Wing, 141, 148
Darlan. Jean, 102 57th Fighter Group, 100, 111, 131

337
56th Fighter Group, 233 Grumman (amphibian), 76
Fighter Command, RAF, 175 Guderian, Heinz, 247
Fighter pilot, 37-46 Gustav Line, 144-146, 160
Fighter planes, U.S., 53
Fighter formations, 40-46 H2S radar, 172, 183
Finger-four (fighter formation;, 40 Halifax (heavy bomber), 55
1st Air Landing Brigade, British, 149 Halverson, Harry A., 188
Fives-Lille steel plant, 82 Hamburg. 173, 179-187
Flak, 84, 128 Hamilton River. 66
Flanders, 26 Hammamet, Gulf of, 133
Fleet Air Arm, Hansell, Haywood S., Jr., 56
Dunkirk, 27 Harris. Sir Arthur. 307
Flight mechanics, 65, 67 Hartman, Erich, 178
Flying coffin (see B-26 "Marauder") HE-111 (plane), 3, 13, 39. 50
Flying Fortress (see B-17 "Flying Fortress") Heavy bombers, 53
Foggia, Italy, 143, 144 British. 55
44th Squadron, German, 297 Heglund, Svein. 178
46 RAF Squadron. 23, 24 Hermann Goering tank works, 269
4th Fighter group, 226 Hitler, Adolf, 10, 30-32, 35, 59, 100, 300, 306, 318
France: Holland. 7
allied invasion of, 146 Hopkinson. G. F., 149
German invasion, 8 Howard, 76
Frantisek, Josef, 178 Hull, Caesar. 24
French Air Force, 8 Hunziker, Richard. 135
aircraft types, 4 Hurren. Aubrey, 149
French air squadrons, 91 Hurricane I (Br. plane), 4. 8, 11, 24, 38, 55, 118,
Friedrichshafen, 269 illus., 19
Fritsch, Werner von, 1 1 Husky I, 148
Furious (Brit, carrier), 23
FW-190, 84, 90
1-15 (Russian fighter plane), 50
Fighter support and escort, 43, 215, 222, 223
1-16 (Russian fighter plane), 50, illus., 51
Iceland, 56
G.50 (Italian plane), 16 Ikatek (see Bluie East-2)
Gabreski, Francis S., 176, 235, illus., 236
IL-2 /^Russian bomber), 50, 59
Galic, Cvitan, 178
India, 17
Galland, Adolf, 43 Intelligence. 237-243
Gann, Ernest K., 61 Italian Air Force, 14, 16, 18
Gaskill, Gordon, 118
Italian campaigns, 139-168
Gavin, Jim, 148 Italy:
Gee (electronic navigation), 182
invasion of France, 8
George, Harold L., 56 Libya, 118
German surrender, 257 North African campaigns, 100
Germany, Invasion of (see Operation Overlord)
Gestapo. 238, 239, 241
Gibraltar, 102, 108, 148 Jameson, 24
Gladiator (biplane), 4, 20-24, 27 Japan, 52
Gladych, Michael, 233-236 Jeschonnek, 96
Glass. Herbert. 150 Jesperson, William, 240
Gliders, 141, 251, 252, 260-263 Jet fighters, 176, 297-305
Glorious (Brit, carrier), 20, 22, 24 Johnson, 66-71
Glycol, 280, 281 Johnson. J. E.. 38-46. 178
Gneisenau, 24 Johnson. Robert S., 176, illus., 177
Godfrey, John T., 176, 279 JU-52 (transport plane), 3, 17, 104, 130. 131
Goebbels, Joseph, 88. 179 JU-87 Stuka (bomber). 3, 11, 39, 49, 49, 50,
Goering, Hermann, 10, 11, 26, 28, 29, 31, 43, 44, illus., 7, 12
88, 174, 243, 262, 300 JU-88 (bomber), 3, 39, 50. 96. 98
Goose Bay, Labrador, 65, 66 Juutilainen. Ilmari. 178
Goubrine, 157
Gradvirell, Burgess, 150
Gran, Colin F., 178 Kane, John R., 199
Gravity effects, 43, 214 Kasserine Pass, 104, 110
Great Britain: Kegelman, Charles, 80
lend-lease, 54, 55 Kiev, 18
Operation Bolero, 56 Korea. 42
Greece, 16 Kozhedub, Ivan, 178
Green, Herschel H., 178 Krupp munition works, 87, 172
Greenland, 56. 61, 72, 73 Kummersdorf, 318
Greenland Base Command, 77 Kuriate Islands, 151
Greenland Naval Patrol, 77 Kuter, Laurence S.. 56
Grodno, 49 Kuttelwascher. Karel M.. 178

338
Labor organization, 53 Messerschmitt, Willy, 314
Ladbroke, 148-159 Messerschmitt factories, Regensburg, 172, 201,
Lafayette Escadrille Squadron, 91 220
Lagg-3 (Russian fighter plane), 50, 59 Messina, Straits of, 143
Lancaster (heavy bomber), 55 Meyer, John C, 176
La Pallice, 83 Middle East, 17, 47, 107
Lav-5 (Russian fighter plane), 59 MIG-1 (Russian fighter plane), 50, 58
Lawrence, Harry, 128 MIG-15, 42
Lay, Beirne, Jr., 202 Minneman, Clarence, 150
Leaflets, 237 Mitchell, Billy, 86
Lebus, 293 Molder, Werner, 42
Le Creusot, 85 Momeyer, William, 102
LeMay, Curtis E., 205 Monteverde, 75, 77
Lend-Lease, 54 Montgomery, Bernard L., 100, 148, 254
Leningrad, 18, 46 Morocco, 102
Lesjeskog, Lake, Norway, 21 Moscow, 18, 46
Leuchars, Scotland, 239 Mosquito (fighter/bomber), 55
Libya, 118, 120 photo reconnaissance. 111
Lightning, 123, 125 illus., 89

Lille, 58, 82 Mussolini, Benito, 8, 14, 100

Linz, Austria, 269
London:
Blitz, 14, 32-35
V-weapons, 309, 313
London Sunday Times, 82
Long-range bombers, 59, 80
Long-range navigation, 65
Lorient, 83, 87
Lorraine bomber squadron, 91
Luftflotten L 3, 47
Luftflotten H, 7, 11,29,47
Luftflotten IIL 7, 11,29
Luftflotten IV, 3, 47
Luftflotten V, 7, 29, 47
Luftwaffe, 12-14, 16
aircraft types, 3
Battle of Britain, 35
D-Day, 262
elimination of RAF, 10
Operation Sea Lion, 29
strength (1938), 56
strength (1941), 20
Lutzow, 301, 302
Maginot Line, 8
Malan, "Sailor", 178
Malta, 16, 107, 151,
Manchester (heavy bomber), 55
Mareth Line, 101, 104
Marine Air Corps, U.S., 55
Marshall, George C, 247
Martuba, 16
Mass bombing, 85
McFarland, Kenton D., 188-199
McLeod, Henry W., 178
McPartlin, 232
McWhorter, Ernest D., 102
ME-109 (plane), 3, 44, 45, 90
ME 109E, 38
ME- 110 (fighter plane),
ME HOD, 39
ME-163B Komet, 297
ME-262 jet fighter, 297-305
ME-323 (transport), 104
Medal of Honor, 188
Mediterranean, 14, 16, 59, 79, 100, 107, 112.
139-168
Mediterranean Air Command, 102, 144
Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, 110, 144-168
Mediterranean Theatre of Operations (MTO), 111
resignation, 143
NAAF (see Northwest African Air Forces)
Namsos, Norway, 20, 22
Naples, 110, 130, 143, 144
Narsasuak (see Bluie West One)
Narvik, 22, 23, 24
Naval Air Corps, U.S., 55
Naval Expansion Act (U.S., 1938), 52, 56
Newfoundland, 56
Night bombing, 79, 85
precision, 224
Night photography. 111
Nijmegen, 276
Nile River, 100
19th Tactical Air Command. 270-275
90th Photo Recon Wing, 111
98th Bomber Group. 100
92nd Air Group, 110
97th Air Group, British, 108
97th heavy bomber group, 110
93rdBomber Squadron, 191
Ninth Air Force, 100, 102, 104, 107, 118. 171. 175.
176, 188, 224, 243. 259, 269
Aces, 176
D-Day, 262
157 9th Troop Carrier Command, 260, 251
Norden bombsight, 80. 82, 86
Normandy, 252
North Africa, 16, 18, 52, 57, 83. 99-138
Northwest African Air Forces, 102, 104, 110, 111
Northwest African Strategic Air Force, 102
Northwest African Tactical Air Force, 102
Norway, 20-25, 239-243
German invasion, 6
military trainees, 238, 239
Nowotny. Walter, 291
Oder River. 293
3 O'Hara. 73-78
Oil production. German, 256, 285-290
oil fields, 171. 175. 243
Operation Barbarossa. 46-50
Operation Bolero, 56. 72. 79
Operation Dynamo (see Dunkirk)
Operation Flax, 130
Operation Gomorrah, 179-187
Operation Market, 254
Operation Millennium, 55
Operation Overlord, 243-247, 310

339
 Operation Sea Lion. 10, 29. 30, 36 Riem, 300-305
Operation Strangle, 145, 160-167 Righetti,Elwyn G.. 176
Operation Torch, 57, 58, 83, 101. 102, 107 Rockets, 170, 217, 306-318
Operation Varsity, 257 Rome, 144, 160
Oran, Algeria, 102 railroad yards, 165
Ortmans, Vicky N., 178 Rommel, Erwin. .52, 57, 83, 100. 102, 104, 107,
Osier, Malcolm S., 178
110, 111, 112, 137.244
Roosevelt. Franklin D., 52, 83. 86, 90, 100, illus.,
P-38 "Lightning", 53, 107, 130, 170 86
P39 "Aircobra ", 53, 160 Rotte (fighter formation). 40
P-40 "Warhawk ", 53, 100 Rotterdam, 7
P-47 "Thunderbolt", 53, 160
Rouen, 270
P-51 "Mustang", 53, 220, 171, 174. 176, illus.. 221 Rouen-Sotteville, 57
Pachino. Sicily. 143 railroad yards, 82
Palm Sunday Massacre, 106, 111. 130-136 Royal Air Force, 10, 11-14
Pan American Air Ferries, 54 aircraft types, 4
Panama Canal, 56 Battle of Britain, 29, 35
Pantelleria. Ill
Bomber Command. 55
Paratroops, 7, 17, 108, 141, 148, 251. 260-263 Dunkirk, 27
Paris. 8. 10
evacuation from Norway, 24
V- weapons, 313
Royal Hellenic Air Force, 16, 17
Park, K. R.. 46
Ruhr, 87, 172, 173, 175, 234, 235, 256. 257
Pas-de-Calais, 307
Rumania, 16, 188
Patton. George S., Jr., 148, 252, 270-275
evacuation from, 237
Paulus, Friedrich von, 60
oil fields, 171
PBY, 73, 77, 78 Rundstedt, Karl von, 251
PDI (instrument), 114. 115 Russia (see USSR)
PE-2 (Russian bomber), 50, 59 Russian Air Force, 17, 18, 47. 52. 58, 174, 293
Peacock, Reg, 28
aircraft types, 17, 50
Pearl Harbor. 20, 52
Russian Front, 46, 59, 96, 293
Peenemunde, 306, 311
Phoney War, 4
S.M. 79 Sparviero (bomber). 16
Photo reconnaissance. Ill, 165, 166, 221, 223. 242,
Saar. 88
247. 259, 307
Sabre-jet, 42
Pilsen, 302
Sage, Albert, 240
Ploesti, 171. 175. 188-199, 256, 286-289
St. Lo, 265, 266
Po River, 146. 167 St. Nazaire. 83. 84, 87
Poland. 3
St. Vith, 257
Polish Air Force. 3, 233
Salerno, 143, 144
Ponte Grande Bridge. 148
Sangamon (U.S. carrier). 102
Port Lyautey Field. Casablanca. 102
Santee (U.S. carrier). 102
Precision bombing, 56, 58, 80-91
Scapa Flow. 22. 23
Preddy, George, 176
Schallnoser, Edward. 301 303 .

Presque Isle. Maine, 61. 63, 65. 68 Scharnhorst, 24

Pritchard, 76
Schilling. David. 176
Prufening Messerschmitt Factory. 220 Schilling, Harry, 115
Puerto Rico, 56 Schneider armament works, Le Creusot. 85
Pyle, Ernie, 123
Schreiner. David, 238, 240
P/.Lll (fighter plane), 233 Schwarme (fighter formation), 40

Quisling, Vidkun, 7 Schweinfurt. 171. 201. 215-219, illus., 216

2 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit, 27
R2M rockets, 301 2nd Tactical Air Force, British, 244, 259, 262, 269
Radar, 183 Secret agents, 241
airborne, 172 Secret air missions, 237-243
Radar chaff (see Window) Setnesmoen. Norway. 22
Radar jamming, 182 Sevastopol. 96-98
Radar warning stations, German, 251 Seventh Army, U.S.. 148
Radio operators, 64, 67 7 Wing, South African Air Force, 132
Railroads, 244, 251 79th American Group, 132
bombing, 160-167 Sfax airport, 158
Ranger (U.S. carrier), 102 Sicilian strait, 130
Regensburg, 171, 172, 201-213 Sicily, 16, 110, 148-159
Regia Aeronaulira (see Italian Air Force) invasion of, 141
Renault plant, 88 Sidi Ahmed, 130
Repatriation, 239 Siegfried Line, 254, 256
Reznak, Rotnik, 178 Sinclair. Sir Archibald. 88
Rhine River, 257 609 Typhoon Squadron, 95
Rhone Valley. 254 Sixth Army, German, 60
Richards, Neil, 240 65th Fighter Wing, 176
Richthofen. Baron Manfred von. 96 62nd Airborne Group, 150, 151

340
67th Fighter Wing, 176 Tripoli airdrome, 125
66th Fighter Wing. 176 Trondheim, 20, 23
Skaanland, Norway, 23 Tunis, 102, 104, 106, 111
Skua (plane), 27 Gulf of, 133, 136
Sloan, William J., 104 Tunisia, 101, 102, 104, 106, 110, 127, 130, 188
Smith, Admiral, 77 Turner, Pappy, 77
Smoke screen, 288 Twelfth Air Force, 58, 79, 102, 104, 107, 109, 110.
Smolensk, 18 143, 144, 146,254
Sooman, Woodrow, 227 12th Bomber Group, 100
Sousse, 133 Twining, Nathan F., 144
South America, 56 244 Wing RAF, 132
Soviet Air Force (see Russian Air Force) 265th Infantry Division, German, 244
Spaatz, Carl A., 57, 82, 89, 102, 110, 144, 173, 239, 263 RAF Squadron, 20, 21, 23, 24
illus., 57 239 Wing RAF, 132
Spanish Civil War, 40
Spencer, 75, 78 U-boat (see Submarine)
Spina, 75 Ukraine, 79
Spitfire (fighter plane), 11, 38, 55, 92, 108 USSR, 16, 20, 46, 52
photo reconnaissance, 1 1 German invasion, 17, 18, 48
Stalingrad, 46, 59, 293 lend-lease, 54, 55
German surrender, 60 (see also Russian Air Force; Russian Front)
Steaua Romana refinery, 288, 289 United States, 20
Stiles, Bert, 230 aircraft production, 52, 88
Stimigliano, 166 aircraft types, 53
Stirling (heavy bomber), 55 Urbanowica, Wirold, 178
Strategic Air Forces, (Europe), 173 Uxbridge, Eng., 23
Strategic bombing, 56, 58, 85, 89. 220
Strategic Bombing
Survey, U.S., 90 V-1 rocket, 306-318
Stuka (see JU-87 Stuka) V-2 rocket. 241. 306-318, illus., 315, 317
Subiaco, 167 V-weapons, 306-318
Submarine bases, 83. 256 launching sites, 241, 244, 256, 308-310
bombing, 58 Vegesack, 88
Submarine yards, 87 Vertigo, 155
Submarines, 52, 83 Vichy government (Algeria), 100, 102. 108
Suez Canal, 16, 17, 47, 57, 100, 107, 112, 148 Visconti, Adriano, 178
Summers, 67-71 Voll, John J., 178
Sun: von Braun, Wernher, 307, 314, 318
air combat, 38, 42
Supply, 109, 110, 130, 137, 162 Walker, Kenneth N., 56
Suwalki, Poland, 47 Walrus (amphibious plane), 23
Swannee (U.S. carrier), 102 Warplanes:
Sweden, 238-243 delivery of, 54
Sweetzer, 78 U.S. production of, 52, 53
Swordfish (biplane), 27 Watten, Fr., 307
Synthetic oil industry, 256, 287 Weaver (tactical position), 42
Szentgyorgyi, Dezso, 178 Wellington (bomber). 112, 114, 116, 163
Weyland, O. P., 254, 270-275
Tail-end Charlie, 42 Whittaker, Roy, 135
Tallboy bombs, 311 Wiener Neustadt, 172
Tank Busters, 118 Wilhelmshaven, 87, 88

Task Force 34, U.S. Navy, 102 Williamson, Joel, 240

Taulbee, 113 Williwaw, 73
Tedder, Sir Arthur W., 102, 110, 144
Willow Run aircraft production, 53
Terrible Three, 176 Wimpy (see Wellington)
Tetley, 76 Wimsatt, 77, 78
Tetterton. 67-71 Window, 182, 184

Third Army. U.S., 270

Withrow, Robert, 240
3rd Parachute Division, German, 244 Woitke, Capt., 48
31st Fighter Group, 102
33rd Fighter Group, 102 Yak-1 (Russian fighter plane), 50, 59
Thomas, Rowan T., 113 Yak-9 (Russian fighter plane), 59
Thor super-mortar, 98 Yalta, 98
Tiber River, 166 Yankee Doodle, (plane), 82
Tidal Wave (code name), 188 Yerex, Lowell, 67
Tiger Moth (plane), 20 Yugoslavia, 175
Tirpitz (German battleship), 242
Tobruk, 112-117 Zembra, 133
Tokyo tanks, 204 Zembretta, 133
Trans World Airlines, 63 Zemke, Hubert, 176, 178, illus., 177

341
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